Fundamental Unit of Life Cell Theory

The Fundamental Unit of Life
The body of all organisms is made up of very small units called cell.
A cell is capable of independent existence and can carry out all the functions which are necessary
for a living being. Unicellular organisms are capable of independent existence which shows a cell’s
capability to exist independently like in amoeba. Due to this, a cell is called the fundamental,
structural and functional unit of living organisms and basic unit of life.
Discovery of Cell and Cell Theory
Cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. He observed that just like honeycomb, organisms
are also composed of small compartments. He named these compartments as Cells.
Cell theory state that:
● All living organisms are composed of cells.

● Cell is the fundamental unit of life.
● All new cells come from pre-existing cells.
Shape and Size of Cells
Cells vary in shape and size. They may be oval, spherical, rectangular, spindle shaped, or totally
irregular like the nerve cell. The Size of cell also varies in different animals and plants. Most of the
cells are microscopic in size like red blood cells (RBC) while some cells are fairly large like nerve
cells. Average size of cells varies from 0.5 to 20.
Types of Cells:
The cells can be categorized in two types:
1. Prokaryotic Cell 2. Eukaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic cell
In some organisms, DNA and RNA (genetic substances) are bound by a membrane; this is termed
as true nucleus. Prokaryotic cells are cells in which true nucleus is absent. They are primitive and
incomplete cells. Prokaryotes are always unicellular organisms. Bacteria, blue green algae are
examples of
prokaryotes.
Eukaryotic Cell
Eukaryotic cells are cells in which true nucleus is present. They are advanced and complete cells.
Eukaryotes include all living organisms (both unicellular and multi-cellular organisms) except
bacteria and blue green algae.
Cell Structures
Cell is composed of some basic structures:
Plasma Membrane: Plasma membrane is the covering of the cell that separates the contents of the
cell from its external environment. It is a living part of the cell. It is very thin, delicate, elastic and
selectively permeable membrane. Plasma membrane is composed of lipid and protein.
Function:
As it is selectively permeable membrane, it allows the flow of limited substances in and out of the
cell.
Cell wall: Cell wall is non-living, thick and freely permeable covering made up of cellulose. Cell wall
is available in eukaryotic plant cells and in prokaryotic cells.
Functions:
● It determines the shape of the cell.
● It protects the plasma membrane.
● It prevents desiccation or dryness in cells.
● It helps in the transport of various substances in and out of the cell.
Protoplasm: It is a jelly-like, viscous, colourless semi-fluid substance in various cell organelles

present in colloidal form.
Protoplasm consists two parts: cytoplasm and nucleoplasm.
Cytoplasm is that part of protoplasm which surrounds the nucleus.
Nucleoplasm is that part of protoplasm which is located inside the nucleus.
Functions:
● Protoplasm acts as a store of vital chemicals like amino acids, proteins, sugars etc.
● It is the site of some metabolic reactions.
Golgi Body: Golgi body are also called Golgi Complex/ Golgi Apparatus. It is first discovered by
Camillo Golgi. It consists of membrane bound structures arranged parallel to each other.
Functions:
● Golgi bodies store, modify, package and dispatch the substances.

● They help in the formation of lysosomes.
Ribosomes: These are extremely small, dense and round bodies interspersed in the cytoplasm.
Ribosomes are made up of ribonucleic acid(RNA) and proteins. In prokaryotic cell, ribosomes are of
70 types. In eukaryotic cells, ribosomes are of 80 types. Ribosome is responsible for protein
synthesis.
Mitochondria: Mitochondria are small rod-shaped organelles. It is a double membrane structure.

Outer membrane is smooth whereas inner membrane is projected into numerous finger-like
structures; called cristae. Mitochondria contain their own DNA and ribosomes.
Functions:
● They provide energy for the vital activities of living cells.

● They store energy releases during reactions, in the form of ATP (Energy currency of the cell).
Therefore it is also called power house of the cell.
Centrosome and Centrioles:
Centrosome is found only in eukaryotic animal cells. It is not bounded by any membrane but consists
of centrioles. Centrioles are hollow cylindrical structures arranged at right angle to each other and
made up of microtubules.
Centrioles help in cell division and also help in the formation of cilia and flagella.
Plastids: Plastids are present in most of the plant cells and absent in animals cells. They are usually
spherical or discoidal in shaped. These are double membrane bound organelles. Plastids also have
its own DNA and ribosomes.
Plastids are of three types:
1. Chloroplasts: Green coloured plastids containing chlorophyll. Chloroplasts manufacture

food by the process of photosynthesis.
2. Chromoplasts: Colourful plastids. They provide colour to flowers and fruits.
3. Leucoplasts: Colourless plastids. They help in the storage of various substances like starch,
proteins and fats.
Lysosomes: Lysosomes are formed by golgi bodies. They are small, spherical, sac like structures
which contain several digestive enzymes enclosed in a membrane. They are found in eukaryotic
cells mostly in animals.
Functions:
● Lisosomes help in digestion of foreign substances and worn-out cell organelles.

● They provide protection against bacteria and virus.
● They help to keep the cell clean.
● During the disturbance in cellular metabolism, for eg; when the gets damaged, lysosomes
may burst and the enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as
suicide bags of a cell.
Vacuoles: Vacuoles are liquid / solid filled in a membrane. In plant cells, vacuoles are large and
permanent. In animal cells, vacuoles are small in size and temporary. In mature plant cell, it occupies
90% space of cell volume. Due to its size, other organelles including nucleus shift towards plasma
membrane.
Endoplasmic Reticulum: It is a network of tube like structures from nuclear membrane to plasma
membrane. It is absent in prokaryotic cells and matured RBCs of mammals.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum:
1. Rough ER: In rough endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes are present on the surface.
2. Smooth ER: Ribosomes are absent.
Functions:
● It gives internal support to cell.

● It helps in transport of various substances from nuclear membrane to plasma membrane or
vice versa.
● It helps in the formation of plasma membrane and golgi bodies.
● Rough ER helps in synthesis and transportation of proteins.
● Smooth ER helps in synthesis and transport of lipids.
Nucleus: Nucleus is dense and spherical organelle. Nucleus is bounded by two membranes, both
forming nuclear envelope. Nuclear envelope contains many pores known as nuclear pores. The fluid
which is inside the nucleus is called nucleoplasm. Nucleus contains chromosomes and
chromosomes contain genes which are the carriers of genetic information.
Functions:
● Nucleus controls all the metabolic activities of cell.

● Nucleus is the storehouse of genes. Without nucleus, cell can neither survive nor shows
specialized activities.
Transport of Substances through Plasma Membrane
Substance can pass through plasma membrane by two processes: Diffusion and Osmosis.
Diffusion: It is the process of movement of substances from its high concentration to low
concentration.
During the respiration, carbon dioxide is given out a waste product and accumulates in higher
concentration inside the cell compared to outside. Due to the difference in concentration inside and
outside the cell, CO2 start moving out of the cell.
Osmosis: It is the process of movement of water from its high concentration to its low concentration
through semi-permeable membrane.
● If the medium surrounding the cell has higher water concentration than in cell, cell will gain
water by osmosis. Such dilute solution is called Hypotonic solution. Though water
molecules pass across plasma membrane in both sides but more water will enter inside the
cell. The cell is therefore, swell up and increase in volume. This process is called
Endosmosis.
● If the medium surrounding the cell is exactly the same water concentration as inside the cell,
there will no net movement of water across membrane resulting in no change in size of cell.
Such solution is called Isotonic solution.
● If the medium surrounding the cell has lower water concentration than inside the cell, the cell
will lose water through osmosis. Such concentrated solution is called Hypertonic solution.
The cell will therefore, shrink and reduce in volume. This process is known as Exosmosis.
Tissues
Tissue is a group of cells that work together to perform a particular function.
Division of Labour / Cell Specializing
In simple organisms, all body functions are done by the single cell itself like Amoeba. But in complex
organisms (like in human, plants etc.), different groups of cells perform different functions.
As different groups of cells or tissues are specialized in doing different job, any work is done much
more efficiently compared to unicellular organism.
Tissues are mainly classified in two types:
1. Plant Tissues 2. Animal Tissues
Plant Tissues
Meristematic Tissue (Meristem)
Meristematic tissues are responsible for growth in plants. Cells in these tissues can divide and form
new cells.
Meristematic tissues are of three types:
1. Apical Meristem: Present at tip of stem & roots. It is responsible for growth in length.
2. Lateral Meristem (Cambium): Present beneath bark. It is responsible for growth in girth of
trunk.
3. Intercalary Meristem: Present in nodes of leaves & stem.
Properties of cells of meristem:
● Cells of meristematic tissues are very active and work faster.

● They do not have vacuoles.
Experiment:
● Take 2 onions in jars as shown.

● Observe the growth of roots for 5 days.
● Cut the tips of the roots of onion in jar 2.
● Observe the growth of roots for next few days.
● Roots in jar 2 stop growing.
When tip of roots are cut, apical meristem present there is lost. So no further growth happens.
Permanent Tissue
Cells of meristematic tissues change their shape & size to get specialised in performing other
functions in plants body. This process is called Differentiation.
Cells of meristematic tissues differentiate to form different types of permanent tissues.
Permanent tissues are of two types:
1. Simple Tissues: This type of tissue is composed of same type of cells.

2. Complex Tissues: Group of different type of cells performing common task together.
Simple Tissues
1. Parenchyma simple tissues: Cells of parenchyma tissues are live. They are oval,
elongated and loosely packed with large inter-cellular space. Cells of parenchyma have
small nucleus, large vacuole and thin cell wall. These tissues are found throughout the plant.
Function:
● Supports plant body.

● Stores food and nutrients in vacuoles.
● Sometimes contain chlorophyll and thus perform photosynthesis. Such parenchyma tissues
are called chlorenchyma.
● In aquatic plants, cells of parenchyma have large air cavities which allow plants to flood.
Such parenchyma tissues are called aerenchyma.
1. Collenchyma Simple Tissues: Cells of collenchyma are live. They are oval and elongated
and tightly packed with no inter-cellular spaces. Cells of collenchymas have small nucleus,
large vacuoles and have thin cell wall but thick at corners. Collenchyma tissues are found
below epidermis in leaves and stem.
Function:
● Provides mechanical support to plant.

● Provides flexibility to plants so that they can bend without breaking.
1. Sclerenchyma Simple Tissues: Cells of sclerenchyma are dead. They are narrow and
elongated. The cell wall in sclerenchyma is thick and hard. Lignin is a chemical substance
which hardens the cell wall. These types of tissues are found around vascular bundles, veins
of leaves in hard covering of seeds and nuts. For example; scalerenchyma tissues are found
in coconut husk.
Function:
● Makes parts of plant hard and stiff.

