IGCSE/Olevels BIOLOGY

CHAPTER 1 : Cells
Cells are the building blocks of life. They are the simplest units that exhibit
characteristics of life.

What do cells do?

⮚ They take in raw materials
⮚ Process them to make substances
⮚ They are used by cells itself or transported
to other parts of body.

Fig2.1: Cell
Components of Cell /organelles

Fig2.4: Components of Cell

ANIMAL CELL

Cytoplasm

Nucleus
Cell Membrane

Mitochondria
 Cell
Membrane

• A cell membrane keeps all the parts of the cell inside.

• It controls what enters and exits the cell such as water,

nutrients and waste and thereby protects and supports the
cell.

• It is the outermost layer in the animal cell.

• Partially permeable (means it allows only selective

substances to enter or leave the cell)
 Cytoplasm

• Inside the cell, there is a large fluid-filled space called the

cytoplasm.
• It’s where the chemical reactions take place.

• It is a jelly-like substance composed of mainly water as well as

substances like dissolved nutrients.

• The cytoplasm fills up the space between the nucleus and the cell
membrane.
 Nucleus

• The nucleus is located in the cytoplasm of the cell.

• It controls and regulates all cell activities. It is the "control center" of

the cell and it contains the cell's
• Contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
• It has a similar function to the brain of the body which is helping to
control eating, movement, and reproduction.
 Mitochondria

• The mitochondria is located in the cytoplasm of the cell.

• The are known as the powerhouse of the cell and they produce the energy needed by
the cell.
• They are involved in respiration
.
• By respiration, they produce energy

• So they provides energy to cell to carry out is functions. Cells that are more active require
more mitochondria.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
This is a series of membranes folded to form channels.
Attached to the membranes are small bodies called ribosomes.
It is in these membrane channels that proteins are made.
 Let’s summarise:
Animal Cell - Functions
Nucleus control centre of the cell –
stores information for cell
functions
Cytoplasm jelly-like, where cell
activities take place
Cell membrane thin, controls the
substances that enter or
exit the cells
Power house of the cell, provides energy
Mitochondria to cell to carry out is functions
PLANT CELL
Chloroplast

Cytoplasm
Cell Wall

Nucleus

Cell Membrane
 • A cell membrane keeps all the
parts of the cell inside.

• It controls what enters and exits

the cell such as water, nutrients
and waste and thereby protects
Cell and supports the cell.
Membrane
• It is found just inside the cell
wall in the plant cell.
• The cell wall is found in plant cells but not in
animal cells.

• This is the outermost layer in the plant cell.

It is stiff and rigid and helps a plant keep its Cell
shape. Wall
• Cell wall is fully permeable

• Cell walls allow materials like water and

nutrients; waste, oxygen and carbon dioxide
to pass to and from the cell membrane.
 • Chloroplasts are only found in plant cells. They
are responsible for photosynthesis.

• Every green plant you see is working to convert

the energy from the sun into sugars during the
process of photosynthesis.
• Plants are the basis of all life on Earth. They
Chloroplast make sugars, and the by-product of
photosynthesis is the oxygen that we breathe.

• Chloroplasts are green because of the pigment

chlorophyll.
 • Inside the cell, there is a large fluid-
filled space called the cytoplasm.

• It is a jelly-like substance composed of

mainly water as well as substances like
dissolved nutrients.

• The cytoplasm is found in both plant

Cytoplasm and animal cells, filling the space
between the nucleus and the cell
membrane.
• The nucleus is found in both plant and
animal cells.

• It is located in the cytoplasm of the cell.

• It controls and regulates all cell

activities. It is the "control center" of Nucleus
the cell and it contains the cell's DNA. 

