Planning Theory

Topics Tested:
- cell structure and movement of substances (Y3)
- biomolecules and enzymes (Y3)
- natural selection and reproduction
- DNA, nuclear and cellular reproduction
- cancer

Y3 Unit 1: - Cell structure and movement of substances

Cell structures:
· Identify nucleus, vacuoles, cytoplasm, cell wall, cell membrane, chloroplasts, cell from
diagrams, photomicrographs and under light microscope (prepared slides & fresh
material with appropriate staining technique). Identify endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, Golgi body, ribosomes from diagrams and electron micrographs
· State the functions
of the organelles listed above

- Nucleus: Determines the activity and behavior of the cell; contains genetic material
- Vacuoles: Animal cells: many small, temporary vacuoles. Plant cells: large permanent
central vacuole that takes up the bulk of the plant cell’s volume. Vacuoles serve as a
storage structures, they can contain nutrients or waste.
- Cytoplasm: Fluid that contains all organelles and cell parts; site for the chemical
reactions of life to take place
- Cellulose cell wall: Only present in plant cells, provides structural support for the cell
and prevents it from lysing when it takes in too much water.
- Cell surface membrane: Maintains the integrity of the cell, forms a barrier through
which all substances entering and leaving the cell must pass through. Is partially
permeable.
- Chloroplasts: Site of photosynthesis by which light is used as the energy source in
carbohydrate and ATP synthesis. productive hormones
- Mitochondria: Site of aerobic stages of respiration and synthesis of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate)
- Golgi body: Site of synthesis of specific biochemicals such as hormones and enzymes;
specific proteins may be activated by the addition of sugars or removal of amino acids.
- Ribosomes: Site of protein synthesis.

· Compare structure of typical animal and plant cell

- BOTH animal cells and plant cells have membrane bound organelles
- BOTH animal cells and plant cells have a nucleus/cell surface membrane
- Plant cells have a cellulose cell wall whereas animals cells do not
- Plant cells have chloroplasts whereas animal cells do not
- Plant cells have a large permanent central vacuole, whereas animal cells have
numerous small, temporary vacuoles.

· State simply, how structure relates to function of root hair cells (in absorption), xylem
vessels (in conduction and support), red blood cells (in transport of oxygen)

- Red blood cell

- Structure:
- The mature red blood cell lacks a nucleus
- has a biconcave shape
- contains haemoglobin
- Function:
- Lack a nucleus: to store more haemoglobin for the transportation of
oxygen.
- Biconcave shape: to increase surface area to volume ratio in order to
absorb more oxygen.
- Contains haemoglobin: haemoglobin binds to oxygen and transports it
from the lungs to different parts of the body

- Root hair cell

- Structure:
- Has elongated extension
 - Has many mitochondria
- Large vacuole
- Function:
- Elongated extension: to increase surface area to volume ratio for faster
transportation of substances in and out of the cell
- Many mitochondria: to produce more energy for the active transport of
nutrients
- Large vacuole: to store more water

- Xylem vessels
- Structure:
- Long hollow tube
- Walls are lignified
- No protoplasm
- Function:
- Long hollow tube: allows water to pass through the vessel
- Walls are lignified: to provide structural and mechanical support
- No protoplasm: reduces resistance to water flow

· Differentiate cell, tissue, organ, system

- cell: the basic structural, functional and biological unit of all living organisms
- tissue: a group of cells with similar structures that work together to perform a specific
function.
- simple tissues: cells of the same kind grouping together form simple tissue
- e.g. muscular tissue, epithelial tissue, mesophyll tissue
- complex tissues: contains more than one type of cells.
- e.g. blood, phloem tissue, xylem tissue
- organ: contains more than one type of tissue. All working together to perform a
specific function.
- e.g. the stomach contains muscular tissue, nervous tissue and gland tissue,
which all work together for the digestion of food. the nervous tissue detect the
presence of food and causes the gland tissue to secrete digestive enzymes,
the gland tissue secretes enzymes to digest the food, the muscular tissue
contracts to churn the food and mixes the food with digestive enzymes
- organ system: consists of several organs working together for a common purpose.
- Some examples of organ systems in humans include the digestive system, the
circulatory system, respiratory system and transport system.
- Examples in plants include shoot systems and root system.
- Various systems together make up the entire body of an organism

- Example of differentiation between cells, tissues, organs, and systems:

- In humans, the intestinal epithelial tissue is the smallest unit of life specialised
in aiding digestion and the absorption of digested food substances. Many
intestinal epithelial cells work together to form the epithelial tissue of the
intestine. Together with the other types of tissue, for example the connective
tissue, the epithelial tissue forms the intestine, an organ. The intestine then
works together with other organs such as the stomach to form the human
digestive system.
· Describe the structure of a typical bacterial cells (small and unicellular, peptidoglycan
cell wall, DNA and lack of membrane bound organelles)

- features of a typical bacterial cell:

- Relatively small (~1-5 micrometers)
- Unicellular
- Have a peptidoglycan cell wall composed of peptides and polysaccharides
combined together.
- Lacks membrane bound organelles in cytoplasm
- Lacks a double membrane bound nucleus
- Ribosomes are of the smaller 70S variety
- similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
- BOTH prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have cell surface membranes
- BOTH prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have cytoplasm
- BOTH prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes
- BOTH prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have genetic information (DNA)
- Prokaryotic cells have a peptidoglycan cell wall, whereas eukaryotic plants
cells have a cellulose cell wall, eukaryotic fungal cells have a chitin cell wall,
and eukaryotic animal cells lack cell walls.
- Prokaryotic cells are smaller (~1-5 micrometers), whereas eukaryotic cells are
larger (~50-150 micrometers)
- Prokaryotic cells have a nucleoid but lacks a membrane bound nucleus,
whereas eukaryotic cells have a double membrane bound nucleus.
- Prokaryotic cells have few organelles and no membrane bound organelles,
whereas eukaryotic cells have many membrane bound organelles.

· RA: Describe the cellular secretory pathway

- Application question: In order to synthesise insulin (a hormone) and secrete it out the
cell, how do the different organelles work together?
1. Nucleus gives instructions, contains the genetic information that directs the synthesis
of proteins for cell division
2. Ribosomes on rER to synthesise proteins
3. transport vesicles→ package proteins, fuse with Golgi apparatus
a. Many theories for how Golgi works: vesicles goes from mature to young
stacks/jumps from one stack to another
4. Golgi apparatus→ modifies proteins (added sugars/functional groups eg PO42-)
5. The activated proteins are then packaged into secretory vesicles that pinch off the
opposite ends of the Golgi apparatus,
6. Secretory vesicles carry the proteins to the surface of the cell membrane, fuse with
the membrane and release the contents to the exterior of the cell by exocytosis.

- Mitochodrion provides the energy for protein synthesis in the form of ATP

- Sample answer: The rER consists of a network of folded membranes formed into
sheets. Ribosomes are attached to the outer surface of the rER. Proteins are
synthesised by the ribosomes on the rER and “packaged” into transport vesicles.
Transport vesicles carrying the proteins fuse with the Golgi apparatus, which is a stack
like collection of flattened membranous sacs. In the Golgi apparatus, proteins are
 activated by the addition of sugars (forming glycoproteins) or by the removal of amino
acids, methionine. The activated proteins are then packaged into secretory vesicles
that pinch off the opposite ends of the Golgi apparatus, Secretory vesicles carrying the
proteins to the surface of the cell membrane, fuse with the membrane and release the
contents to the exterior of the cell by exocytosis.

Movement of substances:
· Describe the fluid mosaic model and the roles of phospholipids and proteins in cell
membranes.

- The molecular composition of cell membranes:

- the cell surface membrane is made almost entirely of lipid and protein,
together with a small and variable amount of carbohydrate. The lipid of
membranes is phospholipids. The phospholipid bilayer is partially permeable.