● Provides strength.
1. Epidermis Simple Tissues: Epidermis tissue covers the entire body of plant. Cells in
epidermis are similar in structure to parenchyma (loosely) but are tightly packed. They
protect plant from injury, germs and water loss. They have generally one layer of cell.
Stomata are small openings on epidermal layer of leaf and soft part of stem. A stomata is a
composed of two guard cells which regulate the opening and closing of stoma. Stomata present in
epidermis allow gaseous exchange and transpiration in plants.
In desert plants, epidermis and cutin (a water proof waxy substance secreted by epidermis) are
thicker so water loss is further reduced.
1. Cork Simple Tissues: These types of tissue consist of dead cells with no intercellular
space. They form the outer layer of old tree trucks. Cells in cork contain subenin (a chemical
substance). Due to this cork can’t be penetrated by gases and water. Cork tissue protects
plant from injuries, germs and water loss.
Cork is light so it is used commercially for making several products like bottle stoppers, shuttle cork.
Complex Tissues
Complex tissues are of two types:
1. Xylem b. Phloem
Xylem: Xylem is the tissue that transports water and nutrients from root to upper parts of plant. It is
composed of four types of cells i.e. vessel, tracheid, xylem parenchyma and xylem sclerenchyma
(fibre).
Vessel is a pipe like structure. Vessels are dead and have lignified thick cell wall. Upper and lower
portion of cell wall is absent.
Trachieds are long elongated cells with tapered ending. Trachied cells are dead. Trachied transports
water through pits.
Parenchymas are living cells. They store food and nutrients.
Sclerenchymas (fibres) are dead cells. They provide mechanical support to plant.
Phloem: Phloem is the tissue that transports food from site of photosynthesis to different parts of
plants. It is composed of four types of cell i.e. sieve cells, companion cells, phloem parenchyma,
phloem fibre or blast fibre. All types of cells are live except phoem fibres.
Sieve cells are elongated and have thin cell wall. They have cytoplasm but do not have nucleus and
other organs. These cells are responsible for transportation of food and nutrients.
Companion cells have cytoplasm, nucleus and other organelles. They perform the tasks required
for sieve cells for living.
Phloem parenchyma store food.

Phloem fibres have thick cell wall and they provide mechanical support to plant.
Experimental Study of Stem
● Cut stem into thin slices.

● Stain them with safranin (chemical).
● Pick a nicely cut slice and put on slid.
● Put a drop of glycerine on slid.
● Observe under microscope.
You will see a microscopic view of stem.
Experimental Study of Epidermis
● Stretch a freshly cut leaf and break it from middle by applying pressure.
● The outermost layer of leaf will come out as a peel or skin called epidermis.
● Gently get in off and strain with safranin.
● Then put it on slid and observe under microscope.
Animal Tissue
Animal tissues are of four types:
1. Muscular tissue
2. Nervous tissue
3. Connective tissue
4. Epithelial tissue
Muscular Tissue
Muscular tissue is composed of elongated cells called muscle fibres. This tissue allows movement in
body by contraction and relaxation. It contains special contractile protein which contract and relax to
cause movement.
Muscular tissues are of three types:
Smooth: The cells of smooth muscles are spindle shaped and each has one nucleus (c. Smooth
muscle is found in those organs where involuntary movement is possible, e.g. muscles in stomach.
They move automatically.
Cardiac: The cells of cardiac muscles are in the form of branched fibres. These are found in the
heart. Cardiac muscles have many nucleus and striations are present in these muscles. Cardiac
muscles can move continuously throughout the life in rhythmic pattern.
Striated (Skeletal): The cells of striated muscles are in the form of long, unbranched fibres. They
have multi nucleus. Striations are present on muscle fibres. Striated muscles are found in those
organs where voluntary movement is possible, e.g. hands, legs, back, neck, etc.
Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue makes the nervous system and is composed of specialized cells called neuron. A
neuron consists of a cell body (cyton) with a nucleus and cytoplasm from which numerous hair like
structures arise called dendrites. One long extension is called Axon. Neurons are connected end to
end to form nerves through connective tissue. Nervous tissues are found in brain, spinal cord and
nerves.
Functions:
● They give us ability to respond to stimuli.

● They transmit information from body parts to brain.
● They transmit orders from brain to body parts.
● Nervous and muscular tissue together control body movement in all animals.
Connective Tissue
Connective tissues contain cells in a matrix. Matrix is a chemical substance in solid, liquid or jelly
form. Connective tissues are of various types:
1. Bones: Cells in bone are embedded in matrix of calcium and phosphate compounds. Bones
form framework of body. They facilitate movement of muscles. Bones are hard and inflexible
and they have blood vessels.
2. Cartilages: They are soft tissues found in ear, nose, trachea, larynx and between bone
joints. Cartilage smoothens the bone joints. They have wide spread cells in solid matrix of
proteins and sugars. They do not have blood vessels.
3. Tendons: Tendon is made up of white fibres. They connect bones to muscles.
4. Ligament: Ligament is made up of white and yellow fibre. It connects bone to bone. It is
more flexible compared to tendon.
5. Areolar: It consists of cells and fibres in matrix. It is found between skin and underlying
muscles, around blood vessels, around nerves and bone marrow. Areolar tissue is strong
enough to bind different types of tissues and soft enough to maintain flexibility. It fills space
inside internal organs and supports them.
6. Adipose: It stores fat below the skin and between internal organs. When present in excess,
results in obesity. It provides cushioning to internal organs and gives shape to body parts like
limbs, breasts. Adipose acts as insulator and protects from cold.
7. Blood: Blood is a fluid composed of blood cells, platelets and plasma (liquid matrix). It flows
throughout the body and transports various materials like gases, digested food, waste
material and hormones. Blood plasma contains two types of blood cells: Red Blood Cells
(RBC) and White blood cells (WBC).
8. Lymph (Liquid): Lymph is a whitish fluid obtained from blood itself. It contains blood plasma,
WBC, platelets but no RBC. Lymph transports food materials, waste materials and gases
which blood cannot transfer.
Epithelial Tissue (Epithelium)
Skin which covers and protects all our body is epithelium. Other occurrences of epithelium are inner
lining of mouth, linings of blood vessels, covering of other organs and cavities in body. Cells in
epithelial tissue are tightly packed with no intercellular space. They are separated from other tissues
by fibrous basement membrane.
Functions:
● It protects the organs which it covers.

● It keeps different organs separate.
● Epithelium forms a selectively permeable layer over body and other organs.
● It allows certain substances to pass through and stops others.
● In certain cases, it secretes and acts as glands.
Types of Epithelial Tissue:
Squamous: It consists of thin, flat disc like polygonal or irregular-shaped cells with round and flat
nucleus. They form lining of nose, pericardial cavity, blood vessels etc. They protect the underlying
parts of body from mechanical injury. It prevents the entry of germs inside the body. It facilitates
diffusion of gases.
Cuboidal: It consists of cube like cells of almost equal height and width. Cuboidal tissue are found in
kidney tubules, salivary glands etc. They provide mechanical support to organs and help in
absorption and excretion.
Columnar: It consists of tall, cylindrical cells. The free end of the cells consists of figure-like
projections. Columnar tissues are found in the inner surface of stomach, intestine etc. Columnar
helps in absorption of nutrients, secretion of gastric juices and provides mechanical support to the
organs.
Glandular Epithelium: Glandular epithelium tissues are tissues that form multi-cellular glands which
produce chemical.
Diversity in Living Organisms : Chapter
Notes
Biodiversity or biological diversity means the variety of living organisms

present on a particular region. There are about 20 lac organisms known on the Earth
which differ from one another in external form, internal structure, mode of nutrition,
habitat, etc.
The warm and humid tropical regions of the Earth between the tropic of Cancer and
the tropic of Capricorn have a rich diversity of life, i.e. plants, animals, and
microorganisms and are called the region of mega biodiversity. India is one of the 12
countries which consist of more than half of the biodiversity of the Earth.
Taxonomy - It is a branch of biology which deals with identification, nomenclature,

and classification of organisms. Carolus Linnaeus is called the father of taxonomy.
Classification
The method of arranging organisms into groups or sets on the basis of similarities and
differences is called classification.
Importance of classification:
● It makes the study of wide variety of organisms easy and in systematic manner.
● It helps to understand how the different organisms have evolved with time.
● It helps to understand the inter-relationships among different groups of
organisms.
● It forms a base for the study of other biological sciences, like biogeography.
Basis of classification:
There are the certain features or properties used for the classification of living
organisms which are known as characteristics. Organisms with same characteristics
are placed in same groups.
Classification system
1. Two kingdom classifications: Carolus Linnaeus in 1758 classified the living

organisms into two groups as plants and animals.
2. Five kingdom classification: H. Whittaker in 1959 further classified the organisms

into five kingdoms as Kingdom Monera, Kingdom Protista, Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom
Plantae, and kingdom Animalia.
Note - Carl Woese in 1977 further divided kingdom Monera into archaebacteria (or
Archae) and Eubacteria (or Bacteria).
Hierarchy of classification
Linnaeus proposed a classification system by arranging organisms into taxonomic

groups at different levels according to the characteristics they have. The groups or
the levels from top to bottom are:
1. Kingdom
2. Phylum(Animals) / Division(Plants)
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genius
7. Species
Species: A species is a group of living beings which can reproduce among themselves
and keep their population alive.
Hierarchical naming of Human
The Five kingdom classification

The major characteristics considered for classifying all organisms into
five major kingdoms are:
1. Type of cellular organization -
a) Prokaryotic cells: These are primitive and incomplete cells without well – defined
nucleus.
b) Eukaryotic cells: These are advanced and complete cells with well – defined
nucleus.
2. Body organization -
a) Unicellular organisms: These are organisms made up of single cell with all activities
performed by the single cell.
b) Multicellular organisms: These are organisms made up of large number of cells with
different functions performed by different cells.
3. Mode of obtaining food -
a) Autotrophs: These are the organisms that make their own food by photosynthesis.
b) Heterotrophs: These are the organisms which depend on other organisms for food.
Nomenclature - An organism can have different names in different languages. This

creates confusion in naming organism. So, a scientific name is needed which is same
in all languages. Binomial nomenclature system given by Carolus Linnaeus is used for
naming different organisms.
Following are some conventions in writing the scientific names:
● Genus should be written followed by the species.

● First letter of the genus should be capital and that of the species should be in
small letter.
● When printed the name should be written in italics and when written with
hands genus and species should be underlined separately.
Example – Homo sapiens for humans, Panthera tigris for tiger.
Kingdom 1: Monera
Following are its basic features:
● Prokaryotic, Unicellular.
● Can be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
● May or may not have cell wall.
● Examples- Anabaena and Bacteria (heterotrophic), Cyano-bacteria or Blue
green algae (autotrophic).
Kingdom 2 : Protista
● Eukaryotic, Unicellular.
● Can be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
● May have cilia, flagella or pseudopodia for locomotion.
● Examples: plants like- Unicellular algae, Diatoms; animals like- protozoans
(Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena); fungi like- slime molds and water molds.
Kingdom 3: Fungi
● Eukaryotic
● Mostly multicellular but sometimes unicellular(yeast)
● Source of food:
a) Mostly saprophytes - these organisms use decaying material for food.
b) Some parasitic - these organisms live inside body of other living organism to have
food and can be disease causing.
c) Symbiotic relation - these are relations between two organisms in which they live
together for benefit of one or both. Lichens are a symbiotic relation between fungi
and cyanobacteria. Here fungi gets food from cyanobacteria and in return
cyanobacteria gets water and protection from sunlight through fungi.
● Cell wall is made of chitin

● Examples-mushrooms(Agaricus), green mold(Penicillium), smut(Aspergilus)
Kingdom 4: Plantae
● Eukaryotic, Multicellular
● Autotrophs
● Cell wall present
Basis of division in Kingdom Plantae
1. Differentiated body parts: Body is differentiated into leaves, stems, roots, flower,
etc.
2. Presence of vascular tissue: There are two types of vascular tissues present in the
plants:
● Xylem: helps in transport of water.

