Physio compiled notes (session 1-8)
- systemic physiology: the study on how
Physiology - the study of the general/normal
functions of the body.
- one of the most important concepts in
medicine.
- basic physiology on the cellular level
- muscle and tissue function
- special senses
- understanding the cardiovascular system
functions
*****
**LAB SAS 1-3 due on TUESDAY, JULY 4, 2023
point accumulation:
class standing - 20%
quizzes - 30%
long quiz - 50%
*****
disease: any alteration on tissue process
metabolism: refers to the total chemical
reaction of the body
cytes: other term for cells
hormones: most potent type of control
system/chemical messenger
chromosomes: bearers of the hereditary
material DNA, which carries the information for
protein synthesis
LESSON 1: Branches of Physiology
- animal physiology: study of the life-suporting
properties, functions and processes of animals
or their parts.
- cellular physiology: the study of how different
cells of the animal's body work. [cellular physio
and biochem is hand-on-hand]
- histology: the study of how a group of cells
work together in a single unit called tissue and
their role in the body.
different organs work together in groups called
an organ system
- endocrinology: study og chemical mediators
called hormones.
- comparative physiology: an integrative
discipline that draws from varying biological
fields (evolution, ecology, molecular biology,
and biochemistry) to study function. the
exploration of physiological principles through
examination of the functional diversity among
animal species.
- reproductive physiology: study on the
different processes in different animals.
Homeostasis:
- refers to the ability of an organism to maintain
the interal environment of the body within
limits that allow it to survive.
- barrier of the body from the environment
- self-regulating processes that return critical
systems of the body to a set point within a
narrow range of operation, consistent with the
survival of the organism.
- requires expendature of energy
ENDOTHERM: warm blooded
EXOTHERM: cold blooded
Cells:
- the basic unit of organization of an animal's
body
- exteremely complex and are both the
structural and functional unit of tissues they
form.
- have the ability to maintain boundaries,
metabolize and digest nutrients, dispose of
wastes, grow and reproduce, move and respond
to stimuli
- performs certain functions to sustain its life.