- Phospholipids:
- A phospholipid is made up of a hydrophilic glycerol phosphate “head” and two
hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain “tails”
- When phospholipid is added and shaken up with water, the phospholipid
molecules arrange themselves as a bilayer with the hydrophobic hydrocarbon
tails facing together.
- In the phospholipid bilayer, attractions between the hydrophobic hydrocarbon
tails on the inside and between the hydrophilic glycerol-phosphate heads and
the surrounding water on the outside make a stable, strong barrier.
- The phospholipid bilayer forms a barrier between the surrounding water on the
outside of the cell and the inside.

- The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure :

- The membrane is described as “fluid” because the components (lipids and
proteins) move around within their layer. The movement of lipid molecules are
rapid, whereas mobile proteins move about more slowly.
- The scattered distribution of proteins gives a mosaic pattern.

- Membrane proteins:
- The proteins of the membrane are globular proteins which are buried in and
across the lipid bilayer, with most projecting above the surfaces. Others are
superficially attached on either surface of the lipid bilayer.
- Integral proteins: proteins that occur partially or fully buried in the lipid
bilayer
- Peripheral proteins: proteins that are superficially attached on either
surface of the lipid bilayer.
- Roles of membrane proteins:
- Channels for transport of metabolites or water.
- Channel protein (for passage through membrane, each channel
proteins allows one specific substance to pass through)
- Pump protein (for active transport across membrane - ATP is
used selectively to move one (or two) specific substances across
- Enzymes and carriers
 - Electron carrier proteins
- Enzymes held in membrane
- Receptors, antigens, cell-cell recognition and cell binding sites.
- Binding protein for the attachment of a specific hormone
- Cell-cell recognition sites

· Define diffusion and describe its role in nutrient uptake and gaseous exchange in plants
and humans

- Diffusion: the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a

region of lower concentration, using energy from the random movement of particles.
- This includes the diffusion of small, non-polar molecules, such as oxygen and
carbon dioxide, through the cell surface membrane, as well as diffusion of fat-
soluble molecules (such as vitamin A) through the cell surface membrane.

- Factors affecting rate of diffusion:

- Concentration gradient
- The greater the difference in concentration between two regions, the
greater the amount that diffuses in a given time.
- A fresh supply of substance needs to reach the surface and the
substance that has crossed needs to be transported away to achieve
rapid diffusion across a surface. (eg. alveoli)
- Distance over which diffusion occurs
- The shorter the distance, the greater the rate of diffusion.
- To achieve rapid diffusion across a surface, the structure needs to be
thin.
- Area across which diffusion occurs
- The larger the area, the greater the diffusion
- To achieve rapid diffusion across a surface, the surface area needs to be
large.
- Structure through which diffusion occurs
- Pores or gaps in structures may enhance diffusion.
- A greater number of pores or larger size of pores may enhance diffusion.
- Size and type of diffusing molecules
- Smaller molecules and molecules soluble in the substance of a barrier
will both diffuse more rapidly.
- Oxygen may diffuse more rapidly than carbon dioxide. Fat soluble
molecules will diffuse more rapidly through the lipid bilayer of the cell
surface membrane than water soluble substances.
- Temperature of surrounding environment
- Molecules will move faster in a warmer environment due to increased
kinetic energy of the molecules.

- Examples of diffusion in plants and humans

- Plants:
- Gaseous exchange: Water vapour diffuses out of the leaf, mainly
through stomata; carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf.
- Nutrient uptake: Mineral salts sometimes diffuse into the root hair cells
of plants via facilitated diffusion (when the concentration of mineral salts
in the soil is higher than the concentration of mineral salts inside the
 root hair cell)
- Humans:
- Gaseous exchange: In the lungs, oxygen diffuses out of the alveolar
cavity, through the one cell thick alveolar wall, and into the blood
capillary surrounding the alveolus; carbon dioxide diffuses out of the
blood capillary, through the one cell thick wall of the blood capillary,
and into the alveolar cavity.
- Nutrient uptake: Digested nutrients diffuse into the epithelial cells of the
small intestine, which are studded with microvilli in order to increase
surface area. Nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream through
blood capillaries in the villi.

· Define osmosis and describe the effects of osmosis on plant and animal tissues

- Osmosis: the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water
potential to region of lower water potential, down a water potential gradient, through a
partially permeable membrane.
- Effect of osmosis on plant and animal tissue:

Type of cell Water potential of solution compared to cytoplasm

Equal water potential Higher water potential Lower water potential

Effect on animal No effect Cell become crenated Cell becomes firm,

cell then lysed

Effect on plant No effect Cell becomes Cell becomes turgid

cell plasmolysed (tissue
becomes flaccid)

- Format to answer osmosis question:

- This is because/this shows that osmosis occurred. There was a net movement
of water molecules by osmosis from X, which has a higher water potential, to Y,
which has a lower water potential, through the selectively permeable
membrane of ____. This caused an increase in the volume of X.

· Define active transport and discuss its importance as an energy-consuming process by

which substances are transported against a concentration gradient, as in ion uptake by
root hairs and uptake of glucose by cells in villi

- Active transport: the selective movement of molecules across a membrane and

against a concentration gradient.
- Metabolic energy produced by the cell in the form of ATP is used to drive the transport
of molecules and ions across a membrane.
- 3 features of active transport:
- Active transport may occur against a concentration gradient
- Molecules can be moved by active transport from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher concentration.
- Active uptake is a highly selective process
 - Cells will only actively transport ions or molecules that are useful and
needed by the cell.
- Active transport involves special molecules of the membrane called ‘pumps’.
- Pump molecules are globular proteins that transverse the lipid bilayer.
- They are usually specific to particular molecules
- Movement by them pump molecules require reaction with ATP.
- Examples of active transport in cells:
- When absorption of glucose occurs in the gut, the active uptake of ions by
plant roots, and in the kidney tubules where urine is formed.

· Explain how and why different substances move across membranes through simple
diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis.

- Facilitated diffusion: the diffusion of ions and polar (water soluble) molecules through
cell membranes through cell membranes using specific proteins channels or carrier,
down a concentration gradient from regions of higher concentration to regions of
lower concentration. Larger molecules are also transported through facilitated
diffusion.
- Features of simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion and active transport:

Factor Simple Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated Diffusion Active Transport

Gradient Concentration Water potential Concentration Concentration

Flow at gradient Down Down Down Against

Substance Small, non-polar Water molecules Large, polar Ions/molecules of

transported molecules molecules any substance
other than water
molecules

Involvement of Kinetic energy from Kinetic energy Kinetic energy from Metabolic energy
energy random from random random from adenosine
movements of movements of movements of triphosphate (ATP)
particles water molecules particles

Involvement of Transport protein Transport proteins Transport protein Transport protein

membrane not involved involved involved involved
proteins (aquaporins) help
accelerate rate of
osmosis, but
doesn’t require

Need for No Yes No No

partially/selectiv
ely permeable
membrane

- Example of question:
 - Question: explain the process in which water and mineral salts are transported
from the soil into the xylem vessels.
- Answer:
- Water is transported from the soil into the root hair cells through
osmosis. There was net movement of water molecules from the soil,
which had a higher water potential, to the cytoplasm of the root hair
cell, which had a lower water potential, through the selectively
permeable cell surface membrane of the root hair cell, down the water
potential gradient.
- Mineral salts are transported into the root hair cell through active
transport when the concentration of mineral salts in the soil is lower
than the concentration of mineral salts in the root hair cell. In this case,
the mineral salts are selectively transported into the root hair cells using
adenosine triphosphate, up a concentration gradient.
- Mineral salts are also transported into the root hair cells through
facilitated diffusion when the the concentration of mineral salts in the
soil is higher than the concentration of mineral salts in the root hair cell.
In this case ,mineral salts are transported through the root hair cell
membrane using specific proteins channels or carriers, down a
concentration gradient from regions of higher concentration to regions
of lower concentration.
- Water and mineral salts were then transported from the root hair cells to
the root cortex cells and then the xylem vessels by osmosis and
diffusion respectively.