● Phloem: helps in transport of food.
3. Reproduction through seeds or spores:

● Phanerogamae: Plants with seeds are called phanerogamae. They contains
embryo with stored food and are multicellular.
● Cryptogamae: Plants with spores are called cryptogamae. They contains only
naked embryo and are generally unicellular.
4. Seeds are inside the fruit or naked:
● Angiospermae - these are plants with seeds inside the fruit and bears flowers.
● Gymnospermae - these are plants with naked seeds and do not bear flowers.
Note - If xylem and phloem are absent the plants would be small as transport of food
and water will be difficult.
Division 1: Thallophta
● Basic and elementary plants with undifferentiated body parts.

● Generally called algae.
● No vascular tissue present.
● Reproduce through spores.
● Mainly found in water.
● Example- Ulva, Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora, Chara.
Division 2:
Bryophyte

● Body structure differentiated but not fully developed.
● No vascular tissues present.
● Reproduce through spores.
● Found on both land and water therefore known as ‘Amphibians of Plantae
kingdom’.
● Example - liverwort(Marchantia, Riccia), mosses(Funaria), hornwort
(dendrocerous).
Division 3: Pteridophyta
● Differentiated body structure- leaves, stems, roots,etc.

● Vascular tissues present.
● Reproduce through spores
● Examples- Marsilea, fern, horsetails
Division 4: Gymnosperms
● Differentiated body parts

● Vascular tissues
● Naked seeds without fruits or flowers
● Perennial, evergreen and woody
● Examples- Pines(deodar), Cycus, Ginkgo.
Division 5: Angiosperms
● Also known as Flower - bearing plants.

● Later on flower becomes fruit.
● Seeds are inside the fruit.
● Embryos in seeds have structure called They are also called seed leaves
because in many plants they emerge and become green when they germinate.
Angiosperms are further divided on the basis of number of cotyledons into two parts:
Kingdom 5: Animalia
Basis of classification of Animalia kingdom:
1. Symmetry:
i) Bilateral symmetry: it is when an organism can be divided into right and left halves,
identical but mirror images, by a single vertical plane.
ii) Radial symmetry: it is when an organism is equally spaced around a central point,
like spokes on a bicycle wheel.
2. Germ layers : in embryonic stages there are different layers of cells called germ
cells. The three different types of germ cells are -
● Ectoderm – It is the outermost layer which forms nail, hair, epidermis, etc.
● Endoderm - It is the innermost layer which forms stomach, colon, urinary
bladder, etc.
● Mesoderm – It is the middle layer between ectoderm and endoderm which
forms bones, cartilage, etc.
So, according to the number of germ layers present in embryonic stage, animal could
be:
i) Diploblastic - organisms which derived from two embryonic germ layers (ecto and
endo).
ii) Triploblastic - organisms which derived from all the three embryonic germ layers.
3. Coelom: Body cavity or coelom is important for proper functioning of various

organs. For example, heart which has to contract and expand needs some cavity or
empty space, which is provided by the coelom.
On the basis of presence or absence of coelom, organisms are divided into:
i) Acoelomates - these are the simple organisms having no body cavity.
ii) Coelomates - these are complex organisms having true cavity lined by mesoderm
from all sides. These are further subdivided into schizocoelomates or
protostomes(coelom formed due to splitting of mesoderm) and enterocoelomates or
dueterostomes( coelom formed from pouches pinched off from endoderm)
iii) Pseudo coelomate - these are organisms having false coelom. They have pouches
of mesoderm scattered between endoderm and ectoderm.
4. Notochord: it is a long rod like structure, which runs along the body between
nervous tissues and gut and provides place for muscle to attach for ease of
movement.
Organisms could be:
● Without notochord
● With Notochord
● With Notochord in initial embryonic stages and vertebral column in adult
phase.
Phylum 1: Porifera or sponges
● Cellular level of organization.

● Non motile animals.
● Holes on body which led to a canal system for circulation of water and food.
● Hard outside layer called as skeletons.
● Examples - Sycon, Spongilla, Euplectelia.
Phylum 2: Coelenterata

● Tissue level of organization
● No coelom
● Radial symmetry, Diploblastic
● Hollow gut
● Can move from one place to another.
● Examples: hydra, sea anemone, jelly fish( solitary) ; corals (colonies)
Phylum 3: Ctenophores
● Tissue level of organization

● No coelom present
● Radial symmetry, Diploblastic
● Have Comb plates for locomotion
● Aquatic
● Examples- Pleurobrachia
Phylum 4: Platyhelminthes
● Also called flat worms.

● No coelom present
● Bilateral symmetry, Triploblastic
● Free living or parasite
● Digestive cavity has one opening for both ingestion and egestion.
● Example - Planaria (free living), Liver fluke (parasitic).
Phylum 5: Nematode
● False coelom
● Cylindrical
● Many are parasitic worms living inside human body, and can cause various
diseases, like Filarial worm causes elephantiasis, Round worms and Pin worms
live in human intestine.
● Example - Ascaris, Wulchereria.
Phylum 6: Mollusca
● Coelom present
● Triploblastic, bilateral symmetry
● Soft bodies sometimes covered with shell
● Generally not segmented
● No appendages present
● Muscular foot for movement
● Shell is present
● Kidney like organ for excretion
● Examples - Chiton, Octopus, Pila, Unio.
Phylum 7: Annelida
● Second largest phylum

● Coelom present
● Bilateral, triploblastic
● Segmented ( segments specialized for different functions)
● Water or land
● Extensive Organ differentiation
● Examples - Earthworm, Leech, Nereis
Phylum 8: Arthropoda
Following are the basic features:
● Largest phylum (consist of 80%of species)

● Generally known as insects.
● Coelom present
● Bilateral, triploblastic
● Segmented, sometimes fused
● Tough exo-skeleton of chitin
● Joint appendages like feet, antenna
● Example- Prawn, Scorpio, Cockroach, Housefly, Butterfly, Spider,
Phylum 9: Echinodermata
● Spiny skin, Marine

● No notochord
● Coelom present , bilateral symmetry, triploblastic
● Endoskeleton of calcium carbonate.
● Water vascular system for locomotion.
● Bilateral symmetry before birth and radial symmetry after birth.
● Example- Antedon, Sea cucumber, Star fish, Echinus.
Phylum 10: Hemichordata
● Small group of marine animals

● Cylindrical, Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic
● Coelom present
● Gills for respiration
● Examples - Balanoglossus
Phylum 11: Chordata

● Coelom present
● Notochord
● Gills present at some phase of life.
● Dorsal nerve chord
● Post anal tail present at some stage of life, For example, present in humans in
embryonic stages.
● Subdivided into two
(a) Prochordata -
● Notochord at some stage of life

● Marine
● Example- Herdemania, Amphioxus,
(b) Vertebrata -
● Notochord converted to vertebral column

● 2,3,4 chambered heart
● Organs like kidney for excretion
● Pair appendages
● Example- humans(4 chambered), frog(3 chambered), fishes(2 chambered)
Vertebrates are divided into five classes namely Pisces, Amphibia, Reptillia, Aves and
Mammalia.
Following are some common features of the five classes of

vertebrates:
Note -
● Warm blooded organism: these are organisms which maintain same body
temperature irrespective of outside temperature. Example – humans. Human’s
body temperature is approximately 370.
● Cold blooded organisms: these are organisms which changes their body
temperature as per surrounding temperature. Example – frog
● Fishes are divided into two on the basis of skeleton:
i) Fishes with bony skeleton called bony fishes. Example- Tuna.
ii) Fishes with cartilage skeleton called Cartilaginous fishes. Example – Shark
Classification and evolution
Evolution is a process by which a new species is developed from an old species with
gradual changes. Charles Darwin first described this idea of evolution in his book ‘The
Origin of species’ in the year 1839.
More complex organisms develop from the simpler organisms. The older, simpler
organisms are called primitive or lower organisms while the younger, complex
organisms are called advanced or higher organisms.
Evolution and classification is somehow related, as classification of organism is done

considering how evolution has occurred. While organisms classified in same group are
likely to have evolved in similar ways.
Why Do We Fall ill?
The human body can be compared to a car. Both have different parts and some problem or other
keeps erupting. The human body is a complex machine.
We have seen that cells are the basic units of living beings. Cells are made of a variety of chemical
substances — proteins, carbohydrates, fats or lipids, and so on. A living cell is a dynamic place.
Something or the other is always happening. Cells move from place to place, even in cells that do
not move, there is the repair going on, New cells are being made. In our organs or tissues, there are
various specialized activities going on — the heart is beating, the lungs are breathing, the kidney is
filtering urine, the brain is thinking. All these activities are interconnected. Any disturbance in the
functioning of cells in one part disturbs the proper functioning of the body as a whole.
•Heath’ is a state of being well enough to function well physically, mentally and socially. Not merely
an absence of any disease.
Good health constitutes a healthy box will a healthy mind and a healthy attitude.
If health means a state of physical, mental and social well-being, it cannot be something that each
one of us can achieve entirely on our own. The health of all organisms will depend on their
surroundings or their environment.
The health of an individual depends on:
1. Physical environment - By physical environment we mean the physical ccharacteristics of the