3 major parts of the cell:
Cytoplasm
-composed of 2 components (cytosol and
organelles)
- cytosol:
- the fluid portion of the cytoplasm and
makes up 55% of the total cell volume.
- it varies in consistency amd
composition from one part of a cell to another
and is composed of 75% to 90% water.
Nucleus
- a spherical or oval structure and is the most
prominent, visible feature inside the cell when
viewed with a light microscope because of its
contrasting, dark appearance.
- the control center of the cell
- necessary for cell reproduction
- technically an organelle
- exterior of the nucleus is the nuclear envelope.
- information center of the cell, and contains
chromosomes.
- bearers of hereditary material, DNA
- coordinates the cell's activities, which include
growth, intermediary metabolism,
protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell
division)
Cell membrane
- the plasma membrane composed of bilayer
phospholipids and globular protein molecules.
- a flexible, elastic, protective barrier that
separates the cell's internal components from
the external environment.
- has selective permeability and thus plays an
active role in determining what enters and
leaves the cell.
Organelles:
- the machinery of the cell that are highly
specialized to carry out certain functions
Ribosomes
- dense staining, spherical bodies composed of
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein.
- primary/actual sites of protein synthesis
-
Two subunits of ribosomes:
- membrane-bound ribosomes: synthesize
proteins destined for insertion into the plasma
membrane or for export from the cell
- free ribosomes: synthesize proteins used
inside the cell
Polyribosomes:
- 10 to 20 ribosomes join together in string-like
arrangements
Endoplasmic reticulum:
- one of the biggest organelles in the cell.
- a network of membranes that form flattened
sacs or tubules called
cisterns that extend from the nuclear envelope
- cisterns: the flaps of the ER with a large area
- rough ER: has membrane-bound ribosomes,
produce proteins for the rest of the cell to
function
- smooth ER: synthesizes lipids, phospholipids as
in plasma membranes, and steroids
Endosomes and Endocytosis:
- Endosomes are membrane-bound vesicles,
formed via a complex family of processes
collectively known as endocytosis
- found in the cytoplasm of virtually every
animal cell
- involves the invagination (folding inward) of a
cell's plasma membrane to surround
macromolecules or other matter diffusing
through the extracellular fluid
Physio session 2
Golgi complex/Golgi Apparatus:
- 3-20 flattened membranous sacs stacked on
each other (each ends dilated)
- has cisterns/cisternae also [areas within these
sacs]
- cup-like structure [because of the curvature of
the cisterns]
- most cells have only 1 GC
- to modify, sort, package, and transport
products received from the rough ER
- forms secretory vesicles that do exocytosis
[discharge processed proteins]
- replaces or modifies the plasma membrane
- forms lysosomes and peroxisomes
- modifies protein molecules by adding
carbohydrates
Lysosomes:
- 40 different digestive/hydrolytic enzymes
[tends to work best in acidic pH]
- actively transports hydrogen ions
- pH content is 5.0 (cytosol pH lvl is 7.0 which is
normal)
- allows sugars and amino acids transportation
into cytosol
- functions:
- endocytosis: digest substances that
enter the cell
- autophagy: digest worn-out organelles
- autolysis: digest the entire cell if it dies
- extracellular digestion
*enzymes = catalysts for reactions
Peroxisomes:
- to oxidize various organic substances
- contain oxidative enzymes, such as catalase
and urate oxidase
- smaller than lysosomes
- detoxify harmful substances
- abundant in kidney and liver cells
- contains peroxide
Mitochondria:
- powerhouse of the cell
- energy originates
- has ability to produce ATP [Adenosine
Triphospate]
- 100 to a thousand found within a cytoplasm
depends on the activities of the cells
- a mitochondrion is oval
- bounded by two membranes:
- outer part is smooth
- inner part is arranged in a series of
folds called cristae
- cristae: folds of the inner part of the
mitochondria
- center is bounded by the inner membrane and
cristae and is called the matrix
- matrix is mostly fluid
- can self replicate
- has multiple identical copies of circular DNA
- can synthesize without ribosomes because
there are ribsomes in the matrix
- protein synthesis can also occur in the
mitochondrion
- mitochondrial genes are inherited only from
the female parent.
*electron transport chain - most efficient ATP
synthesis, uses oxygen
Centrioles:
- paired bodies are cylindrical
- located close to the nucleus in all animal cells
- capable of reproducing themselves
- each cynlinder is composed of nine triplets of
microtubles called a 90 array
- direct the formation of the mitotic spindles
during cell division
- form the basis for cell projections called cilia
and flagella
- centrosome is the pericentriolar area plus the
centrioles
Centrosome:
- serves as the initiation site for the assembly of
the microtubules
- found at both polars of the cell during cell
division
Centromere: *uracil instead of thymine in RNA
- a constricted region of a chromosome
- it is the region where the cell's spindle fibers DNA nucleotides:
attach. A - adenine
T - thymine
C - cytosine
Cytoskeleton: G - guanine
- serves as the internal scaffold of the cell
- supports and moves substances within the cell complimentary base-pairing (DNA):
- composed of proteins called tubulins which A-T
also composes the microtubules C-G
- microtubules: slender tubules formed of
proteins called tubulins; straight, hollow
cylinders found throughout the cytoplasm of all RNA nucleotides:
eukaryotic cells A - adenine
U - uracil
Intermediate Filaments: C - cytosine
- very broad class of fibrous proteins that play G - guanine
an important role as both structural and
functional elements of the cytoskeleton
- function as tension-bearing elements to help 3 classes of RNAs
maintain cell shape and rigidity mRNA - Messenger RNA [carry coding
sequences called transcripts]
Microfilaments: rRNA - Ribosomal RNA [form the core of a cell's
- solid rods made of globular proteins called ribosomes]
actin tRNA - transfer RNA [carry amino acids to the
- primarily structural in function and are an ribosomes during protein synthesis]
important component of the cytoskeleton

mRNA are signaling proteins (doesn't last long)

Inclusion Bodies:
- storage bases (physiology)
- indicative of wide variety of intracellular
infections (pathology)
- passive masses
Cilia and Flagella:
- motile, cell surface projections composed of
array of microtubule doublets
- essential for the locomotion of individual
organisms
- cilia: move fluids and debris over a cell's
surface
- flagella: long and propels the entire cell
*complementary strand = needed by the parent
strand of DNA in Telophase
transcriptome - spectrum of mRNA molecules
(varies according to cell function and type)
Cell/Plasma Membrane:
- composed of bilayer phospholipids and
globular protein molecules
- the arrangement of compounds is called the
fluid mosaic mode
- proteins in plasma membrane are responsible
to its antigenicity
- flexible, elastic, and has protective barrier to
separate the internal and external parts of the
cell
- has selective permeability
- plays an active role in determining what enters
and exits the cell
- 90% phospholipid bilayer

Physio session 3
***
Uncharged and Oily Molecules - can penetrate
without the aid of proteins
Inner Hydrophobiregion layer - does not allow
charged particles
Molecular weight = daltons
molecular cut off rate in passing through pure
bilipid layer = 100 daltons
***
- polar and non-polar molecules does not attract
each other
***
fluid mosaic theory - lipids of membranes are
structured, diverse, fluid and responsive to
some environmental factors
bilayer phospholipids:
- phospholipids contain phosphate groups.
- principal constituents of the matrix
- are ampiphatic
- hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail
- it is thermodynamically stable
- great chemical diversity
- two leaflets (bilayer) are composed of different
mixes of phospholipid molecules
Proteins:
- primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes
quarterary structures
- embedded in the cell membrane
- forms channels in the cell membrane
- intergral and peripheral proteins
- integral proteins are transmembrane proteins,
have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
- peripheral proteins are hydrophilic
- Most proteins are ampiphatic
5 functional types of membrane proteins and
functions
- either cytosol or extracellular fluid
Intercellular adhesion and contact of cells:
- the point where cells connect is - cell adhesion
Desmosomes:
- local thickenings of adjacent plasma
membranes
- with tiny fibrils radiating from the thickening
into the cytoplasm
- achored to the cytoskeleton
- adhesive intracellular junctions
- they mechanically integrate adjacent cells
- mediated by desmosomal cadherins
Tight Junctions:
- an area or zone where the plasma membranes
of two adjacent cells immediately adhere to
each other
- found below the free surface of epithelial cells
- passes completely around the peripheral
- zonula occludens = type of cell junction
characterized by forming an adhesion complex
- serving as a tight seal between the cells
Gap Junctions:
- formed by membrane proteins that extend
between adjacent cells
- forms a passageway
- passage for exchange of small molecules and
ions
- exchange of ions permits one cell to affect the
electrical activty of the adjacent cell
- has special fucntional importance in cardiac
and intestinal muscles
- also called Connexon
- made up of connexin monomers
- has functional importance in cardiac muscle
and certain types of smooth muscles in the
gastrointestinal tract
Functions of cell membrane proteins:
- transtport substances
- provision of a site of binding
- contribution to the formation of cell junctions
- provision of enzymes with active sites facing
- identification or recognition of cell type or
cell origin
Membrane channel:
- permits simple or quasi-simple diffusion of
solutes in aqueous solution or osmosis of water
through a membrane
Ligand:
- when receptor meets its messenger
Transporter (carrier):
- binds nonconvalently and reversibly with
specific molecules or ions to move them across
a membrane
Enzymes:
- proteinatious catalysts
- encourages chemical reactions
Receptor:
- binds noncovanlently with specific molecules
- initiates the change the cellular permeability
Structural proteins:
- ???
Carbohydrates in membranes
- glycolipids, glycoproteins and proteoglycans
carb containing membrane compounds
- mostly hydrophilic
Simple Diffusion:
- distribution of a substance in a solvent
medium
- concentration gradient is important
- occurs due to the kinetic energy of molecules
and ions
- concentration gradient is the amount of matter
that moves from a high concentration to a low
concentration.
- most membrane channels is permeable to
specific ions
- temperature can affect diffusion
Electrochemical gradient:
- refer to the combined effects of the
concentration gradient and electrical gradient
on the diffusion rate of an individual ion
- refers to the charges in the membrane
-
Facilitated diffusion:
- requires a carrier system in the membrane
- still does not require ATP
-
Osmosis:
- movement of water throughout the cell
membrane
Physio session 4
Osmosis:
- movement of water across membranes
- water diffuses freely through water channels
called aquaporins
- osmotic gradient controls the gradients of
water [always follows the concentration of the
solute] [low-high]
- osmotic pressure increases the size of the
cytoplasm
- stops when the same concentration of solute
and solvent is equal in both sides
- isotonic fluid [equal concentration of solutions
in blood] [restricts unequal movement of water
in the cell]
-
*Crenation: shrinking of cell
*Interstitial space: fluid-filled space between
cells
*edema: swelling of organs due to interstitial - Other factors:
spaces expanding - ingestion of food
*pressure related organs will not work around - age
edema - gender
*anasarca: edema on 60-80% of the organs - time of day
- body size
- reproductive condition
Active Transport: - hormonal state
- uses ATP molecules to oppose the - psychological stress
concentration gradient - salinity of the ambient water (for
- low to high concentration aquatic animals
- consumes energy
- protein pumps Metabolism:
- has carrier proteins - Anabolism:
- - refers to the constructive process of
metabolism
- Catabolism:
*sodium potassium pump - refers to the destructive process of
*proteins need to be deformed to be carriers metabolism
*
*chief ion inside the cell is potassium
*chief ion outside the cell is sodium
Basal Metabolic rate:
- a standardized measure of metabolic rate that
applies to homeotherms
- metabolic rate of endotherms while it is:
- fasting
Physio session 5 - resting
- thermoneutral zone
Metabolic rate:
- the rate at which it converts chemical energy
into heat and external work
- it helps determine the amount of food an Standard metabolic rate (SMR):
animal needs - applies to poikilotherms (ectotherms), animals
- Metabolism: sum total of chemical reactions in that allow their body temperatures to fluctuate
the body freely with variations in environmental
- provide's a quantitative measure of the total temperature
activity of all its physiological mechanisms - metabolic rate of ectotherms while it is:
- can be measured by direct calorimetry or - fasting
studies of material balance - resting
- rate of oxygen consumption is the most
common measure of metabolic rates
*thermoneutral zone: mediates the metabolic
Factors that affect metabolic rates: rate of an endothermal animal
- 2 factors that exert greatest effects on the - a range of environmental temperatures within
metabolic rate: which the metabolic rate is minimal
- the intensity of its physical activity
- the temperature of its environment *oxygen debt: anaerobic metabolism
*gluconeogenesis: develop sugar from new
substances that lack oxygen stimulated by lactic
acid build up.
*calorimetry: the process of measuring the
amount of heat released or absorbed during a
chemical reaction
Physio session 6
- allows energy to be created in the
mitochondria
- ATPsase: enyzmes that synthesizes ATP
Glycolysis:
- enzymatically catalyzed reactions
- glucose or glycogen (raw substance) is
converted to pyruvic acid (by-product)
- 2 phosphorylations happens
- 2 ATP molecules are required (1 each
phosphorylation)
- 1 glucose becomes 2 pyruvic acid
- can be aerobic or anaerobic
**2 molecules of ATP are used and 4 are
formed for each glucose processed, providing a
net yield of 2 ATP molecules per glucose
molecule
Pyruvic acid products:
- CO2 (carbon dioxide) from Kreb's Cycle
- Water (Electron Transport Chain)
- Acytic acid (lactic acid) from anaerobic
glycolysis
Krebs Cycle:
- aka Citric Acid Cycle
- release of CO2 (carbon dioxide) at two points
in the cycle
- 0 ATP produced
- neuronal membrane
Electron Transport chain
- Water is created from pyruvic acid
- 32 ATP produced
- most efficient way to produce ATP
- anaerobic glycolysis: process of breaking down
glucose in the absence of oxygen
physiologic shivering: normal response of the
body to cold temperature
pathologic shivering: is the immune response of
the body to enact fever in response to
pathogens
Membrane Potential:
- ability of certain cells to create and conduct
electrical impulses.
synaptic cleft:
- space between neurons at the nerve synapse
(place)
-graded potential: small movements
- action potential: sudden change
- resting
- graded
- action
Physio session 7
Resting Membrane Potential:
- the potential difference across the membrane
of resting neurons
- 65mV
- reflects asymmetric distruibution across the
- formation of charges/formation of impulses =
depolarization
- basal metabolism is needed to create the
asymmetry (active transport)
- Na+ (+62mV) K+ (-80mV)
 Neurons:
**asymmetric distribution is maintained by - functional unit of the nervous system
sodium/potassium ATPase - highly irregular shaped cell with 1 or more
cellular processes
- the rough endoplasmic reticulum and
Graded potential: polysomes (collectively referred to as Nissl
- receives inputs via the axodendritic and substance) are abundant in the perikarya
axosomatic synapses [protein producing structures of neurons]
- brief local changes in the postsynaptic - axons = sends signals
membranes - dendrites = receive signals
-

**Axon hillock is where graded potential are

integraded to generate action potentials
**50% of graded potentials can generate action
potentials
threshold potential determines the generation
of the action potential
- -55mV
*axon hillock = trigger zone
**myelins = composed of lipids, cholesterol and
proteins
***myelin sheath = increases conductivity,
made by Schwann cells

Action Potential:
- brief reversal in the membrane potential when
membrane permeability of sodium and
potassium increases subsquent to activation of
voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels.

Refractory Period:
- represents the time needed for the voltage-
gated Na+ channels to revert from the
inactivated state to the resting state
- 1ms duration

- Absolute = When an action potential is

initiated, a second action potential cannot be
triggered for about 1ms, regardless of how large
a stimulus is applied to a neuron

- Relative = the membrane potential undergoes

repolarization and approaches the threshold
membrane voltage, overriden by a stronger
action potential
- not all sodium channels are activated