· RA: explain the role of glycolipids, glycoproteins and cholesterol in cell membranes.

- Glycolipids and glycoproteins - characteristics:

- carbohydrates bonded to lipids to proteins on the cell membrane
- are usually branched oligosaccharides
- vary between species to species, between individuals of the same species and
even among different cell types in the same individual.
- are always found projecting out of the cell into the extracellular matrix

- Glycolipids and glycoproteins - functions:

- cell - cell recognition
- the ability of a cell to determine if other cells it encounters are alike or
different from itself
- crucial in the functioning of an organism, serves as a basis for sorting
out embryonic cells into tissues and organs, rejection of foreign cells by
immune system and as cell markers to differentiate one cell type from
another.
- cell receptors
- as receptors for hormones in cell signalling
- as receptors for white blood cell recognition, when infected, cells
express glycoproteins for WBCs to recognise
- cell adhesion
- assist in binding together of cells to form tissues.

- Cholesterol - functions:
 - regulates membrane fluidity -> stabilizes membrane
- the membrane is prevented from being overly fluid at higher
temperatures as cholesterol restricts phospholipid movement through
its interactions with the phospholipids.
- the membrane is prevented from being overly firm at low temperatures
as cholesterol prevents close packing of phospholipids and hence
prevents its solidification/crystallization.
- therefore, cholesterol prevents extremes in the consistency of cell
membranes (too tight or too loose)

· RA: calculate water potential

- Water potential = solute potential + pressure potential

- Solute potential is negative, pressure potential is positive
- Water potential is negative, the highest possible water potential (of pure water) is 0
- Water flows from a region of higher (less negative) water potential to a region of lower
(more negative) water potential.

Y3 Unit 3: Biomolecules and enzymes

Biomolecules:
· State the roles of water in living things

- Property: water has a high specific heat capacity. Function: this allows large/bulky
organisms to have low temperatures
- Property: water has a high latent heat of vapourization. Function: this allows for cooling
by evaporation as a mechanism for thermoregulation.
- Property: water is a universal solvent in biological systems. Function: this allows
chemical reactions to take place. Water is also a key component of tissues and helps
to transport dissolved substances.

· List the chemical elements which makes up carbohydrates, fats, proteins

- Carbohydrates and fats are made up of:

- Oxygen
- Hydrogen
- Carbon
- Proteins have all of those + nitrogen & sulphur

· Describe and carry out tests for starch (iodine in potassium iodide solution) reducing
sugars (Benedict’s solution), protein (biuret test), fats (ethanol emulsion)

- Benedict’s test for reducing sugars

- Procedure:
- Add 2cm3 of the sample solution into a clean dry test tube, followed by
 2cm3 of Benedict’s solution.
- Shake the mixture and heat it by placing it into a boiling water bath for 5
minutes
- Record the observations after 5 minutes.
- Outcomes:
- The mixture remains blue: no reducing sugars are present
- A green precipitate is obtained: a trace amount of reducing sugar is
present
- A yellow precipitate is obtained: a low amount of reducing sugar is
present
- An orange precipitate is obtained: a moderate amount of reducing
sugar is present
- A brick red precipitate is obtained: a large amount of reducing sugar is
present
- Theory:
- Reducing sugars contain either an aldehyde or ketone functional group
to reduce Cu2+ to Cu+ in the Benedict’s solution.
- Biuret test for proteins
- Procedure:
- Add 2cm3 of sample solution into a clean dry test tube, followed by
2cm3 of dilute sodium hydroxide solution. Shake the mixture.
- Add copper (II) sulfate solution, drop by drop. Shake the test tube after
the addition of each drop and observe the colour changes.
- Outcomes:
- The mixture remains blue: no protein is present
- The mixture turned lilac: protein is present
- Iodine test for starch
- Procedure:
- Add 2cm3 of the sample solution into a clean dry test tube, followed by
a few drops of iodine solution. Shake the mixture and observe the
colour change
- Outcomes:
- The mixture remained brown: no starch is present
- The mixture turned blue black: starch is present
- Ethanol emulsion test for fats
- Procedure:
- Add 2cm3 of sample solution into a clean dry test tube, followed by
2cm3 of ethanol.
- Shake the mixture thoroughly
- Add 2cm3 of water to the mixture and shake.
- Record the observation.
- Outcomes:
- The mixture remained clear and colourless: no lipid is present
- A white emulsion was formed: lipid is present
- Theory:
- Lipids are soluble in ethanol but insoluble in water.

· State that glycogen and starch are synthesized from glucose, polypeptides from amino
acids, lipids (eg. Fats) from fatty acids and glycerol
 - Carbohydrates: (refer to mindmap)
- General formula: (CH2O)x
- Monomers of carbohydrates are monosaccharides (reducing sugars)
- Glucose
- Fructose
- Galactose
- Disaccharides:
- Maltose (glucose + glucose)
- Sucrose (glucose + fructose)
- Lactose (galactose + glucose)
- 2 monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic bond
- Splitting glycosidic bond: hydrolysis (1 water molecule used up)
- Forming glycosidic bond: condensation (1 water molecule is released)
- Polysaccharides:
- A macromolecule
- Many monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic bonds
- Eg. starch and cellulose

· Outline the structures and properties of the following biomolecules and explain how
these are related to their roles in living organisms:
i. starch (amylose)
ii. triglyceride
iii. Phospholipid

Starch:
- Mixture of 2 polysaccharides
- Structure: made up of several thousand glucose molecules (amylopectin and
amylose chains joined together)
- Role in living organisms:
- Major storage carbohydrate of most plants (stored as compact grains in
plastids called leucoplasts)
- Compact and insoluble→ useful
- Readily hydrolysed to form glucose when required
- Humans don’t store starch
- Found in storage organs of plants (potato tubers and tapioca)

Phospholipids:
- Similar to triglyceride but one fatty acid is replaced by phosphate group
- Phosphate group is ionised and water soluble
- A phospholipid is made up of a hydrophilic glycerol phosphate “head” and two
hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain “tails”
- Combine hydrophobic properties of hydrocarbon tails with water-loving
(hydrophilic) properties of phosphate group
- When phospholipid is added and shaken up with water, the phospholipid molecules
arrange themselves as a bilayer with the hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails facing
together.
- A thin layer of phospholipid floats on water→ monolayer with
 hydrophilic heads in water, hydrophobic tails projecting
- More phospholipid→ phospholipid molecules form a bilayer, with
hydrophobic tails aligned together
- In the phospholipid bilayer, attractions between the hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails
on the inside and between the hydrophilic glycerol-phosphate heads and the
surrounding water on the outside make a stable, strong barrier.
- The phospholipid bilayer forms a barrier between the surrounding water on the
outside of the cell and the inside.