place we live in. for example, health is at risk in a cyclone in many ways.
2. Social environment - Human beings live in societies. Our social environment, therefore, is an
important factor in our individual health. We live in villages, towns or cities. In such places,
even our physical environment is decided by our social environment. e.g., if there is a great
deal of garbage thrown in our streets, or if there is open drain water lying stagnant around
where we live, the possibility of poor health increases. Therefore, public cleanliness is
important for individual health
3. Mental state of the individual- For good health we have to be happy, social
equality and harmony are essential.
1. Economic conditions - We need food for health, and this food will have to be earned by doing
work, For this, the opportunity to do work has to be available. Good economic conditions and
jobs are therefore needed for individual health,
2. Social equality and harmony are therefore necessary for individual health.
Both personal as well as the community in which Individual lives directly affect the health of an
individual.
1. Personal- Issues that we can do as an individual. E.g., good hygiene, clean toilets, washing
hands regularly, nutritious diet.
2. Community - Issues that can be handled when we work as a society. e.g., garbage on
streets, cleaning of drains on roads, good job must be available so that people can afford
good food, harmony around us.
Therefore, our health depends not only on our own habits but also on the environment around us.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN 'HEALTHY' AND 'DISEASE-FREE'
Disease-Anything which interferes with the normal functioning of the body and impairs the health is
called disease.
Disease means disturbed ease. Disease, in other words, literally means being uncomfortable. We
talk of disease when we can find a specific and particular cause for discomfort. This does not mean
that we have to know the absolute final cause; we can say that someone is suffering from diarrhea
without knowing exactly what has caused the loose motions.
it is possible to be in poor health without actually suffering from a particular disease. Having poor
health actually increases the risk that the person may suffer from some disease, Simply not being
diseased is not the same as being healthy, So, we can be in poor health without there being a simple
cause in the form of an identifiable disease, This is the reason why, when we think about health, we
think about societies and communities. On the other hand, when we think about disease, we think
about individual sufferers.
WHAT DOES DISEASE LOOK LIKE?
When a person is affected by a disease, either the normal functioning or the appearance of one or
more systems of the body changes for the worse, These changes give rise to symptoms and signs
of the disease.
Symptoms of disease are the things we feel as being ‘wrong’. So we have a headache, we have
cough, we have loose motions, we have a wound with pus; these are all symptoms. These indicate
that there may be a disease, but they don’t indicate what the disease is.
Sign of disease are what physicians will look for on the basis of the symptoms. Signs will give a little
more definite indication of the presence of a particular disease. Physicians will also get laboratory
tests done to pinpoint the disease further.
Cause of disease:
Cause of a disease can be divided into two types namely-
1. External cause
2. Internal cause
External Cause- Diseases caused due to external factors like microbes e.g., bacteria, protozoa,
worms etc present outside our body.
Internal Cause- Disease caused due to internal factors like lack of exercise (high Blood pressure),
Obesity(overeating}, Genetic diseases, since birth (blindness), Failure of some organs(heart, kidney
Etc)
Immediate cause of the disease: The agent that causes the disease is called the immediate
cause. For e.g., if a baby suffering from loose motions, we can say that the cause of the loose
motions is an infection with a virus. So the immediate cause of the disease is a virus.
Contaminated water is the source of the baby's infection.
The baby is not well nourished and does not get enough food. So, lack of good nourishment
becomes a second level cause of the disease the baby is suffering from.
Poverty or lack of public services become third—level causes of the baby’s disease
It is also possible that the baby has some genetic difference that makes it more likely to suffer from
loose motions when exposed to such a virus. Without the virus, the genetic difference or the poor
nourishment alone would not lead to loose motions. But they do become contributory causes of the
disease
Contributory causes include causes that contribute to the immediate cause to be able to cause the
disease, e.g. Genetic difference or poor nourishment.
Types of diseases:
Classification is based on duration:
(i) Acute disease are the diseases that last only for a short duration of time without posing adverse
effects on the health. E.g. cough and cold, typhoid, malaria, cholera.
(ii) Chronic diseases are the diseases that last for prolonged period of time with drastic effects on
health. E.g. Diabetes, tuberculosis, elephantiasis, arthritis and cancer etc
Diseases are also classified Based on cause:
Infectious diseases - Infectious diseases are diseases that are caused by some living organisms. A
disease is called infectious if its immediate cause is microbes. These diseases spread to people
coming in contact with a sick person because the microbes can spread in the community, and the
diseases they cause will spread with them. E.g., Tuberculosis
Non-infectious diseases or non-communicable diseases- Non-infectious are diseases that are

not caused by infectious agents. Their causes vary, but they are not external causes like microbes
that can spread in the community. Instead, these are mostly internal, non-infectious causes. They do
not spread to people coming in contact with a sick person. For example, some cancers are caused
by genetic abnormalities. High blood pressure can be caused by excessive weight and lack of
exercise.
Agents of infectious diseases:
There are a vast category of infectious agents that cause infectious diseases. The unicellular
infectious agents include bacteria, virus and protozoa. The multi cellular infectious agents are fungi
and worms. These microbes enter our body through natural openings such as the mouth, eyes, or
genital openings, or through wounds that breach the skin barrier to pathogens and disturb our body
functions/systems.
Group of organisms Diseases Caused
Bacteria Typhoid, Cholera, Asthma, peptic
ulcer. Tuberculosis
Fungi Skin diseases

Protozoan Malaria, Kala azar, sleeping
sickness
Common cold, influenza, fever, AIDS
Worms Elephantiasis, stomach infections
Means of spread of agents
Many microbial agents can commonly move from an affected person to someone else in a variety of
ways,
1. Through air - e.g., common cold is caused by virus. Infectious disease-causing

microbes can spread through the air. This occurs through the little droplets thrown
out by an infected person who sneezes or coughs, Someone standing close by can
breathe in these droplets, and the microbes get a chance to start a new infection.
Such types of diseases are called airborne diseases. The more crowded our living
conditions are, the more likely it is that such airborne diseases will spread. Examples
of such diseases spread through the air are the common cold, pneumonia and
tuberculosis,
ii Through water - Diseases can also be spread through water. This occurs if the excreta from
someone suffering from an infectious gut disease, such as cholera. get mixed with the drinking water
used by people living nearby. The cholera causing microbes will enter new hosts through the water
they drink
and cause disease in them. Such types of diseases are called water- borne diseases. Water-borne
diseases are much more likely to spread in the absence of safe supplies of drinking water E.g.
Typhoid.
iii) Through Sexual contact - The sexual act is one of the closest physical contact two people can
have with each other. Other than the sexual contact, the AIDS virus can also spread through
blood-to-blood contact with infected people or from an infected mother to her baby during pregnancy
or through breast feeding. However, sexually transmitted diseases are not spread by casual physical
contact. Casual physical contacts include handshakes or hugs or sports, like wrestling, or by any of
the other ways in which we touch each other Socially. E.g. Microbial diseases such as syphilis or
AIDS that are transmitted by sexual contact from one partner to the other.
(iv) Through other creatures - Many diseases are be transmitted by other animals.
These animals carry the infecting agents from a sick person to another potential
host, These animals are thus the intermediaries and are called vectors,
A vector in any organism that carries and transmits an infectious agent into another organisms. The
commonest vectors we all know are mosquitoes. In many species of mosquitoes, the females need
highly nutritious food in the form of blood in order to be able to lay mature eggs. Mosquitoes feed on
many warm-blooded animals, including us. In this way, they can transfer diseases from person to
person. E.g., malaria, dengue, Japanese encephalitis. Other vectors are Rats (plague), flies
(Cholera, dysentery etc).
WHY DO WE FALL ILL
Protection against agents: Immune system
Multi cellular animals have dedicated cells or tissues to deal with the threat of infection. Some of
these responses happen immediately so that an infecting agent can be quickly contained. Other
responses are slower hut are more tailored to the infecting agent. Collectively, these protections are
known as the Immune system.
Immune system is a system that is present in our body that protects us from disease. Immune
system in our body is activated in response to an infection. Infection occurs when a pathogen
invades body cells and reproduces. The immune system functions to attack the foreign invaders and
protect the body. An active immune system recruits many cells to the affected tissue to kill off the
disease-causing microbes. This recruitment process is called inflammation. Inflammation is the
protective attempt of the immune
system to protect us from a disease. As a part of inflammation, there are local effects such as
swelling and pain, and general effects such as fever.
If the response is quick and effective, the infection will be eliminated or contained so quickly that the
disease will not occur. Sometimes infection leads to disease. Disease can occur when immunity is
low or impaired, when virulence of the pathogen (its ability to damage host cells) is high, and when
the number of pathogens in the body is great,
The severity of disease manifestations depend on the number of microbes in the body. If the number
of microbes is very small, the disease manifestations may be minor or unnoticed. But if the number
is of the same microbe large, the disease can be severe enough to be life-threatening. The immune
system is a major factor that determines the number of microbes surviving in the body.
If a person or an animal has a defective immune system, then the person or animal Can even die
from the infection of even harmless bacteria. For example, in HIV infection, the virus goes to the
immune system and damages its function. Thus, many of the effects of HIV-AIDS are because the
body can no longer fight off the many minor infections that we confront in our day today life. Instead,
even a simple disease like common cold can
worsen and become pneumonia. Similarly, a minor gut infection can produce major diarrhea with
blood loss. Ultimately, it is these other infections that kill people suffering from HIV-AIDS. It is not the
minis that kills the patient,
Sign of Inflammation:
As a part of inflammation, there are local effects such as swelling, redness and pain, and general
effects such as fever.
Depending on the infectious disease, symptoms can vary greatly. Fever is a common response to
infection: a higher body temperature can heighten the immune response and provide a hostile
environment for pathogens. Inflammation, or swelling caused by an increase in fluid in the infected
area, is a sign that white blood cells are on the attack and releasing substances involved in the
immune response. So a person with a disease is sick for a while. When the immune system has
killed the germs, a person gets better.
Disease-organs-symptoms:
In order to cause disease, pathogens must be able to enter the host body, adhere to specific host
cells, invade and colonize host tissues, and inflict damage on those tissues. Entrance to the host
typically occurs through natural openings such as the mouth, eyes, pr genital openings, or through
wounds that breach the skin barrier to pathogens. Different species of microbes seem to have
evolved to home in on different parts of the body.
In part, this selection is connected to their point of entry. If they enter from the air via the nose, they
are likely to go to the lungs. This is seen in the bacteria causing tuberculosis. If they enter through
the mouth, they can stay in the gut lining like typhoid causing bacteria of they can go to the liver, like
the viruses that cause jaundice.
But this needn’t always be the case. An infection like HIV, which comes into the body via the sexual
organs, will spread to lymph nodes present all over the body. Malaria- causing microbes, entering
through a mosquito bite, will go to the liver, and then to the red blood cells. The virus causing
Japanese encephalitis, or brain fever, will similarly enter through a mosquito bite. But it goes on to
infect the brain. The signs and symptoms of a disease will thus depend on the tissue or organ which
the microbe targets.
The signs and symptoms of the disease depend on the tissue or organs where the microbes invade
and attack
Japanese Encephalitis Skin Brain(CNS) Fever, headache,
Fits of
unconsciousness
Malaria Skin RBC and liver cells fever and shivering,
cold, body ache
Principles of Treatment:
1. Cure the disease- Killing the micro-organisms of infectious agents by taking proper
medicines. For example, for treating bacterial diseases, take antibiotics or other medicine
that block the bacterial synthesis without affecting the human cells.
2. Take rest- On taking rest, most of the energy in the body works towards healing.
3. Taking medicines to reduce the effect of the disease-Taking medicines depending
upon the symptoms for the fever or body pain etc.
Properties of Medicines:
i) They should kill the disease-causing microbes. Medicines stop some vital processes needed for
the survival of microbes. E.g., Penicillin (antibiotic) kills the bacteria and cures diseases caused by
them.
ii) Medicines should not kill cells of the human body. Bacteria make cell wall for their protection. Such
a process does not happen in human cells. So, when we take antibiotics, they stop the formation of
cell wall of the bacteria and thus kill the bacteria without harming the human cells. Medicines should
stop the processes that are important for the survival of microbes but not for human survival.
iii) Same medicine may work for a group of microbes. As life processes of microbes of same group
(e.g. bacteria} are similar. Therefore, one single medicine can work for many of them. As microbes of
different groups (bacteria and virus) have different life processes, same medicine will not work for all
of them.
How do we kill microbes?
Microbes can be classified into different categories. They are viruses, bacteria, fungi or protozoa.
Each of these groups of organisms will have some essential biochemical life process which is
peculiar to that group and not shared with the other groups. These
processes may be pathways for the synthesis of new substances or respiration. These pathways will
not be used by us either. For example, our cells may make new substances by a mechanism
different from that need by bacteria. We have to find a drug that blocks the bacterial synthesis
pathway without affecting our own, This is what is achieved by the antibiotics that we are all familiar
with, Similarly, there are drugs that kill protozoa such as the malarial parasite.
Why making anti-viral medicines is harder than making antibacterial medicine?
Viruses do not have cellular organizations. They enter our cells and use our cellular machinery for
their life processes. As they have few biochemical mechanism of their own, it is therefore, difficult to
make anti-viral medicines.
The term antibiotic was coined by Waksman. The first antibiotic penicillin was extracted form fungi
Penicillium notatum by Alexander Flemming 1944.
How antibiotics work:
Before the 20th century, there were no effective treatments for infections caused by bacteria,
including pneumonia, tuberculosis, gonorrhea, rheumatic Never and urinary tract infections. But in
1929, bacteriologist Alexander Fleming discovered the first true antibiotic, penicillin.
Antibiotics work against the life processes of bacteria. They commonly block the biochemical
pathways that are necessary for the bacteria. Many antibiotics, including penicillin, work by attacking
the cell wall of bacteria. Antibiotic penicillin blocks the bacterial processes that build the cell wall.
The bacteria therefore fail to build the cell wall and they stop multiplying and gradually die out,
Why Prevention is better than Cure?
Prevention is better than cure because
1. Even if the disease is cured, its signs will last forever. E.g., If a person who is suffering from
chicken pox gets cured, the scars left by the boils will last forever
2. Prevention literally prevents the discomfort that the person otherwise has to suffer if he
contracts a disease.
3. Disease may get transferred from one person to another.
4. There are many disease for which there is no cure. Moreover, there are some chronic
diseases which do not have get cured completely and in turn causes some disabilities to the
person suffering from it e.g., stroke, congestivee heart failure, chronic renal failure etc,
Why to prevent disease:
1. Prevent the spread of microbes.
To prevent air-borne microbes:
1. Cover nose and mouth during coughing and sneezing.

