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MODULE 1
Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

ANATOMY
- study of the structures, shape of the body and body parts and their
relationship with one another

anatomy “ana” - apart “tome” – cutting

dissection “dis” – apart “secare” – cut

PHYSIOLOGY
- how the body and its parts work or function

LIFE PROCESSES ESSENTIAL FOR SURVIVAL

1. excitability – irritability; response to stimulus
2. conductivity – transmit a wave of excitation from the point of stimulation
3. contractility – cell shortening and change its form
4. metabolism – physical and chemical processes involved in the activities of life
5. excretion – elimination of waste products produced by metabolism
6. growth – increase in the amount of protoplasm
7. reproduction – formation of new cells; building of an offspring

BRANCHES OF KNOWLEDGE RELATED TO PHYSIOLOGY

1. chemistry
2. physics
3. pathology
4. psychiatry
5. surgery
6. electronics

NORMAL ANATOMICAL POSITION

- body is erect with the feet parallel and the arms hanging at the sides
with palms facing forward

TERMS OF LOCATION AND POSITION

1. superior / cranial – above, toward the head end of the body ( chest is
superior to the abdomen)
2. inferior / caudal – below, toward the tail end of the body (neck is inferior to
the head)
3. anterior / ventral – nearer the front or belly side of the body ( breasts are
anterior; ventral aspect of the chest)
4. posterior / dorsal – nearer the back side of the body ( shoulder blades are
posterior; dorsal aspect of the chest)
5. medial – nearer the midline of the body (the nose is medial to the eyes)
6. lateral – farther from the midline of the body (the eyes are lateral to the
nose)
7. internal – deeper within the body (inner surface of the nose is lined with
mucous membrane)
8. external – nearer the outer surface of the body (the external surface of the
nose is covered with skin)
9. proximal – nearer the body or to the origin of a part
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10. distal – farther from the body or from the origin of a part
11. central – principal part, situated a, or related to a center
12. peripheral – toward the surface of the body or extension from, the principal
part or center
13. parietal – walls of a cavity
14. visceral – organs within a cavity

FUNDAMENTAL PLANES OF THE BODY

1. midsagittal plane – midline of the body lengthwise; from front to back,
right and left
2. sagittal plane – any other place that divides the body into right and left
3. coronal plane – front and back (frontal)
4. transverse / horizontal plane – upper and lower portions

VERTEBRATE STRUCTURE OF THE BODY

1. dorsal cavity -
a. cranial cavity – space inside the bony skull
b. spinal cavity – extends from the cranial cavity nearly to the end of the
vertebral column
2. ventral cavity – all structures within the chest and abdomen
a. thoracic cavity – superior; separated from the rest of the ventral cavity
by a dome-shaped muscle, the diaphragm; organs protected by the rib
cage
b. abdominopelvic cavity – inferior

DIFFERENT REGIONS OF THE ABDOMEN

1. umbilical – center; surrounding the umbilicus
2. epigastric – superior to the umbilical region
3. hypogastric – inferior to the umbilical region
4. right and left iliac / inguinal – lateral to the hypogastric region
5. right and left lumbar – lateral to the umbilical region
6. right and left hypochondriac – lateral to the epigastric region with the lower
ribs

THE ANIMAL CELL

- have three main regions: nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane

1. Nucleus
- control center of the cell
- contains the genetic material, DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid; the
blueprint of an individual

Regions of the Nucleus

a. nuclear envelope
- boundary of the nucleus; double-membrane barrier
- selectively permeable but with large pores

b. nucleoli
- dark-staining, round bodies
- where ribosomes are assembled

c. chromatin
- a loose network of threads scattered throughout the nucleus
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- forms the rod-like chromosomes when they coil and condense

2. cell / plasma membrane

- fragile, transparent barrier that contains the cell contents separating
them from the surrounding environment
- consists of a bilayer of fats containing proteins
- the polar heads are hydrophilic interacting with water and other
polar molecules while the non-polar tails are hydrophobic which makes
the plasma membrane relatively impermeable to most water-soluble
molecules
- proteins are responsible for the specialized functions of the
membrane

3. cytoplasm
- cellular material outside the nucleus but inside the plasma
membrane
- site of most cellular activities
- contains: cytosol, organelles and inclusions
a. cytosol
- semi-transparent fluid that suspends the other elements

b. inclusions
- non-functioning units
- stored nutrients or cell products
- fat droplets, glycogen granule, pigments like melanin, mucus,
secretory products, crystals

c. organelles
mitochondria
- sausage-shaped, powerhouse of the cell because they
supply the adenosine triphosphate or ATP, the energy
currency
- active cells have more mitochondia while inactive ones
have a few

ribosomes
- made of proteins
- site of protein-synthesis in the cell

endoplasmic reticulum
- mini-circulatory system for the cell since it provides a
network of channels for carrying substances (primarily
proteins) from one part of the cell to another
- the rough ER is involved in protein synthesis
- the smooth ER is involved in cholesterol synthesis and
breakdown; fat metabolism; detoxification of drugs