Fats and Oils:

- Triglycerides
- Formed by reactions by which water is removed
- Condensation reaction occurs between 3 fatty acid molecules + 1 glycerol
molecule
- At room temperature (20℃) , oils are liquids and fats are solid
- Not macromolecules (but hydrophobic properties make them aggregate into huge
globules which make them appear as one)
- Fatty acids have long hydrocarbon “tails” → hydrophobic properties
- Called “acids” because their functional group (-COOH, carboxyl) tends to
ionise (slightly) to produce hydrogen ions (property of an acid)
- Ester bond
- Bonds formed when carboxyl functional group of three organic acids react
with three hydroxyl functional groups of glycerol to form a triglyceride
- Bond formed between carboxyl group of fatty acid (-COOH) + one
hydroxyl group (-OH) of glycerol→ monoglyceride→ diglyceride→
triglyceride (the three fatty acids may be same or different)

Saturated and unsaturated triglycerides

- Saturated→ no double bonds (-C=C-) between the carbon atoms in their
hydrocarbon tails
- Unsaturated→ one/more double bonds present
- Double bond causes a kink in the hydrocarbon tail
- Tails do not pack so closely together→ melt at lower
temperatures
- Several double bonds→ polyunsaturated

Role of fats and oils in living things

- Concentrated energy source and metabolic water source
- When triglycerides are oxidised in respiration a lot of energy is transferred to
make ATP
- Mass for mass, fats and oils release more than twice as much energy
as carbohydrates
- More oxygen in respiration of fats comes from atmosphere→
concentrated, insoluble energy store
 - Fat layers are typical of animals that endure long unfavourable
seasons in which they survive by using the concentrated reserves of
food stored in their bodies
- Complete oxidation of fats and oils produces a large amount of metabolic water
- Far more than when same mass of carbohydrate is respired
- Desert animals retain a lot of metabolic water→ survive when there is
no liquid water for drinking (endure long unfavourable seasons)
- Buoyancy aid and heat insulation layer
- Fat stored in animals as adipose tissue, typically under the skin→
subcutaneous fat
- Aquatic, diving animals have a lot→ blubber
- Provide buoyancy to body
- Fat less dense than muscle or bone
- If fat reserves have restricted blood supply and heat of body is not
really distributed to the fat→ heat insulation layer
- Water repellent for hair and feathers
- Oily secretions of sebaceous glands of mammals (preen gland for
birds) acts as water repellent→ prevent fur and hair from becoming
waterlogged when wet
- Electrical insulation
- Electrically isolates cell surface membrane and facilitates conduction of nerve
impulse around axons of neurones

· Explain the effects of temperature and pH on protein structure (such as enzymes).

- *refer to later section on enzymes

· RA: Explain primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure and quaternary
structure of proteins, and describe the type of bonds that hold the molecule in shape
(hydrogen, ionic, disulfide bonds and hydrophobic interactions).

- Primary structure:
- The primary structure of a protein is the long chain of amino acids (known as a
polypeptide chain) in its molecule.
- These amino acids are held together by peptide bonds and proteins differ in
the variety, number and order of these amino acids.
- [The sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain is determined by
coded instructions stored in the DNA in the nucleus.]
- Secondary structure:
- Develops when parts of the polypeptide chain take up a particular shape,
immediately after formation at the ribosome.
- The two secondary structures are the α-helix and β-sheet. These shapes are
permanent and held in place by hydrogen bonds. (R groups are not involved in
bonding)
- Tertiary structure:
- Refers to the overall 3D shape of a polypeptide resulting from interaction
between R groups of the various amino acids in the polypeptide.
 - Is a precise and compact structure unique to the protein and arises when the
molecule is further folded and held in a particular complex shape.
- This shape is permanent and is held in place by 4 types of bonds: (weakest to
strongest)
- Hydrogen bond (*although weak, it collectively gives strength)
- Van der waals’ forces and hydrophobic interactions
- Ionic bond (affected by pH)
- Disulfide bond
- Quaternary structure:
- Arises when two or more proteins become held together, forming a complex,
biologically active molecule
- If it is not formed, the protein would not be able to carry out its function and
would be denatured.
- [Not all proteins have a quaternary structure]
- *note: when answering a question, always remember to QUOTE DATA (eg. how long
the polypeptide chain is etc.)

· RA: Explain the relationship between protein structure and function

- Fibrous VS globular proteins

- Fibrous proteins take up a tertiary structure which is a long strand.
- They usually have structural roles in the body
- Examples include fibrin and keratin
- Globular proteins take up a tertiary structure that is more spherical.
- Most enzymes are globular proteins

Enzymes:
· Explain enzyme action in terms of ‘lock and key’ hypothesis and induced-fit hypothesis.

- ‘Lock and key’ hypothesis: An enzyme works by binding to its substrate (S) molecule at
a specifically formed pocket in the enzyme.
- However, the lock and key hypothesis does not fully account for the combined events
of ‘binding’ and simultaneous chemical change observed in most enzyme catalysed
reactions.
- ‘Induced fit’ hypothesis: as the enzyme substrate complex is formed, an essential,
critical change of shape is caused in the enzyme molecule. It is this change of shape
that is important in momentarily raising the substrate molecule to the transitional state.

· Explain the mode of enzyme action in terms of active site, enzyme-substrate complex,
lowering of activation energy and enzyme specificity

- The active site of an enzyme is specific and complementary to the shape of the
substrate. Upon effective collision between enzyme and substrate, the enzyme
substrate complex is formed.
- Interactions between enzyme and substrate molecules strain/weaken chemical
bonds within substrate(s), thus lowering the activation energy
- When reaction is complete, the products no longer fit into active site and are released,
Enzymes are also released.
· Investigate and explain the effects of temperature and pH on rate of enzyme- catalysed
reaction by measuring rates of formation of products (eg measuring gas produced
using catalase) or rate of disappearance of substrate (eg using amylase, starch and
iodine)

- Effects of temperature:
- Part 1 - increase:
- Describe: As the temperature increases from _°C to _°C, the rate of
reaction increases from _unit to _unit. *remember to quote data!
- Explain:
- Enzymes are inactive at low temperature due to low kinetic
energy, therefore the rate of effective collisions are low.
- As temperature increases, kinetic energy of the enzyme and
substrate molecules increase, thereby
- increasing the frequency of effective collisions between
substrate and enzyme active sites,
- which increases the rate of formation of enzyme substrate
complex
- and increases rate of product formation.

- Part 2 - peak:
- Describe: Enzyme activity is highest at its optimum temperature of _°C,
where the rate of reaction is _units.
- Explain:
- All enzyme active sites are saturated.
- Part 3 - decrease:
- Describe: As the temperature further increases beyond the optimum
temperature from _°C to _°C, the rate of reaction decreases from _units
to _units.
- Explain:
- The high temperatures break that bonds that keep the enzyme
protein in its specific shape.
- The active site loses its original shape and is no longer
complementary to the substrate.
- The enzyme is denatured and loses its catalytic function.

- Effects of pH:
- Peak:
- Describe:
- All enzymes have an optimum pH at which they will work most
efficiently. At a pH of _, the rate of reaction is at a maximum of
_units.
- Explain:
- The enzyme maintains its specific 3D conformation and so the
enzyme active site is complementary to the substrate.
- Enzyme binds to the substrate(s) to form enzyme substrate
complex. Substrate is converted to products.

- Lower than peak:

 - Describe:
- Changes in pH can affect enzyme activity. As the pH
increases/decreased from _ to _, the rate of reaction decreases
from _units to _units.

- Explain:
- Structure of a protein is maintained by various bonds within its
3D structure.
- Changes in pH alter the bonding pattern, thereby altering the 3D
conformation/shape of the active site of the enzyme. Ionic
bonds are affected.
- Hence, the substrate is no longer complementary to the active
site.
- No enzyme substrate complex can be formed
- No products are formed
- The enzyme is denatured and loses its catalytic function.

· RA: Describe the structure of competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors with reference to
the binding sites of the inhibitors. Explain the effects of competitive and noncompetitive
inhibitors on the rate of enzyme activity.

- Competitive inhibitors:
- Molecules that sufficiently resemble the substrate in shape and compete to
occupy the active site of the enzyme.
- These inhibitors are not acted on by the enzyme and turned into products like
normal substrate molecules are. Hence, they remain attached to the enzyme.
- However, if concentration of the substrate is increased, the inhibitor is
progressively displaced from the enzyme active sites.
- Effect of competitive inhibitor: substrate and inhibitor compete for active sites,
so excess substrate overcomes inhibition.
- Non-competitive inhibitors:
- Non-competitive inhibitors bind to the allosteric sites of an enzymes.
- Here, the inhibitor either party blocks access to the active site by substrate
molecules or it causes the active site to change shape so that it is then unable
to accept the substrate.
- Effect of non-competitive inhibitor: substrate and inhibitor do not compete for
active sites, so excess substrate will not overcome inhibition.
· RA: Explain the effects of toxins on the activity of enzymes.