2. Avoid crowded places.
To prevent water-borne microbes:
a) Drink purified or boiled water.
To prevent sexual disease:
1. Avoid sex with an infected /unknown person.

2. Practice safe sex.
Prevent the spread of disease through vectors
a) Avoid stagnated water bodies

1. Make the immune system stronger by taking well balanced. nourished food
2. Get vaccinated- Immunization can drastically reduce your chances of contracting many
diseases.
Suffering from a disease once is a means of preventing subsequent attacks by the same pathogen.
In case of any infection for the first time our immune system responds against it specifically. Next
time when the same microbe enters our body the immune system responds with greater vigour
which eliminates the infection more quickly than the first time. So, immunization is done to prevent
diseases, The process of the immune system becoming stronger towards an agent is called
immunization.
Definition of immunization:
Immunization is the process whereby a person is made immune or resistant to an infectious

disease, typically by the administration of a vaccine. Vaccines stimulate the body’s own immune
system to protect the person against subsequent infection or disease.
Before vaccines, people became immune only by actually getting a disease and surviving it. E.g.,
Smallpox is an acute contagious disease and one of the most devastating diseases known to
humanity. The good part is that the person will never suffer from smallpox again—if he or she
survives. That’s a way of achieving natural immunization towards the disease. Naturally acquired
immunity occurs when the person is exposed to a live pathogen, develops the disease, and
becomes immune as a result of the primary immune response.
These days, there is no smallpox anywhere in the world. But as recently as a hundred years ago,
smallpox epidemics were not at all uncommon.
Epidemics are the diseases based on prevalence that attack many people at the same time. This is
the occurrence of disease cases at a frequency that is higher than the normal for the population in a
given period of time. e.g. smallpox, plague.
Principle behind vaccination:
By providing vaccination, we can ‘fool’ the immune system into developing a memory for a particular
infection by putting something that mimics the microbe we want to vaccinate against, into the body.
This does not actually cause the disease but this would prevent any subsequent exposure to the
infecting microbe from turning into actual disease.
What is a vaccine?
Vaccine: Vaccines are suspensions of disease-producing micro-organisms which is modified by
killing or weakening so that the suspension will not cause disease. When given to a healthy person,
the vaccine triggers the immune system to respond and thus build immunity.
A modified form of microbes (vaccine) is intentionally injected into the body. This makes the immune
system of the person stronger against that microbe. This process is called vaccination.
Vaccines to prevent many diseases are now available for a whole range of diseases of the public
health program of childhood immunization for preventing infectious diseases is run by the
government, Children are vaccinated against tetanus, diphtheria, whooping cough, measles, polio,
etc.
Some hepatitis viruses, which cause jaundice, are transmitted through water. There is a vaccine for
one of them namely hepatitis A. But the majority of children in many parts of India are already
immune to hepatitis A by the time they are five years old. This is because they are exposed to the
virus through the water they drink.
Origin of the word 'Vaccine'
Famously, two centuries ago, an English physician named Edward Jenner, realized that milkmaids
who had cowpox did not catch smallpox even during epidemics. Cowpox is a very mild disease.
Jenner tried deliberately giving cowpox to people and found that they were now resistant to
smallpox. This was because the smallpox virus is closely related to the cowpox virus. ‘Cow’ is
‘Vacca’ in Latin, and cowpox is ‘vaccinia’. From these roots, the word ‘vaccination’ has come into our
usage.
AIDS (Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a

syndrome caused by a virus called HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). Once someone is infected
with HIV the virus will remain in their body for the rest of their life. HIV attacks the immune system of
an individual and hence he cannot fight back many diseases, HIV finally causes death, There is
currently no cure for HIV and no vaccine to prevent people from becoming infected. However,
treatment can help most people with HIV to live much longer and feel well.
How is Aids Spread:
1. Infected mother to child- Infected pregnant women can pass HIV to their babies during
pregnancy, delivering the baby during childbirth, and through breastfeeding.
2. Blood transfusion- Transmission of infected blood or sharing needles with infected persons.
3. Unprotected sex with an infected partner.
A person cannot become HIV positive from hugging, saliva, kissing. sneezes, coughs, sharing baths
or towels, from swimming pools, toilet seats, or from sharing cups, plates, or cutlery.
A person cannot get HIV from any animals or insects, including mosquitoes. HIV is not passed on
through biting.
Signs and symptoms:
Many people do not develop symptoms after they are first infected with HIV. Others will have signs
and symptoms in the early stage of HIV infection referred to as primary of acute HIV infection. The
most common symptoms are similar to a flu-like illness within several days to weeks after exposure
to the virus. Early HIV symptoms include fever, headache, fatigue, rash, sore throat, and swollen
lymph nodes in the neck. A characteristic feature of primary HIV infection is open sores or ulcers in
the mouth. These symptoms usually disappear within a few weeks.
What happens when HIV infects a person:
It affects the WBC and also makes the immune system very weak. The body begins losing its ability
to fight infections and the body becomes prone to various diseases. Therefore, even a minor
infection can become a life taking disease. HIV doesn’t kill us directly, it weakens our immune
system and our body fails to fight with some other attacking microbes. E.g. Even a simple disease
like the common cold can worsen and become pneumonia. Similarly, a minor gut infection can
produce major diarrhea with blood loss.
Ultimately, it is these other infections that kill people suffering from HIV-AIDS. It is not the virus that
kills the patient.
Treatment:
At the moment there is no cure for HIV or late-stage HIV infection, but there are drugs (antivirus) that
reduce the level of HIV in the blood and prevent or delay the development of late-stage HIV infection
Peptic ulcer:
Symptoms- Peptic ulcers cause acidity— related pain and bleeding in the stomach and
duodenum.
Everybody thought that a stressful life led to a lot of acid secretion in the stomach and eventually
caused peptic ulcers.
But, later it was discovered that the cause of peptic ulcer was the bacterium, Helicobacter pylori.
Robin Warren (born 1937), a pathologist from Penh, Australia, saw these small curved bacteria in
the lower part of the stomach in many patients, He noticed that signs of inflammation were always
present around these bacteria. Barry Marshall (born 1951}, a young clinical fellow, became
interested in Warren’s findings and succeeded in cultivating the bacteria from these sources.
Treatment: In treatment studies, Marshall and Warren showed that patients could be cured of peptic
ulcer only when the bacteria were killed off from the stomach. Peptic
ulcer disease is no longer a chronic disease but a disease that can be cured by a short period of
treatment with antibiotics.
Rabies:
Rabies is a viral illness spread via the saliva of an infected animal. This occurs usually through biting
a human or another animal. Transmission can also occur through saliva touching an open wound or
touching mucous membranes.
What causes rabies?
Rabies is caused by the rabies virus. The virus infects the brain and ultimately leads to death. Any
mammal can spread rabies. Stray dogs are the most likely animal to transmit rabies. The virus has
also been found in cows, cats, and horses.
Symptoms: The early symptoms of rabies are very generalized and include weakness, fever, and
headaches.
As the disease progresses, more specific symptoms appear and may include o Anxiety and
confusion (The patient is often overly active.)
● hypersalivation
● hydrophobic (fear and avoidance of water)
● Difficulty in swallowing.
● slight or partial paralysis
● sleeplessness(insomnia)
Death usually occurs within days of the onset of these symptoms.
Precaution:
1. Getting yourself vaccinated

2. Vaccinate pets and keep them away from wild and outdoor animals.
3. Stay away from stray animals
4. Keep bats out of the home, and stay away from areas with bats
Treatment:
1) A series of injections is given

Improvement in Food Resources
Food is one of the basic needs for all living organisms. Food provides nutrients like carbohydrates,
fats, protein, vitamins and minerals.
Sources of food: Agriculture & animal husbandry (livestock).
Problem: India is an agriculture oriented country but still lack of food due to growing population.
Solution:
1. Increase efficiency of production.

2. Access of food to people who live in food deserts (urban neighborhoods and rural towns).
3. People should have enough money to buy food.
Green Revolution
Green Revolution is a programme introduced in many poor countries to increase food production by
use of modern technology, proper irrigation, improved seeds, etc.
White Revolution
White Revolution is a programme introduced in India to increase production of milk in India. This
programme made India self – sufficient m production of milk.
Similarly Blue Revolution was introduced to enhance fish production and Yellow Revolution was
introduced to increase oil production.
Types of Crops
Cereals (wheat, Rice, Maize, Millet, Sorghum) provide us carbohydrates.
Pulse (gram, pea, black gram, green gram, pigeon pea, lentil) provide us proteins.
Oil Seeds (soya bean, ground nut sesame, castor, mustard, linseed, sunflower) provide us fats.
Vegetables, spices, fruits provide us vitamins & minerals.
Fodder crop (berseem, oats, sudan grass are raised as food for the livestock are called as fodder
crops.
Crop Season
Different crops require different conditions (temp, moisture, etc.), different Photo - periods (duration
of sunlight) for their growth and completing life cycle.
There are following two distinct season crops:
Kharif Season:
● June to October (Rainy season).