Golgi apparatus
- “traffic director” for cellular proteins
- modify and package proteins
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Lysosomes
- membrane bags containing powerful digestive
enzymes
- enzymes are capable of digesting worn-out or
nonusable cell structures and most foreign substances that
enter the cell
- demolition sites of the cell

Peroxisomes
- contain powerful oxidase enzymes that detoxify a
number of harmful or poisonous substances including alcohol
and formaldehyde
- disarm dangerous free radicals which are highly
reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons that can scramble
the structure of proteins and nucleic acids
- convert free radicals to hydrogen peroxide; which is
then converted to water through the enzyme catalase

Cytoskeleton
- the cell’s bones and muscles
- determines the cell’s shape, supports other organelles
and provides the machinery needed for intracellular
transport and various types of cellular movement

THE PROTOPLASM
- complex chemical compound constituting the main part of the cell

Chief Constituents of the Protoplasm

1. water
a. holds the various components of protoplasm in solution
b. chemical reactions in cells requires the presence of water
c. electrolytes
- example: NaCl split into ions which bear electric charges, Na and Cl
➢ property and classes of electrolytes are determined by the
kinds of ions they yield when they dissolve in water

alkalosis – pH above 7
acidosis – pH below 7

CNS Effects of Alkalosis

increased excitability – convulsion

CNS Effects of Acidosis

decreased excitability – coma or unconsciousness

Other Effects of pH Variations:

i. one losses large amount of gastric juice containing HCl by
prolonged vomiting and the reaction of the blood becomes
alkaline
ii. there is failure to eliminate carbon acid as rapidly as it is
formed in pulmonary disease causing acidosis
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iii. the kidneys fail to excrete phosphoric and sulfuric acid

produced by protein metabolism and they accumulate in
the blood causing acidosis

d. regulation of body temperature

- when one is exposed to heat, the sweat glands become active,
therefore there is evaporation of water from the surface of the skin;
cools it to prevent a rise to body temperature

e. excretion of wastes
- waste products are eliminated chiefly in the urine
- if there is a lack of sufficient water for this purpose, waste products
accumulate in the blood

2. inorganic salts
- found in the body
- occur in the cells and the fluids
- most abundant: sodium
potassium
calcium
magnesium
a. essential to the maintenance of proper osmotic condition
- movement of water through membranes
b. acid-base balance
c. coagulation of blood – calcium
d. formation of bones – calcium and phosphorus
e. formation of internal secretion of the thyroid gland – iodine
f. transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide – iron in hemoglobin of rbc
g. increased excitability of muscles and convulsive contractions – slight
increased in sodium chloride
h. contractility and conductivity of heart muscles

3. protein
- constitute framework of protoplasm
- supply energy when oxidized
- source of enzymes and hormones which are synthesized
- tissue growth and repair

4. carbohydrates
- most readily available source of energy
- glucose > sugar present in the blood is essential to the function of the
brain as oxygen
- when one goes without food, part of the protein of protoplasm is
transformed into glucose in order to keep the concentration of glucose
in the blood at the proper level
- this transformation of protein into glucose requires normal liver
function and normal glands of internal secretion

5. fats
- source of energy and are stored as reserved food in adipose tissues
- insulator
- maintain a normal permeability in cell membranes
- assists in transportation of fat-soluble vitamins
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- carbohydrates are transformed into fat and stored as adipose tissues

FACTORS INVOLVED IN EXCHANGES THROUGH CELL MEMBRANE

1. extracellular fluid
- blood and fluid in the tissue spaces (interstitial fluid)
2. intracellular fluid
- fluid inside the cell
3. capillary wall
- separates the blood and plasma from interstitial fluid
4. cell membrane
- separates interstitial fluid and intracellular fluid

FORCES FOR MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS BETWEEN THE BODY FLUID

COMPARTMENTS

1. filtration
- water and dissolved substances move through a membrane because of
unequal pressure on the two sides of the membrane; larger molecules
are held back
- pressure gradient

2. diffusion
- spreading out of molecules of a gas or a liquid that continues until an
equal concentration of the molecules in the available space is reached
- spontaneous movement from high to low concentration
- concentration gradient

3. osmosis
- unequal concentration of a dissolved substance are separated by a
membrane that is impermeable to the dissolved substance
- osmotic pressure is the tendency of a solution to hold water or “pull”
water into it
- directly related to the concentration of solutes in the solution

a. isotonic solution
- same solute and water concentrations as cells do
- cause no visible changes in cells
- when infused into the bloodstream, rbc retain their normal size and
disk-like shape
- Lactated Ringer’s, 5% Dextrose, 0.9% Saline

b. hypertonic solution
- contains more solutes or dissolved substances than there are inside
the cell
- the cell will begin to shrink or crenate because water has higher
concentration inside the cell than outside
- follows concentration gradient
- given to patients with edema > solution draw water out of the tissue
spaces into the blood stream so that excess fluid can be eliminated by
the kidneys
- Normal Saline Solution
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c. hypotonic solution
- fewer solutes (more water) than the cell has
- cells plump up rapidly as water rushes into them
- for dehydrated patients
- tea, colas, apple juice, sports drinks

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