- Certain irreversible inhibitors bind tightly and permanently to an enzyme and destroy
its catalytic properties entirely.
- These drastic effects occur at low concentration of inhibitor
- These are known as poisons/toxins (*note: there is a slight difference btw/ poisons
and toxins but in this case they are interchangeable)
- Examples include cyanide ions and the nerve gas sarin

Y4 Unit 1 - Natural Selection and Reproduction

Natural selection
LOs:
● Explain the role of natural selection in evolution.
● State that variation and competition lead to differential survival of, and reproduction by,
those organisms best fitted to the environment.
● Give examples of environmental factors that act as forces of natural selection.
● Give examples of artificial selection such as in the production of economically important
plants and animals.
● [RA] Define phylogeny as the organisation of species to show their evolutionary
relationships.

Explain the role of natural selection in evolution.

- Natural selection is a process in which organisms with certain inherited

characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce than individuals with other
characteristics.
 - Natural selection leads to evolutionary adaptation, a population’s increase in the
frequency of traits best suited to the environment
- Natural selection thus leads to evolution, seen either as
- a change in the genetic composition of a population over time or
- the entire biological history, from the earliest microbes to the enormous
diversity of organisms that live on earth today.
- Darwin’s 2 observations and 2 inferences:
- Observation 1: Members of a population often vary in their inherited traits
(individual variation)
- Observation 2: All species are capable of producing more offspring than the
environment can support (overproduction and competition)
- Thus, there is unequal reproductive success
- Inference 1: Individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher
probability of surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend
to leave more offspring than other individuals
- this unequal production of offspring will lead to the accumulation of
favourable traits in the population over time
- *note: individuals do not evolve - it is the population that evolves over time as
adaptive traits become more common in the group and other traits change or
disappear
- traits must be present and heritable
- natural selection can amplify or diminish only heritable traits. this means that
the acquired characteristics that enable an organism to survive better in the
environment must be coded in the genes and be passed on to the offspring
- evolution is not goal directed
- it does not always lead to perfectly adapted organisms.
- it is the result of environmental factors that vary from place to place and over
time. a trait that is favourable in one situation may be useless in different
circumstances.

State that variation and competition lead to differential survival of, and reproduction by,
those organisms best fitted to the environment.

- resources are limited and organisms must compete for them. to lose out in the
competition for resources means that the individual grows and reproduces more
slowly
- variation and competition lead to differential survival of, and reproduction by, those
organisms best fitted to the environment

Give examples of environmental factors that act as forces of natural selection.

- predation
- predation can act as an important factor in natural selection
- factors affecting predation:
- colour of (background of) environment
- eg. light moths and dark moths
- moths that could camouflage with the background were
less easily spotted by the predators and could escape
predation
- number of predators
 - competition
- competition with other organisms
- feeding habits and availability of food items
- eg. Darwin’s finches
- beak morphology reflects differences in feeding habits as members of
the local population progressively focussed on different diets, and
evolved alternative feeding strategies

Give examples of artificial selection such as in the production of economically important

plants and animals.

- artificial selection is selection caused by humans

- is a deliberate and planned process
- involves identifying the largest, the best or the most useful of the progeny
for the intended purpose and using them as the next generation of parents
- continuous removal of progeny showing less desired features leads to
deliberate genetic change
- the genetic constitution of a population changes rapidly
- artificial selection is an ongoing process to obtain higher yields, superior
nutritional content and resistance to disease in many of today’s domestic
animals and crop plants
- examples: cows are often selectively bred for meat or milk
- flowchart of artificial selection:
-

identify a cow and a offspri

bull with the desired ng
characteristics witho
ut
breed the 2 cows to desire
produce offspring d
traits
are
select the offspring remo
w/ desired traits to ved
be kept
a pair is
sold (as selected to
meat) be parents
[RA] Define phylogeny as the organisation of species to show their evolutionary
relationships.

- phylogeny is the organisation of species to show their evolutionary relationships

Reproduction
LOs:
● Define asexual reproduction as the process resulting in the production of genetically
identical offspring from one parent.
● Define sexual reproduction as the process involving the fusion of nuclei to form a zygote
and the production of genetically dissimilar offspring.
● State the reproductive strategies employed by different organisms to ensure continuity
of their species. * (Enrichment)
● Identify and draw, using a hand lens, if necessary, the sepals, petals , stamens and
carpels of one locally available, named, insect-pollinated, dicotyledonous flower, and
examine the pollen grains using a microscope.
● State the functions of the sepals, petals, anthers and carpels.
● Describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule followed by
fertilisation (production of endosperm and details of development are not required).
● Outline the process of pollination and distinguish between self-pollination and cross-
pollination.
● Compare an insect-pollinated and a wind-pollinated flower.
● Identify on diagrams the male reproductive system and give the functions of testes,
scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate gland, urethra and penis.
● Identify the site of sex hormones and gametes in the male and female reproductive
system.
● Identify, on diagrams, the female reproductive system and give the functions of the
ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix and vagina.
● Describe the menstrual cycle with reference to the alternation of menstruation and
ovulation, the natural variation in its length, and the fertile and infertile phases of the
cycle with references to the effects of progesterone , estrogen, luteinizing hormone and
follicle-stimulating hormone.
● (Y3) Explain the basic principles of homeostasis in terms of stimulus resulting from a change
in internal environment, a corrective mechanism and negative feedback
● Describe fertilisation and early development of the zygote simply in terms of the
formation of a ball of cells which becomes implanted in the wall of the uterus.
● State the different stages of embryo development from a zygote.
● State the functions of the amniotic sac and the amniotic fluid.
● Describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord in relation to exchange of
dissolved nutrients, gases and excretory products.
● Outline the physical, chemical and behavioural methods of contraception
● Describe in vitro fertilisation as the union of an egg and sperm in a laboratory followed by
implantation of the zygote, or fertilised egg, into the uterus.
● [RA] Describe how external factors can affect human reproduction.
● [RA] Explain the changes in the levels of hormones during the entire course of pregnancy,
during birth and after delivery.
● [RA] Outline the process of birth (parturition) and its control, including the role of oxytocin
and progesterone.
● [RA] Explain what is meant by lactation and explain its importance to early nutrition.
Describe the function and regulation of prolactin and oxytocin in lactation.
● [RA] Outline the causes, mode of transmission, symptoms, treatment and preventative
measures for Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Genital herpes, Genital warts and AIDS.

Define asexual reproduction as the process resulting in the production of genetically

identical offspring from one parent.
 - asexual reproduction is the process resulting in the production of genetically
identical offspring from one parent
- offspring are genetically and physically identical to the parent organism
- types of asexual reproduction:
- budding
- produces offspring by the outgrowth and eventual splitting off of a
new individual from the parent
- eg. yeast, hydra
- fission
- a parent separates into two or more offspring of about equal size
- eg. bacteria, archaea
- fragmentation
- the breaking of a parent body into several pieces
- regeneration typically follows fragmentation and is the regrowth of lost
body parts
- eg. starfish
- parthenogenesis
- reproduction from an ovum without fertilization, especially as a normal
process in some invertebrates and lower plants
- allows organism to reproduce without a mate
- sometimes used as an adaptive strategy to ensure reproduction of
organisms when conditions are not favourable for sexual
reproduction
- eg. aphids
- advantages of asexual reproduction
- eliminates the need to find a mate
- allows a population to perpetuate itself if its individual members are
isolated from each other
- permits organisms to multiply quickly without spending time or energy
producing sperm and eggs
- produces genetically identical offspring
- in the case of cloning:
- ensures that all of the desirable traits of the plant/organism
would be retained and propagated in the offspring
- requires less time and energy

Define sexual reproduction as the process involving the fusion of nuclei to form a zygote
and the production of genetically dissimilar offspring.