● Monsoon requires more water.
● Paddy, soyabean, pigeon pea, maize, black gram, green gram and rice are kharif season
crops.
Rabi Season:
● Nov. to April.
● Requires less water.
● Wheat, gram, peas, mustard and linseed are rabi season crops.
Improvement in Crop Yield
Yield increases when production increases from same amount of land in same period of time.
Approaches which enhance the crop yield are as following:
1. Crop Variety Improvement

2. Crop Production Improvement
3. Crop Protection Improvement
4. Crop Variety Improvement
Some of the factors by which variety improvement can be done, are:

● Good & Healthy Seeds.
● Hybridization technology: It is the process of cross - breeding two different varieties of
crops to produce a new variety with good properties of both the crops.
● Genetic Improvement: In genetic improvement, genes of a crop are modified so that
desired properties are retained and undesired properties are suppressed.
Properties to be possessed by improved seeds:
● Should give high yield.

● Improved Quality: Should give more nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins etc.
● Biotic Resistance: Resistance to diseases due to living micro – organisms, insects .
● Abiotic Resistance: Resistance to problems due to non – living things
like drought, heat, heat, cold, frost, water logging, salinity (excess salt).
● Less Maturity Duration: Short duration crops require less costing and more rounds of crop.
● Wider Adaptability: Crops which can grow in different conditions, will help in setting high
production.
● Desired Agronomic Traits: Crops which contain desired agronomic traits (height,
branching, leafs), sets high production.
1. Crop Production Improvement
It involves different practices carried out by farmer to achieve higher standards of crop
production.
1. Nutrient Management
2. Irrigation
3. Cropping Patterns
Nutrient Management
Like other organisms, plants also require some elements for their growth. These elements are called
Nutrients.
Source Nutrients
s
Air Carbon, oxygen
Water Hydrogen, oxygen

Soil 1. Macronutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
sulphur.
2. Micronutrients: iron, manganese, boron, zinc, copper, molybdenum, chlorine
Macronutrients: Macronutrients are the nutrients required by plants in large amount.
Micronutrients are the nutrients required by small plants in small amount.
Harmful effects of lack of nutrients:
1. No proper growth.
2. Low resistance to diseases.
3. No proper fruits and flowers.
Manure & Fertilizer
Plant nutrients and organic matter in the soil can be increased by adding manures and fertilizers to
the soil.
Manure
It is defined as the decomposition of animal excreta and plant waste. Manure mainly contains
organic matter and also some nutrients in small amount. Based on the biological material used,
manures are of three types.
1. Compost: Animal excreta (like cow dung etc.), kitchen waste, plant remains, waste wood,
etc are left in pit for long time. They decompose slowly to form compost. This compost is
used as manure. This process is called composting.
2. Vermi Compost: To make the decomposition process fast, earthworms are left in the pit.
Earthworms eat up the waste and excrete organic matter as there excreta. The compost thus
formed is called vermi – compost. This process is vermin – compositing
3. .Green Manure:
Fast growing plants like sun hemp, guar are grown. They are then mulched into the soil by
ploughing. They decay to form organic matter. After sometime, the main plants are grown.
Remains of the old plant enrich the soil with nitrogen and phosphorus.
How manure helps?

● It provides lots of organic matter which makes soil porous.
● It increases soil fertility in general.
● It provides some nutrients in small amounts.
● As it is made from waste products, so environment is cleaned.
Fertilizers
Fertilizers are chemicals manufactured in factories. They are chemicals highly rich in nutrients like
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
They provide large amount of nutrients and thus ensure better growth of plants.
Disadvantages of fertilizers:
1. Fertilizers beings chemicals can harm the micro – organism and insects in soil.
2. Fertilizers do not provide much organic matter.
3. Excessive use of fertilizers for a long period of time can damage soil fertility.
4. If excessive irrigation is done, some fertilizers can flow with excess water to water bodies. As
fertilizers are chemicals, they will cause water pollution.
Manure Fertilizers
Easily made using animal & plant Made in factories in well defined way
waste
No harmful effect as fully natural. Side effects as it is a chemical.
Provides mainly organic matter. Provides mainly nutrients.
Good for long term soil fertility Not good for long term soil fertility if used in excessive
amount.
Not as effective as fertilizers. Very effective in obtaining fast result
Cheap Costly
Irrigation
We cannot depend on rain for water as it is not fully reliable. A proper irrigation system will ensure
timely and adequate water to crops. This will lead to more yield.
Some most commonly used irrigation systems:
1. Wells: These are constructed in the region where enough ground water in available. They
are of two types:
Dug Well: In the dug wells, water is collected by bullock-operated devices or by pumps. This method
is cheap.
Tube Well: It makes very deep underground water available for irrigation. Motor pump is used to lift
water. This method is required high cost.
1. Canals
Man- made water channels originating from rivers or water – reservoirs. They are specifically
made to take water to various agricultural plots.
1. River Lift System

In this system water is directly taken from rivers through pumps. This system is useful for
irrigation in areas close to river.
2. Tanks
Tanks are small storage reservoirs which is used to store the rain water.
3. Rain Water Harvesting
Rain water harvesting is accumulation of rain water in tanks for later use. This also prevents
soil erosion. Soil erosion is unwanted How of top layer of soil with flowing water. This method
is required high cost.
Crop patterns
Different patterns are used to maximize the production from crop field.
1. Mixed Cropping 2. Inter Cropping 3. Crop Rotation
1. Mixed Cropping: In this pattern, seeds of two or more crops are mixed and spread in fields.
Both the crops grow together.
Examples: wheat and gram, wheat and mustard, groundnut and sunflower.
How crops are chosen?
● Should require similar environmental conditions like rain, temperature for growth.
● Should require different nutrients so that all nutrients of soil are used.
Advantage: Low risk. If one crop fails, others may still survive.
1. Inter Cropping: It is the advanced form of mixed cropping. Two or more crops are grown on
the same field in a definite pattern. Few rows of one followed by few rows of other.
Examples: soybean + maize, finger millet (bajra) +cowpea (lobia)
● Should require similar environmental conditions like rain, temp. for growth.
● Should require different nutrients so that all nutients of soil are used.
Advantages:
● Low risk. If one crop fails, others may still survive.

● Disease cannot spread from one row to other.
● Crop Rotation: Crop rotation is policy of growing different crops one after another on the
same filed.
If same crop is grown again and again on the same field, same nutrients are extracted from
soil again and again. So we should choose different crops so that all nutrients of soil are
used.
● Environmental conditions
● Nutrients required by crops.
Advantages:
● Soil fertility is maintained.
● Less use of fertilizers.
● High yield.
1. Crop Protection Improvement
When the crop is in the field, it needs protection against weeds, insect pests and other
diseases. Following methods are used to control these problems.
2. Pest Control during Growth 2. Storage of Grains
Pest Control during Growth
Pest is any destructive organism which can destroy or harm crops or products obtained from them.
Pests are of many types:
1. Weeds: Weeds are unwanted plants in the cultivated field like xanthium, parthenium,
cyperinus rotundus.
They compete with desired crops for food, space and light. Therefore desired crops get less
nutrients and are adversely affected.
2. Insects: Insects can harm plants in following ways :
● They can cut roots, stems and leaves of plants.
● They can get into fruits, flowers and steam of plants destroying them.
● They can suck food and water from plant bodies.
1. Pathogens: Any organism that can produce disease is called pathogens. Example; bacteria,
virus, fungi.
Plants can get

these organisms from soil, air or water. Diseases caused by these can spread in all crops on the
field and destroy the entire cultivation.
Various methods are used to control weeds, insect etc.

1. Killing Pests
Various types of pesticides are spread on plants to kill different pests. These are toxic
chemicals. Herbicides kill weeds. Insecticides kill insects. Fungicides kill fungi.
Disadvantages of using pesticides:
● Pollution
● Toxic to many useful plants and animals.
1. Weed Control
Weed Control involves precautionary measures to avoid weed growth.
● Manual removal of weeds.
● Seed bed preparation: Fields are ploughed deep. Thus weed seeds come on top and
germinate in few days. Then they can be removed before planting actual crops.
● Crop Rotation: Some crops destroy weeds in fields. Such crops included in crop rotation.
● Proper Sowing Time: Warm and humid climate not favourable.
● Inter Cropping: Due to presence of multiple crops, environmental resources are used more
efficiently. Thus very little resources are left for growth of weeds.
Storage of Grains
For getting seasonal foods throughout of the year, they are stored in safe storage. But during
storage of grains, they can destroy and waste by various means.
1. Biotic problems: Due to living organisms like insects, birds, mites, bacteria, fungi.
2. Abiotic problems: Due to non - living factors moisture, inappropriate temperature etc.
These factors affect quality degradation, loss in weight, change in colour, loss of germinability.
Solution:
● Proper cleaning of product and warehouse.

● Proper drying of products before storing.
● Fumigation (drugs which form toxic fumes which can kill pests) to kill pests and insects.
Organic Farming
Use of fertilizers and pesticides has their own disadvantages. They cause pollution, damage soil
fertility in long run. Grains, fruits, vegetables obtained may contain harmful chemical in small
amount.
Organic farming is farming system with no or very little use of chemicals like fertilizers and
pesticides.
Process of Organic Farming
● Use of manure.
● Use of bio fertilizers: blue – green algae (organism). They fix nitrogen from atmosphere to
soil. Some micro – organism can also kill pests. They are intentionally put in soil to kill pests.
They act as bio fertilizers.
● Use of bio pesticides: Neem and turmeric can kill some pests.
● Weed & Pest control systems are used. So that use of pesticides is not required.
● Use different cropping pattern like mixed Cropping, intercropping and crop Rotation.
Animal Husbandry
Animal husbandry is the scientific management of domestic animals in an efficient manner to obtain
food and other useful products from them.
Cattle Farming
Purpose of Cattle Farming:
● For getting milk.

● Ploughing fields.
● Bull Cart for transportation.
Types of Cattle:
● Cow (Bos indicus).

● Buffalo (Bos bubalis).
Milch Animals: These includes milk producing animals(female cattle).
Draught Animals: Those animals which do not produce milk and used for agricultural work.
Lactation Period:
Female cattle give milk after birth of calf (baby). The time duration for which she gives milk is called
lactation period. Typical under a year.
How to increase lactation period?
● Cross breeding: Cross breeds are obtained by hybridization or by crossing animals of

different species. The offsprings produced are called “Hybrids”. Hybrids show good
characters of both the parents like high lactation period, high resistance to diseases.
● Proper diet.
Care of Cattle
1. Cleanliness
- Roofed shelter with good ventilation for protection from rain, heat and cold.
- Regular brushing of skin of cattle.
- Sloping floor of shelter for avoiding water – logging.
2. Food
- Roughage mainly containing fibre.
- Concentrates containing proteins.
- Food containing micronutrients (Vitamins and minerals) for enhanced milk production.
Proper food is required for good health and special diet should be given during lactation period.
Diseases
Disease can cause death and reduce milk, production.
● Parasites are small organisms living inside or outside the body of another organism (host).
They derive food from body of host.
● External parasites on skin of cattle cause skin diseases
● Internal parasites like worms cause stomach and intestine problems and flukes cause liver
problems.
● Bacteria, virus cause infectious diseases (diseases that can be easily transmitted from one
to another).
Vaccination is given against major diseases.
Poultry Farming
Poultry Farming is done for eggs and meat. Both provide protein to our diet.
Broilers: Birds grown for obtaining meat are called broilers. They can be used after 6-8 weeks from
their birth.
Layers: Birds grown for obtaining egg are called layers. They can be used after 20 weeks when
sexual maturity has been attempt to lay eggs.
Most of the broilers & layers are cross – breed.
Breeding is done to enhance following properties in hens :
● More and better quality chicks.