• It has a similar function to the brain of

the body which is helping to control
eating, movement, and reproduction.
 • Vacuole
⮚ Fluid-filled space enclosed by a
membrane.
⮚ Store substances within the cell
⮚ Animal cells have small vacuoles that
consist of water and food.
⮚ Plant cells have central large vacuole,
Vacuole called cell sap.
Let’s summarise:
Nucleus control centre of the cell – stores information for
cell functions
Chloroplasts contain green pigment chlorophyll, needed in
photosynthesis

Cytoplasm jelly-like, where cell activities take place

Cell membrane thin, controls the substances that enter or exit

the cells
Cell wall stiff wall which gives plant cells support and their
shape
Vacuole Fluid-filled space enclosed by a membrane. Store
substances within the cell
Animal cells have small vacuoles called vesicles
 ANIMAL VS PLANT CELL

Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell wall Present Cell wall Absent

Chloroplast Present Chloroplast Absent

Fixed shape No shape

A large central vacuole Vacuoles are small and many

Table 1: Animal and Plant Cells

ANIMAL VS PLANT CELL
DIFFERENTIATION
Specialised cells are those which have developed certain characteristics in order to
perform particular functions
Ciliated cells
1. Ciliated cells in respiratory tract

Features: tiny hairs called cilia which can move mucus.

Function: move mucus with bacteria and dust away from the lungs.
Root hair cell
Features: the hair gives a large surface area
Function: absorb water and mineral ions; anchor the plant firmly
in soil
Xylem Cell
Features: long, thin cells arranged end-to-end to form vessels (tubes).
The cells lack (do not contain) end wall and cell contents such as
cytoplasm and nucleus.
The walls become lignified (woody).
Palisade Mesophyll cell
Cells found in leaf of the plant. It has a lot of chloroplast.
Photosynthesis is mainly performed here it
Nerve Cell
Nerve cells are also called neurones. They are adapted to carry electrical
impulses from one place to another:
Sperm
A sperm cell consists of two parts, the head and the tail.
The overall structure of the sperm makes it perfectly designed to carry out its function.
The primary function of the sperm is to pass on the necessary genetic information required to
produce a new organism
Egg Cell
Egg cells, or ova, are the cells utilized by female organisms to reproduce
offspring.
 Red Blood Cells
•they contain haemoglobin - a
red protein that combines with
oxygen
•they have no nucleus so they
can contain more haemoglobin
Photomicrograph Onion Cells
⮚Cell – smallest fundamental
unit of structure and function
⮚Tissue – groups of similar
cells carrying out the same
function
⮚Organs – collections of
tissues based on common
functions
⮚Organ System – functionally
related organs
⮚Organisms – individual
living entities
Fig2.16: Levels of Organization
Summary
Stem Cells
• A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell of an organism that is capable
of dividing to produce many more cells of the same type
(undifferentiated stem cells)
• In addition, stem cells can also give rise to other cell types through
the process of differentiation
• The table below summarises different types of stem cells
• Embryonic stem cells are important as they help to form all of the different
tissues and organs needed during development to form a whole new individual
- they are totipotent
• The role of adult stem cells is predominantly to replace cells lost through
damage or to produce new cells for growth – although the bone marrow has to
continually make new blood cells throughout life
• In plants, meristem cells are unspecialised cells that can differentiate into the
cells needed by the plant in regions where growth is occurring
• For example, meristem cells in the roots can differentiate into root hair cells as well as
other cells required in this part of the plant
• The stem cells found in the meristems of plants retain the ability to differentiate into any
type of plant cell throughout the life of the plant
 ZYGOTE (first cell)

Stem Cells in Medicine Ball of cells (embryo)

• Modern scientific techniques mean that is possible to grow human

embryos in the lab and to extract embryonic stem cells from them
• These embryonic stem cells can then be encouraged to differentiate
into most types of specialised cell
• There is the potential for scientists and doctors to use stem cell
technology to repair damaged organs by growing new tissue from
stem cells
• The new tissue is produced by human embryos, using genetic information
from the patient
• Adult stem cells can also be cultured in the lab and made to
differentiate into specialised cells but of fewer types than embryonic
stem cells (predominantly cells of the blood)
• Stem cells could be used to cure many diseases in the future, such as
diabetes and paralysis
Stem Cell
Treatment
Table