- sexual reproduction is the process involving the fusion of nuclei to form a zygote
and the production of genetically dissimilar offspring
- it is the fusion of two haploid sex cells (gametes: egg and sperm) to form a diploid
zygote (fertilized egg)
- some animals can reproduce both asexually (when times are Good) and sexually
(when conditions are unfavourable and there is a need to change the genetic
makeup of the offspring)
- some animals are hermaphroditic with both male and female reproductive systems,
some can fertilize their own eggs, whereas others require a partner
- different organisms rely on different methods to ensure the survival of their own
species
comparing sexual and asexual reproduction:

sexual reproduction asexual reproduction

both result in the production of offspring

both pass down genetic material

two parent organisms are required to only one parent organism is required to
reproduce reproduce

offspring produced are genetically non- offspring produced are genetically identical
identical to the parent and each other, there is no
genetic variation

gametes are produced by the organisms does not produce/require gametes

and are required for fertilization
there is no involvement of gametes
involves the fusion of the male and female
gametes

offspring are more adaptable to sudden offspring are less likely to be able to adapt
changes in the environment to sudden changes in the environment

more time and energy is spent on finding a less time and energy is required
mate and producing gametes

Identify and draw, using a hand lens, if necessary, the sepals, petals , stamens and
carpels of one locally available, named, insect-pollinated, dicotyledonous flower, and
examine the pollen grains using a microscope.
State the functions of the sepals, petals, anthers and carpels.

- speals
- encloses and protects the flower bud
- petals
- are often fragrant and brightly coloured/colourful, serves to attract insects
and other pollinators to the flower
- stamen
- consists of a stalk (filament) tipped by an anther
- anthers
- sacs where meiosis occurs and pollen grains develop
- pollen grains house the cells that develop into sperm
- carpel
- consists of a long slender neck (style) with a sticky stigma at its tip
- at the base of the carpel is the ovary
- ovary
- contains reproductive structures called the ovules
- there are a few ovules in each ovary
- each ovule contains one developing egg and the cells that support it

Describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule followed by
fertilisation (production of endosperm and details of development are not required).

- sexual reproduction in flowering plants involve 2 processes:

- pollination
- fertilization
- the fusion of male and female gametes

- steps for fertilization:

 1. pollen grains on the stigma germinate in response to the sugary fluid produced by
the mature stigma
2. a pollen tube grows out from the pollen grain and the male gametes (sperm) form
in the tube
3. as the pollen tube grows, it secretes enzymes to digest the tissue of the stigma and
style. the pollen tube grows down the style
4. the pollen tube enters the ovule through an opening in the ovule wall called the
micropyle
5. within the ovule, the tip of the pollen tube absorbs sap and bursts, releasing 2
sperm
6. the nucleus of one of the sperm (male gamete) fuses with the nucleus of the egg
to form the zygote. this is fertilization

Outline the process of pollination and distinguish between self-pollination and cross-
pollination.

- pollination
- the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma
- self pollination
- pollen grains from anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower
- pollen grains from the anther of one flower to stigma of another flower on the
same plant
- cross pollination
- pollen grains are transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of
another flower on a different plant of the same type
- methods to prevent self pollination
- flowers can have their stigmas and anthers mature at different times
- they can be dioecious and have only one reproductive part in each flower

Compare an insect-pollinated and a wind-pollinated flower.

- there are a few agents of pollination

- animals (birds, insects, mammals), wind
- wind pollinated flower v.s. insect pollinated flower:

feature wind pollinated insect pollinated

petals petals are small or absent petals are large and brightly
dull coloured petals coloured

nectar nectar is absent nectar is present

scent flowers are odourless flowers are fragrant and sweet

smelling

stigma stigmas are large and feathery stigmas are small,compact and
stigmas usually protrude out of do not protrude out of the
the flower to provide large flower
surface area to trap pollen
 stamen stamens are pendulous and stamens are not pendulous and
protrude out of the flower usually do not protrude out of
the flower

pollen pollen is more abundant pollen is fairly abundant in

pollen grains have smooth number
surfaces and are tiny and light pollen grains are larger and
so that they are easily blown have rough surfaces in order to
about by the wind cling onto the body of insects

nectar guide nectar guide is absent nectar guide is present

Identify on diagrams the male reproductive system and give the functions of testes,
scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate gland, urethra and penis.
- main function of male reproductive system:
- to produce, maintain, and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and
protective fluid (semen)
- to discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract
- to produce and secrete male sex hormones (testosterone)

- external structures:
- penis:
- contains erectile tissue that can fill with blood and cause an erection
during sexual arousal
- the main function is to deliver sperm to the vagina
- testes and scrotum (together called the testicles)
- testes: male gonads, located outside the abdominal cavity in a sac
called the scrotum.
- scrotum: a loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind the penis.
has special muscles that allow it contract and relax, moving testes
closer to the body for warmth and protection or farther away from the
body to cool the temperature.
- sperm do not develop best at body temperature. the scrotum keeps
the sperm-forming cells about 2°C cooler, which allows them to
function normally.
- main function of testes: to produce testosterone, the primary male sex
hormone and to generate sperm.
- internal structures/organs:
- epididymis: a highly convoluted duct behind the testis, along which sperm
passes to the vas deferens. sperm cells mature as they travel along the
epididymis.
- sperm duct (vas deferens)
- delivers sperm from epididymis to urethra during ejaculation
- ejaculation, caused by contractions of muscles along the sperm
ducts, releases about 5 mL of semen, of which only 5% consists of
sperm (~200-500 million).
- prostate gland
 - a walnut sized structure that is located below the urinary bladder in
front of the rectum.
- produces a fluid that nourishes the sperm and provides protection
from the natural acidity of the vagina.
- a source of common medical problems in men over 40.
- urethra
- conveys, at different times, both sperm and urine out of the body,
through the penis.
- when the penis is erected during sex, the flow of urine is blocked from
the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated
- unlike females, the male urinary and reproductive systems have a
direct connection.

Identify the site of sex hormones and gametes in the male and female reproductive
system.

- female sex hormones (involved in menstruation):

- oestrogen
- progesterone
- luteinising hormone (LH)
- follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
- female gamete: ovum (egg), oocyte (immature)
- male sex hormone: testosterone
- male gamete: sperm

Identify, on diagrams, the female reproductive system and give the functions of the
ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix and vagina.
- main function of female reproductive system:
- to produce the egg cells (ova, ovum) for reproduction
- to transport the ova to the site of fertilization (the fallopian tubes)
- to provide a safe and favourable environment for the foetus to develop
(uterus)
- to produce female sex hormones that maintain reproductive cycle.

- reproductive structures:
- ovaries
- sites of gamete production and are located on either side of the uterus
- about an inch long and has a bumpy surface
- the bumps are follicles, each consisting of a single developing egg cell
surrounded by cells that nourish and protect it.
- commonly only 1 follicle will release a single egg in a cycle
- the follicles (corpus luteum) also produce oestrogen and
progesterone.
- a female is born with 1-2 million follicles but only several hundred will
release egg cells during her reproductive years.
- fallopian tubes:
- the site of fertilization
- the released egg, from the ruptured follicle enters the fallopian tube ->
gets swept towards the uterus by cilia
- if sperm are present, fertilization may take place in the upper part of
the fallopian tube.
- If the released egg is not fertilized, it is shed during menstruation and a
new follicle matures during the next cycle.
- uterus:
 - the uterus is the actual site of pregnancy.
- is normally the size and shape of an upside down pear, but can grow to
several times that size during pregnancy.
- the uterus has a thick muscular wall lined with a blood rich layer of
tissue called the endometrium
- an embryo implants in the endometrium and grows there.
- cervix:
- the narrow neck at the bottom of the uterus
- the cervix opens up into the vagina, allowing the flow of menstrual
blood into the vagina and directs the sperm into the uterus.
- when a woman is not ovulating, the cervix is covered in thick mucus
which serves as a protective barrier.
- it is normally very narrow but can widen up to 10cm during labour and
delivery
- vagina/birth canal:
- opens up to the outside just behind the opening of the urethra.
- a thin membrane called the hymen partly covers the vaginal opening,
it can be broken by sexual intercourse or vigorous physical activity.
- during intercourse, the vagina serves as a repository for sperm.

Describe the menstrual cycle with reference to the alternation of menstruation and
ovulation, the natural variation in its length, and the fertile and infertile phases of the
cycle with references to the effects of progesterone , estrogen, luteinizing hormone and
follicle-stimulating hormone.

- length: repeats every 28 days on average, but can be from 20-40 days
- actually 2 cycles in 1,
- ovarian cycle: concerned with the monthly preparation and shedding of an
egg cell from an ovary.
- uterine cycle: concerned with the buildup and breakdown of the lining of the
uterus (endometrium)
- ovulation:
- the release of a mature egg from an ovary, into the fallopian tube.
- matured egg only survives 12-24 hours once released, but sperm can survive
for 72 hours.
- menstruation:
- uterine bleeding caused by the breakdown of the endometrium, the blood
rich inner lining of the uterus.
- it is thus a sign that pregnancy has no occured in the previous cycle. it usually
lasts 3-5 days
- the menstrual discharge, which leaves the body through the vagina, consists
of blood, clusters of cells and mucus.
- after menstruation, the endometrium regrows, reaching its maximum
thickness in 20-25 days.
- if the embryo implants in the uterine wall, it will obtain nutrients from the
endometrium and the thickened lining will not be discharged.
- steps:
1. FSH is secreted by the pituitary gland, and stimulates the development of several
immature egg cells (in secondary follicles). Only one will complete development into
a mature secondary oocyte (now in the Graafian follicle)
2. the developing follicle then secretes oestrogen, which has 2 targets:
a. in the uterus, oestrogen stimulates the repair and build up of the of the
endometrium, which prepares the uterus for a possible implantation of an
embryo, if fertilization takes place
b. in the pituitary gland, oestrogen inhibits the further secretion of FSH, which
prevents the possibility of further follicles being stimulated to develop.
(negative feedback)
3. meanwhile, the concentration of oestrogen continues to build up, increasing to a
peak value just before the midpoint of the cycle. The high and rising levels of
oestrogen suddenly stimulates the secretion of LH, and to a lesser extent, FSH by the
pituitary gland. (positive feedback) LH stimulates ovulation and the mature oocyte is
released from the ovary.
4. as soon as the ovarian follicle has discharged its oocyte, LH stimulates the
conversion of the vacant follicle into the corpus luteum. the corpus luteum secretes
progesterone, and to a lesser extent, oestrogen. progesterone has 2 targets:
a. in the uterus, progesterone continues the build up and maintenance of the
endometrium, allowing it to become thickened, further preparing for a
possible implantation of the embryo if fertilization takes place.
b. in the pituitary gland, progesterone inhibits further secretion of LH and FSH.
(2nd example of negative feedback)
5. the levels of FSH and LH in the bloodstream decrease rapidly. if fertilization does not
take place, the low levels of LH and FSH allow the corpus luteum to degenerate. As a
consequence, the levels of progesterone and oestrogen also fall. Soon, the levels of
 these hormones are so low that the extra lining of the uterus is no longer maintained.
The endometrium breaks down and is lost through the vagina, starting menstruation
on the 1st day of the next cycle

- summary of how menstruation happens:

- oestrogen and progesterone are produced by the ovaries, which will be
transported by the blood to the uterus, where they will cause the buildup and
maintenance of the endometrium
- if fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum will break down and the low
levels of progesterone and oestrogen cause the breakdown and shedding of
the endometrial lining

(Y3) Explain the basic principles of homeostasis in terms of stimulus resulting from a
change in internal environment, a corrective mechanism and negative feedback

- negative feedback is a type of control in which the conditions being regulated are
brought back to a set value as soon as it is detected that they have deviated from it.

Describe fertilisation and early development of the zygote simply in terms of the
formation of a ball of cells which becomes implanted in the wall of the uterus.

- male and female gametes:

- the productions of male and female gametes (sperm and egg) are known
respectively as spermatogenesis and oogenesis
- sperms are produced everyday throughout the human male’s lifetime, but
immature eggs (primary oocytes) are only created during fetal development in
human females
- sexual intercourse releases hundreds of millions (200-500) of sperms into the
vagina but only a few thousand sperm survive long enough to meet the egg,
and only one will fertilize it.
- the shape of the human sperm is streamlined, which helps it swim through
the fluids in the vagina, uterus and oviduct (fallopian tube)
- comparing egg and sperm:
- size:
- the human female gamete, the egg, is more than 2 times
larger than the human male gamete, the sperm
- the total length of the sperm is only 60μm, whereas the diameter
 of an egg cell is 120μm.
- this is because the egg cell contains all major components,
such as nutrition and organelles, that the zygote requires to
survive, whereas the sperm only contains mitochondria and
deoxyribonucleic acid.
- the sperm’s small size allows it to travel long distances quickly.
- numbers:
- there is only one egg cell released per month during ovulation,
whereas 200-500 million sperms are released per ejaculation
during sexual intercourse.
- this is because the body can only sustain the development of 1-
2 fetuses at one time.
- as many sperm die along the way to the egg, having a higher
number of sperms also increases the chances that the egg will
be fertilized.
- movement:
- sperm have a flagellum that makes them motile and allows
them to swim towards the egg, whereas the egg is generally
unable to move on its own.
- this is because sperm will have to swim towards the egg in
order to fertilize it, whereas the egg is swept towards the uterus
by the cilia in the fallopian tubes and only need to await
fertilization by the sperm.
- fertilization:
- the union of a sperm and an egg, forming the zygote (which is the first cell
produced)
- implantation:
- the blastocyst starts to implant in the endometrium about a week after
fertilization.
- the outer layer of cells of the blastocyst (trophoblast) will eventually form part
of the placenta, the organ that provides nourishment and oxygen to the
embryo and helps dispose of its metabolic waste.
- the placenta consists of both maternal and embryonic tissue.

State the different stages of embryo development from a zygote.

 - human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is produced by the blastocyst to maintain the
corpus luteum (which produces progesterone to maintain the thickness of the
endometrium)
- once the placenta is fully formed at around 12 weeks, hCG levels drops
- the placenta will start producing progesterone to maintain the endometrium

State the functions of the amniotic sac and the amniotic fluid.
- the amniotic cavity (amniotic sac) is filled with fluid
- it protects the embryo by acting as a cushion from external trauma
- ensures a constant temperature
- allows for free movement for foetal development (muscle development and
lubrication)
- allows the foetus to practice swallowing (for feeding after birth)
- about a week after fertilization, the amnion will enclose the embryo
- the amnion breaks just before childbirth and the fluid leaves the mother’s body
through her vagina

Describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord in relation to exchange of
dissolved nutrients, gases and excretory products.