● Low maintenance.
● Breeding is done to produce dwarf broilers (meat – giving birds). Feeding cost is the biggest
expense in poultry farms. Dwarf broilers need less food and can reduce cost by 30 %. Also
they can tolerate more heat.
Management Practices in Poultry farms:
● Proper diet: Layers eat mostly fibre diet. Broilers need diet rich in protein, fat and vitamin A
and K.
● Maintenance of proper temperature.
● Hygienic environment and proper sanitation.
● Regular spraying of disinfectants to kill bacteria, virus, fungi and parasites which can
otherwise cause diseases.
● Controlling canvass quality. Canvass quality refers to ratio of bone to flesh in chicken.
● Avoid mortality.
● Providing adequate space to birds. This is important for their proper growth.
Fish Production
Fish production is a great source of protein to our diet.
Fish production is of two types:
1. Finned Fish Production / True Fish Production: Production and management of

cartilaginous and bony fishes such as pomphret, tuna ,cod, catla, prawns, rohu, mrigal, etc.
2. Unfinned Fish Production : Production of shellfish such as prawns, mollusks.
Depending on the mode of obtaining fishes, fishing are of two types:
1. Capture Fishing: Naturally living fishes in various water bodies are captured.
2. Culture Fishing: Fishes of desired variety are cultivated in confined areas with utmost care
to get maximum yield. This is also called aquaculture. Aquaculture can be done in oceans,
rivers, lakes, ponds, etc. When it is done is oceans, it is called mariculture.
Marine Fishing
Marine fishing includes fish production in ponds, rivers, lakes, reservoirs.
India has huge coastline of 7500 km. So it is natural for India to have a large marine fishing industry.
Popular marine fishes include pomphret, mackerel, tuna, sardines, Bombay duck. Some costly
fishes found in sea like mullets, prawns, mussels, seaweed, oysters.
Using satellites, regions of high fish population in sea can be found. Echo – sounders are also used.
Inland Fishing
It includes fish production in fresh water (for ex. ponds, rivers, lakes, reservoirs) and brackish water
(for ex. Estuaries, lagoons).
This type of fishing gives lower yield compared to marine fishing. Capture & culture fish farming,
both are done in such water bodies.
Composite Fish Culture
- 5 to 6 varieties in a single fishpond.
- They are selected so that they do not compete for food. They should have different food
requirements.
Examples: Catla: feeds in the upper part water

Rohu: feeds in middle part of water
Mrigals, Common Carps: feeds at bottom
Advantage: More yield.
Problems: Many fishes lay eggs during monsoons only, due to which number of fishes will not grow
fast. So hormonal stimulation is used, using this fishes can be made to reproduce anytime.
Bee – Keeping
It is the practice of keeping, caring & management of honeybees on a large scale for obtaining
honey & wax.
Many farmers use bee – keeping for additional small income. Also there are big farms called
apiaries/ bee farms.
Some common Indian varieties of bees include apis carana indica (Indian bee), dorsata (rock bee),
florae(little bee).
One Italian variety mellifera is also used in India for commercial large scale production because of its
following advantage:
1. High honey collection capacity.
2. They reproduce fast.
3. They sting less.
4. They stay in a beehive for long.

Natural Resources : Chapter Notes
The land, the water and the air are the resources on the Earth
The four main spheres of Earth:
1. lithosphere 2.hydrosphere 3.atmosphere 4.biosphere
The four spheres show how the four main components of Planet Earth form a complete system.
These main components are land, air, water, and life. The names of each of these spheres come
from Greek words that describe what they're made of.
Lithosphere is also known as Geosphere. 'Geo' means 'ground. The outer crust of the Earth is
called the lithosphere. Earth's lithosphere includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, which
constitute the hard and rigid outer layer of the Earth. The lithosphere is the most rigid of Earth’s
layers.
Hydrosphere-'hydro' means 'water,' the hydrosphere is composed of all of the water on or near the
earth. This includes the oceans, rivers, lakes, and even the moisture in the air. The hydrosphere is
found on the surface of Earth, but also extends down several miles below, as well as several miles
up into the atmosphere(as water vapors). It is the only planet in the Solar System with a hydrological
cycle. Hydrosphere makes up about three fourths of the earth's surface.
Atmosphere-'atmo' means 'air. The air that covers the whole of the Earth like a blanket is called the
atmosphere.
Biosphere- bio' means 'life. The life-supporting zone of the Earth where the atmosphere, the
hydrosphere and the lithosphere interact and make life possible is known as the biosphere.
Biosphere comprises of both biotic and abiotic components.
• Biotic components include all the living organisms.
• Abiotic components include air, water and the soil.
The Breath of Life: Air
Air is a mixture of many gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour. On Venus
and Mars there is no life because carbon dioxide constitutes 95-97% of the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide is produced in the atmosphere by following activities:
1. Breakdown of glucose in presence of oxygen by organisms.

2. Combustion of fuels.
Carbon dioxide is fixed in two ways:
1. Green plants convert carbon dioxide into glucose by photosynthesis.

2. Marine animals use carbonates dissolved in sea-water to make their shells.
THE ROLE OF THE ATMOSPHERE IN CLIMATE CONTROL
The air is a bad conductor of heat. The atmosphere (envelope of air that surrounds the earth) acts
as a protective blanket for the living organisms to exist in the following way:
It keeps the average temperature of the earth fairly steady during the day and even during the
course of the whole year. The atmosphere does so by preventing the sudden increase in
temperature during the daylight hours. Further, during the night, it slows down the escape of heat
into the outer space. In contrast, the situation on the moon is quite different which is about the same
distance from the sun that the earth is .Moon has no atmosphere and the temperature on the surface
of the moon ranges from -190o C to 110oC.
THE MOVEMENT OF AIR: WINDS
Moving air is called wind. Air moves from high pressure area to a low pressure area. Motion of wind
is the result of two changes taking place in the atmosphere-
i) Heating of air
ii) Formation of water vapour. Water vapour is formed due to the heating of water bodies and the
activities of living organisms.
The atmosphere can be heated from below by the radiation that is reflected back or re-radiated by
the land or water bodies. On being heated, convection currents are set up in the air. When air is
heated by radiation from the heated land or water, it rises. But since land gets heated faster than
water, the air over land would also be heated faster than the air over water bodies and starts rising.
As this air rises, a region of low pressure is created and air over the sea moves into this area of low
pressure. The movement of air from one region to the other creates winds.
Various other factors also influence these winds –
1. The rotation of the Earth

2. The presence of mountain ranges in the paths of the wind.
Formation of rain:
When water bodies are heated during the day, a large amount of water evaporates and goes into the
air. Some amount of water vapour also gets into the atmosphere because of various biological
activities. This air also gets heated. The hot air rises up carrying the water vapour with it. As the air
rises, it expands and cools. This cooling causes the water vapour in the air to condense in the form
of tiny droplets. This condensation of water is facilitated if some particles could act as the ‘nucleus’
for these drops to form around. Normally dust and other suspended particles in the air perform this
function. Once the water droplets are formed, they grow bigger by the ‘condensation’ of these water
droplets. When the drops have grown big and heavy, they fall down in the form of rain. Sometimes,
when the temperature of air is low enough, precipitation may occur in the form of snow, sleet or hail.
Rainfall patterns are decided by the prevailing wind patterns. In large parts of India, rains are mostly
brought by the southwest or north-east monsoons. We have also heard weather reports that say
‘depressions’ in the Bay of Bengal have caused rains in some areas
Air pollution
An undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of the air making it
harmful for the living organisms (including man) is termed air pollution. In other words, addition of
unwanted and harmful substances in the air or increase in the quantities of constants of air beyond
the normal level that affects the living organisms is called air pollution. Agents or substances that
pollute the air are called air pollutants.
Indicators of air pollution:
Presence or absence of certain organisms indicates air pollution. Organisms called lichens are found
to be very sensitive to the levels of contaminants like sulphur dioxide in the air. Lichens can be
commonly found growing on the barks of trees as a thin greenish-white crust. Lichen vegetation and
mosses gets completely destroyed when the level of SO2 increases. Therefore, lichens are not found
in cities and towns having vehicular pollution.
Water
Water is called the fluid of life. 75% of the earth’s surface is covered by water, 97% of which forms
oceans and only 3% forms fresh water. Water exists in solid, liquid and gaseous forms. It occurs in
atmosphere, on land surface as well as underground.
Composition of water:
Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen. Its chemical formula is H2O.
TYPES OF WATER RESOURCES: - Water resources can be classified into two types
1. Fresh water resources- Fresh water is found frozen in the ice-caps at the two poles and on
snow covered mountains. The underground water and the water in rivers, lakes and ponds
are also fresh.
2. Salt water resources- Most of the water on Earth’s surface is found in seas and oceans and
is saline
IMPORTANCE OF WATER:-
The importance of water to the life of plants can be emphasized best by enlisting its functions:
- Water is the main constituent of protoplasm.

- It is the solvent through which mineral salts are transported from one part of the plant to the other.
-Various metabolic reactions take place in a medium containing water.
- It acts as a reactant in numerous metabolic reactions.
- During photosynthesis, water releases oxygen.
- Turgidity of the growing cells is maintained with water.
- Various movements of plant organs live movements insensitive plant (touch-me-not) are controlled
by water.
- The growth of the cells during elongation phase is mainly dependent on absorption of water.
- Metabolic end product of respiration is water.
-Places having plenty of water have more biodiversity.
Water is important to living organisms because:
1. All cellular processes require an aqueous medium.

2. Dissolved substances are needed for body reactions as well as for transportation.
Osmoregulation is carried out by all organisms to sustain life.
Water pollution:
Water pollution: The
addition of undesirable substances to water and removal of desirable substances from water is
called water pollution.
The main causes of water pollution are as follows:
1. Addition of harmful substances to water

2. Removal of desirable substances from water
3. Change in water temperature.
i) Addition of harmful substances to water
- Chemical wastes from industries. E.g., Mercury salt from paper industries.
- Sewage and wastes from houses.
-Pesticides and fertilizers
-Disease carrying organisms from industries. E.g., cholera
ii) Removal of desirable substances from water
Dissolved oxygen is used by the animals and plants that live in water. Any change that reduces the
amount of this dissolved oxygen would adversely affect these aquatic organisms. Other nutrients
could also be depleted from the water bodies.
iii) Change in temperature
Aquatic organisms are used to a certain range of temperature in the water-body where they live, and
a sudden marked change in this temperature would be dangerous for them or affect their breeding.
The eggs and larvae of various animals are particularly susceptible to temperature changes.
Mineral riches in the soil:
Soil is an important resource that decides the diversity of life in an area. The outermost layer of our
Earth is called the crust and the minerals found in this layer supply a variety of nutrients to life-forms.
Over long periods of time, thousands and millions of years, the rocks at or near the surface of the
Earth are broken down by various physical, chemical and some biological processes. The end
product of this breaking down is the fine particles of soil.
Soil is a mixture. It is the portion of earth surface consisting of various components like small
particles of rock (of different sizes, bits of decayed living organisms which are called humus, various
forms of microscopic life, air and water.
The factors or processes that make soil:
• The Sun: The Sun heats up rocks during the day so that they expand. At night, these rocks cool
down and contract. Since all parts of the rock do not expand and contract at the same rate, this
results in the formation of cracks and ultimately the huge rocks break up into smaller pieces.
• Water: Water helps in the formation of soil in two ways. One, water could get into the cracks in the
rocks formed due to uneven heating by the Sun. If this water later freezes, it would cause the cracks
to widen. Two, flowing water wears away even hard rock over long periods of time. Fast flowing
water often carries big and small particles of rock downstream. These rocks rub against other rocks
and the resultant abrasion causes the rocks to wear down into smaller and smaller particles. The
water then takes these particles along with it and deposits it further down its path. Soil is thus found
in places far away from its parent rock.
• Wind: In a process similar to the way in which water rubs against rocks and wears them down,
strong winds also erode rocks down. The wind also carries sand from one place to the other like
water does.
•Living organisms also influence the formation of soil. The lichen that we read about earlier also
grows on the surface of rocks. While growing, they release certain substances that cause the rock
surface to powder down and form a thin layer of soil. Other small plants like moss are able to grow
on this surface now and they cause the rock to break up further. The roots of big trees sometimes go
into cracks in the rocks and as the roots grow bigger, the crack is forced bigger.
Type of soil is decided by the average size of particles found in it. It contains four different particles
of varying sizes namely-
1. Gravel
2. Sand
3. Silt
4. Clay.
Quality of soil is determined by the content of humus and microscopic organisms found in it.
The mineral nutrients that are found in a particular soil depend on the rocks it was formed from.
Humus is a major factor in deciding the soil structure because it causes the soil to become more
porous and allows water and air to penetrate deep underground.
Factors that decide the type of plant that will thrive on a particular soil:
-The nutrient content of a soil,
-The amount of humus present in it
-The depth of the soil
Top soil: the topmost layer of the soil that contains humus and living organisms in addition to the
soil particles is called the topsoil. The quality of the topsoil is an important factor that decides
biodiversity in that area.
Soil pollution:
Removal of useful components from
the soil and addition of harmful substances, which adversely affect the fertility of the soil and kill
micro-organisms living in it, are called soil pollution. Fertilizers and pesticides destroy the soil
structure. Mosses or Bryophytes are indicator of soil pollution.
Soil erosion:
Removal of topmost layer of soil by

wind, flowing water or other activities is called soil erosion. Roots of plants prevent soil erosion by
firmly holding the soil particles.
Biogeochemical cycle:
A biogeochemical cycle is the flow of matter from non- living environment to the living organisms and
its return back to the non-living environment.
THE WATER-CYCLE
The whole process in which water evaporates and falls
on the land as rain and later flows back into the sea via rivers is known as the water-cycle.
The water cycle in nature is also known as hydrological cycle. The various steps involved in the
water cycle in the biosphere are:
1. Evaporation:
Evaporation is when the sun heats up water in seas and oceans and turns it into water vapour or
steam. The Sun's heat provides energy to evaporate water from the Earth's surface (oceans, lakes,
etc.) and form water vapour which being lighter than air rises up and goes into the atmosphere.
2. Transpiration -The plants continuously absorb water from the soil through their roots. Some of
this water is utilized by the plants for photosynthesis. The excess water in the body of plants is
added to the atmosphere in the form of water vapour from the leaves of plants through the process
of transpiration. The water vapours produced also goes into the atmosphere. Transpiration is the
process by which plants and trees lose water out of their leaves into the air.
3. During the process of respiration in living plants and during the decay of dead plants water vapour
is produced which also goes into the atmosphere.
4. Condensation- As the water vapour rises up, it gets cooled and it eventually condenses back into
tiny droplets of liquid water.
5. These droplets are small enough to float in the air and eventually collect together to make a cloud.
These clouds can be blown by the wind to move water to different parts of the earth.
6. Precipitation-As more and more water droplets form, they will join together to form bigger water
drops in the clouds. These drops become too heavy to stay in the air and will fall to the earth as rain.
In case of extremely cold weather, the water might freeze and fall as hail or snow. Any water that
falls from the sky-rain, snow, sleet or hail is called precipitation.
7. Percolation and absorption: Some of the precipitation soaks into the ground. Some of the
underground water percolates through the rock or clay layers to reach the underground water. This
is called groundwater. On land the water is used by the plants, crops and trees to grow. But most of
the water flows downhill as runoff (above ground or underground), eventually returning to the seas
as slightly salty water. In this way water was taken from the earth, returns to the earth and the water
cycle is completed.
NITROGEN CYCLE:-
Nitrogen makes
up seventy-eight percent of the atmosphere, but most organisms cannot use this form of nitrogen,
and must have the fixed form. Nitrogen is also a part of many molecules essential to life like
proteins, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and some vitamins. Nitrogen is found in other biologically
important compounds such as alkaloids and urea too. Nitrogen is thus an essential nutrient for all
life-forms and life would be simple if all these life-forms could use the atmospheric nitrogen directly.
The nitrogen cycle produces the fixed form of nitrogen these organisms need.
Step 1-
Nitrogen Fixation-
By lightning- During lightning, the high temperatures and pressures created in the air convert
nitrogen into oxides of nitrogen. These oxides dissolve in water to give nitric and nitrous acids and
fall on land along with rain. These are then utilised by various lifeforms.
By bacteria- Molecular nitrogen is converted into nitrates and nitrites by free living bacteria or the
bacteria like Rhizobium present in the root nodules of legumes. Special bacteria convert the nitrogen
gas (N2) to ammonia (NH3) which the plants can use.
Step 2-
Nitrification- Nitrification is the process which converts the ammonia into nitrite ions and then into
nitrates which the plants can take in as nutrients. Special kinds of bacteria are involved in this
process which occurs naturally in the environment. The bacteria nitrosomonas and nitrococcus
convert the ammonia into nitrite and then nitrobacter convert the nitrites into nitrates by oxidizing
NO2 to NO3. All these bacteria reside in soil and are called as nitrifying bacteria. These soluble
nitrates dissolve in soil water and are absorbed by the roots of plants. The nitrates and nitrites are
used by plants to make amino acids which are then used to make plant proteins. The plant may be
eaten by an animal, and its biomass used to produce animal protein.
Step 3-
Ammonification- When an animal or plant dies they release wastes from their bodies, nitrogen is
released in the organic form. This organic nitrogen is converted into ammonium by fungi and
bacteria through the process Ammonification. After all of the living organisms have used the
nitrogen, decomposer bacteria convert the nitrogen-rich waste compounds into simpler ones. Urea
and egested material is broken down by decomposers. This results in nitrogen being returned to the
soil as ammonia. Decomposers also break down the bodies of dead organisms resulting in nitrogen
being returned to the soil as ammonia.
Step 4-
Denitrification- Denitrification is the final step in which the simple nitrogen compounds are
converted back into nitrogen gas (N2), which is then released back into the atmosphere to begin the
cycle again. When the ammonia is converted back into inert nitrogen, the process is called as
denitrification. Bacteria are involved in this process which takes place in anaerobic conditions.
Places like deep soils and deep water are the places without oxygen. Pseudomonas and Clostridium
are responsible for the step of denitrification. These bacteria can also live in the places where there
is availability of oxygen.
CARBON CYCLE:
Carbon is
found in various forms on the Earth. It occurs in the elemental form as diamonds and graphite. In the
combined state, it is found as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, as carbonate and hydrogen
carbonate salts in various minerals, while all life-forms are based on carbon-containing molecules
like proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nitrogen-cycle in nature nucleic acids and vitamins. The
endoskeletons and exoskeletons of various animals are also formed from carbonate salts.
The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon moves from the atmosphere into the Earth and its
organisms and then back again.
Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from respiration (breathing) and combustion
(burning)
Photosynthesis
Carbon is incorporated into life-forms through the basic process of photosynthesis which is
performed in the presence of Sunlight by all life-forms that contain chlorophyll. This process converts
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or dissolved in water into glucose molecules. Plants store and
use this sugar to grow and to reproduce. Thus, plants help to remove carbon from the atmosphere.
When plants are eaten by animals, their carbon is passed on to those animals. Since animals cannot
make their own food, they must get their carbon either directly by eating plants or indirectly by eating
animals that have eaten plants.
At the same time that some processes of nature are removing carbon from the air, other processes
are adding more carbon to the air.
Respiration: Respiration is the next step in the cycle, and it occurs in plants, animals, and even
decomposers. When plants and animals respire, glucose stored in the plants and animals are
broken down to release CO2, water and energy. Through this process, CO2 is released back into the
atmosphere.
Decomposition: As plants and animals die and decay or decompose (or when animals defecate
and their waste materials decompose), the carbon found in them are released to the environment.
When the decaying matter bodies get buried under the ground and are subjected to high pressures
and other physical and chemical changes for millions of years, they change into fossil fuels.
Combustion: When the fossil fuels are burnt to provide energy for various needs like heating,
cooking, transportation and industrial processes most of the carbon rapidly enters the atmosphere
as carbon dioxide gas. In fact, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is said to have
doubled since the industrial revolution when human beings started burning fossil fuels on a very
large scale.
Movement of carbon from the atmosphere to the oceans: The oceans, and other water bodies,
soak up about a quarter of the carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere. However, this uptake
process is slow. Similarly, under normal conditions, the release of carbon dioxide back into the
atmosphere from the ocean is also at a very low rate.
Through these steps the total amount of carbon in the environment remains constant. There is no
formation or demolition of carbon in this process and it only involves the movement of this element
from one form to another.
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

What is the greenhouse effect?
The
definition of the greenhouse effect is the warming that results when heat is trapped. This process is
similar to how the glass house (known as the greenhouse) works. The glass house traps the sun’s
heat energy within and maintains the temperature optimally warm for plants to grow.
Some gases prevent the escape of heat from the Earth. An increase in the percentage of such
gases in the atmosphere would cause the average temperatures to increase worldwide and this is
called the greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases. This means that it
traps heat and prevents it from escaping from Earth. As a result, this trapped gas leads to a global
temperature rise, a natural phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect, which can have disastrous
effects on Earth's environment.
OXYGEN CYCLE
Oxygen is an important element to life on Earth. It is the most common element of the human body.
It makes up about 65% of the mass of the human body. