Biology

Chapter 1
[Cell Structure and organization ]
1: CELLS
- Cells are the basic building blocks of the life /living organism .
- Estimated 10 to 100 million million cells in the human body.
- Most of the cells belong to the different specialized cell types for
examples nerve cell conducting impulses etc.
- We refer to the generalized diagrams of cell as typical plant and
animal cell .
- The cells of both animal and plant cell have number of features in
common such as nucleus , cytoplasm and cell membrane .

Cytoplasm :

- It has texture like a running jelly .

- It contains many sub-cellular structures called organelle .
 - Many chemical reaction take place inside it ,collectively these are
called metabolic reactions or the cell metabolism .
Nucleus :
- Most type of cells have single nucleus embedded in the cytoplasm
but few kinds of specialized cells don’t have a nucleus such as red
blood cells in human and xylem vessels in plants .
- Its controls the metabolic reactions taking place in the cell .
- It also contains genetic materials called genes with larger thread
like structure called chromosomes [ these chromosomes are
rarely visible except the cell division .
- Genes are made up of chemical DNA [ deoxyribose acid ].
- Genes have special type of information that construct proteins
and also form special type of enzymes.
- They control metabolism metabolism by determining which
protein the cell can produce , in particular a class of protein called
enzymes.

Cell Membrane :`
- All cells are surrounded by the cell membrane.
- This is the thin layer at the surface of the cell which forms the
boundary between the cell contents and the outside of the cell.
- The membrane is the partially prememable and can control which
substances can pass in and out of the cell .
 - The cell membrane is very thin that’s why it is labeled the location
of cell membrane ,the actual thickness cannot be visible through
microscope .

Cell Wall :
- It’s a non-living thing structure surrounding the living cell
membrane of a plant cell.
- It is made up of the carbonhydrate called cellulose .[ cellulose is
the tough material that help the plant cell maintain its shape .]
- Unlike animal cell, plant cell have relatively fixed shape .They take
in water , producing an internal pressure that pushes against the
cell wall . The cell wall became inflated like a balloon blown up
inside a box . We describe the cell in this condition turgor or
turgid .[ when all the cell of a plant are turgid they push against
each other ,helping to support the plant .
- Cell wall in freely permeable to water and dissolved the
substances . It does not control the movement of substances into
or outside of the substance.
- Its much thicker than cell membrane so its possible to see it from
cellwall.

Sap Vacuole:
- Fully developed plant cell usually have a large central place in
cytoplasm ,surrounded by another membrane .
 - This space is filled with a watery solution of sugars and ions and is
called the sap vacuole.
- The green parts of a plant contain a chemical called chloroplast
[these are as large as nucleus so easily visible through light
Microscope .]
- Chloroplast function is to absorb light during photosynthesis [it’s a
process which plant use to manufacture food .

2: SOME SPECIALISED CELLS :

- When an animal or plant cell grows from an embryo ,the cell
become specialized in order to be ale carry out its particular
function and this specialization is called cell differentiation ( and
its under the control of genes in the nucleus ) .

Root hair cell :

- They are behind the growing tips of roots and it’s the place where
most of the soil water is absorbed by the roots .
- Its main function is to increase the surface area for absorbtion.
- They are the single specialized cells of the root epidermis .
- Its long thin hair root grows between the the soil particle around
the root .
- Its long thin shape gives it’s a hifg surface area to volume ratio .
 - Walls of root hair cells are also thin because cuz/as they are not
thickened the cellulose .
- Water is absorbed by the osmosis while different minerals are
taken up by diffusion or active transport.
- ( the cell in a plant root do not contain chlrorplast).

Xylem Vessels:
- These are dead and hollow cells .
- They transport water and minerals from root to leaves
- They develop from living cell ,have cell wall and cytoplasm but as
they mature they beacom elongated and the wall between each
cell breakdown , there cell wall becomes impregnated with a
woody material called lignin and it is impermeable to water .
- Then the cells dies forming continuous hollow tubes .
- Lignifications of the cell wall make the xylem vessels more strong
and they easily carry water towards plant without collapsing .
- Lignifications also help to support the stem and the leaf.

Red blood cell:

- Their function is to carry oxygen around the body, taking up the
lungs and transporting it to reaspiring tissues.
- They develop in bone narrow and as they become mature they
lose their nucleus and become biconcave in shape .
- These cell contains red pigment called hemoglobin .
 - Adaptations of red blood cell to carry its function :
=Oxygen is carried attached to hemoglobin to be packed in cell.
=Biconcave disc shape gave a cell large surface area to volume rtio
for the exchange of oxygen across the cell membrane.
= Red blood cells are flexible they can fold and pass through
narrow bold capillaries. ]

3: Cells , tissues and organs :

- Cells with similar structure and function are grouped together as a
tissue.
- A collection of similar tissues ,working together to form a function
,is called an organ.
- Organs of animals include : lungs ,brain ,liver , heart, stomach
kidney etc.
- Plants organ include : leaves, stems, root, and flowers.

4: Organ system:
- In animals body functions are carried often carried out by several
organs working together . This is the organ system.
- Examples include :
(a) The digestive system consists of gut/alimentary canal made
up of organs such as stomach and intestines as well as
associated glands such as pancreas and liver.its overall
function is to digest food product and absorb the prosucts of
digestion into the blood .
(b) The respiratory system including the trachea and lungs had a
function of exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide b/w the air
and blood.
(c) The circulatory system ,made up of the heart and blood
vessels ,transport oxygen and other materials around the
body .
(d) The excretory system , including 5the kidneys and bladder
,remove the waste product from the blood .
(e) The nervous system ,consisting of the brain ,spinal cord and
nerves ,coordinates action in the body.
(f) The endocrine system,consisting of glands secreting chemical
messengers called hormones.
(g) The male and female reproductive systems. The male
reproductive system produces sperm and female system
produces eggs and allow the development of embryo.
INFORMATION NOT IN BOOK :
- Viruses are not made up of cells yet they are living things.
- Enzymes are biological catalysts ,every chemical reaction inside
lung living organism is catalyst by on enzymes.
- Cell wall gives shape and stop the plant from bursting.
- Chloroplast often contain starch grains in the way that plant
store excessive sugar that is needed later.
- Photosynthesis make sugar[it’s a kind of carbonhydrate]
- Water move up through xylem vessels cuz it is oulled by
transpiration from the leaves.
- Xylem vessels do not have any cytoplasm and nucleus.
- Haemoglobin is protein ,its molecules contain iron,that’s the
reason we need iron in our diet.
- An epidermis is a tissue that covers the surface of part of plant.

QUESTIONS:
(a) Name two structures visible through a light
microscope in both animal and plant cell?
(b) Name three structures present in a
photosynthetic cell from a leaf but not in
typical animal cell.
(c) State the function of cell nucleus .
(d) State the two ways that a root hair cell is
adapted for absorbing water .
(e) Explain why lignifications is important in
xylem vessels .
(f) What is haemoglobin? What is its role in the
blood?
(g) Give a definition of a tissue .
(h) Muscle can refer to a tissue or an organ .
Explain the difference between these terms
with reference to muscle.
(i) The substances below are found in cells.
Describe the nature,locationand role of each.
- Cellulose
- Chlorophyll
- Lignin
- Haemoglobin
(j) Briefly explain the function of digestive
system.
(k) Name three organs in the digestive system.
(l) Name two other human organ system.And
state the main function of the system and
name two organs that are part of the
system .
(m) Differ b/w animal and plant cell?