- function of placenta and umbilical cord:

- to facilitate the exchange of materials in and out of the foetal circulatory
system
placenta:
- the placenta is a composite organ consisting of chorionic villi closely associated
with the blood vessels of the endometrium
- in the process of implantation, the embryo develops finger-like projections called
 the chorionic villi
- the chorionic villi helps the embryo implant itself into the endometrial layer, and is
surrounded in tiny pools of maternal blood
- the mother’s blood and embryo’s blood are not in direct contact
- instead, the chorionic villi absorbs nutrients and oxygen from the mother’s blood
and pass these substances to the embryo via the chorionic blood vessels
- likewise, the embryo’s waste products diffuses to the mother’s bloodstream via the
chorionic villi, and is later excreted by the mother’s kidneys
- while the placenta allows for nutrients and oxygen and protective antibodies to
diffuse to the developing embryo, it does not always prevents harmful substances
(such as viruses, drugs, alcohol) circulating in the mother’s body from reaching the
embryo

umbilical cord:

- transports oxygen and nutrients to the foetus and waste products from the foetus to
the placenta
- umbilical cord (with respect to the foetus’s heart):
umbilical artery umbilical vein

transport substances AWAY from transports substances TOWARDS

foetus heart foetus heart

transports CO2, waste transports O2 (oxygenated blood),

nutrients

Outline the physical, chemical and behavioural methods of contraception.

- contraception
- the deliberate prevention of pregnancy as a consequence of sexual
intercourse
- it comes in many forms with varying degrees of effectiveness
- behavioral methods
- temporary abstinence
 - also called the rhythm or natural family planning method
- depends on refraining from sexual intercourse during the days around
ovulation
- not suitable for all women
- effectiveness depends on how regular their menstrual cycle is
- this method assumes that ovulation takes place around
the 14th day
- not as reliable as other methods as women may once in a while
ovulate at an unexpected time period
- can be enhanced with other methods of detecting ovulation
- changes in cervical mucous (mucous becomes very stretchable
between 2 finger and clear during ovulation
- changes in body temperature (higher during ovulation)
- withdrawal method
- the penis is withdrawn moments before ejacualtion
- sperm is not released into the vagina, lowering the chance of
pregnancy
- not a very reliable method
- sperm is released during intercourse, not only during
ejaculation
- it does not protect against STIs
- surgical methods
- sterilization surgery prevents sperm from reaching an egg and is very reliable.
It is also permanent
- the oviducts are cut and often tied off in a tubal ligation

- the sperm ducts are cut, preventing sperm from reaching the urethra in a
vasectomy
- physical methods
- barrier methods
- prevent sperm from meeting an egg. these include:
- cervical cap: dome shaped rubber caps that cover the cervix
- condoms: sheaths usually made from latex, that fit over
- the penis or the vagina

- intra-uterine device (IUD)

- comes with copper or hormones
- presence of foreign body within uterus provokes an immune response
against sperms and eggs
- the uterus has an immune response that destroys sperms and
eggs
- copper in some IUDs enhance this immune response
- IUDs with hormones can also inhibit ovulation
- Most IUDs come with a thin thread that sticks out of the cervix to aid in
easy removal
- also has a effect against implantation
- some consider this to have an abortion effect
- no protection against STIs
- chemical methods
- contraceptive pills:
- contraceptive pills contain 2 hormones that are chemically very similar
 to oestrogen and progesterone. these hormones decrease the
secretion of FSH and LH. Follicles do not mature and ovulation does
not occur
- the endometrium still builds up and later breaks down but
menstruation is shorter and lighter because corpus luteum has not
formed
- “morning after” pill
- delays or inhibit ovulation
- irritates the endometrium so that implantation does not occur

Describe in vitro fertilisation as the union of an egg and sperm in a laboratory followed by
implantation of the zygote, or fertilised egg, into the uterus.

- infertility: a condition in which couples who want children are unable to conceive
after 12 months of unprotected intercourse
- can be attributed to:
- males:
- low sperm count
- defective sperm
- impotence/erectile dysfunction (inability to maintain an
erection)
- females:
- lack of eggs/failure to ovulate
- blocked fallopian tubes
- inability to support growing embryo
- can help to address the specific issues that the couples suffer from, allowing
____
- options include:
- treating medical condition
- turning to sperm and egg banks
- turning to surrogate mothers

- in vitro fertilisation as the union of an egg and sperm in a laboratory followed

by implantation of the zygote, or fertilised egg, into the uterus
- in vitro fertilization (IVF) refers to “external” or “in-glass” fertilization of
the eggs
- in these procedures, eggs are surgically removed from the ovaries
after hormonal stimulation, mixed with sperm in culture dished and
incubated for several days to allow the fertilized eggs to start
developing
- when they have developed into embryos of at least 8 cells each, the
embryos are carefully inserted into the woman’s uterus
- egg, sperm and embryos from such procedures can be frozen and
stored for future pregnancy attempts.

Y4 Unit 2 - DNA, Nuclear and Cellular Division

DNA structure and function
LOs:
● Interpret experiments relating to DNA as the genetic material * (Enrichment)
● Outline the relationship between DNA, genes and chromosomes.
● State that each gene is a sequence of nucleotides as part of a DNA molecule.
● State the structure of DNA in terms of the bases, sugar and phosphate groups found in
each of their nucleotides.
● State the rule of complementary base pairing
● Interpret experiments relating to DNA as the genetic material
● Explain DNA replication as semi-conservative using evidence from the Meselson-Stahl
experiment.
● Explain the role of DNA nucleotides, DNA polymerase, DNA primase and Okazaki
fragments in DNA replication.
● Explain how gel electrophoresis is used to analyse DNA, including how the DNA
fragments on a gel are made visible and the role of DNA markers in identifying DNA
fragments of different size.
● Describe the steps and role of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as an artificially induced
form of DNA replication (DNA amplification)

Outline the relationship between DNA, genes and chromosomes.

- the role of the DNA is to instruct cells to make specific polypeptides and proteins
- in the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like structures
called chromosomes
- each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins
called histones that support its structure
- a sequence of nucleotides makes up a gene and the sequence can vary.
- this results in many different genes
- each gene controls the formation of a single polypeptide, which determines
phenotype
- 1 DNA molecule makes up 1 chromosome

State that each gene is a sequence of nucleotides as part of a DNA molecule.

- each gene is a sequence of nucleotides as part of a DNA molecule

- gene: a relatively short length of DNA that codes for a single polypeptide

State the structure of DNA in terms of the bases, sugar and phosphate groups found in
each of their nucleotides.
- 3 components of a nucleotide
- a nitrogenous base, either adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) or
cytosine (C)
- C and T and U are pyrimidine bases
- A and G are purine bases
- a pentose sugar
- either ribose (in RNA) or deoxyribose (in DNA)

-
- a phosphate group (phosphoric acid)
- these 3 components are combined by condensation reactions
- the formation of 1 nucleotide produces 2 molecules of water
- nucleotides combine together to form huge molecules called nucleic acids or
polynucleotides
- the nucleotides are covalently linked together in a chain through sugars and
phosphates, which thus form a sugar-phosphate backbone of alternating
sugar-phosphate-sugar-phosphate
- a DNA molecule consists of 2 long polynucleotide chains composed of 4 types of
nucleotide subunits.

- a DNA molecule is made up of repeating units of deoxyribonucleotides

- hydrogen bonds between the bases of each chain hold the 2 chains together
- these 2 DNA chains take the shape of a double helix
 - the 2 DNA chains are arranged antiparallel (5’ to 3’ and 3’ to 5’)
- important for replication
- stabilizes the DNA molecule
- allows hydrogen bonds to form between a purine and a pyrimidine
- DNA is a very stable molecule
- overall charge of DNA is negative

comparing DNA and RNA:

feature DNA RNA

length very long strands, several million relatively short strands

nucleotides long

sugar deoxyribose ribose

bases CGAT CGAU

forms consists of 2 polynucleotide strands consists of a single strand

in the form of a double helix with
complementary base pairing

State the rule of complementary base pairing

- complementary base pairing:

- adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T)
- double hydrogen bond
- guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C)
- triple hydrogen bond
- makes possible the very precise way that DNA is copied in a process called
replication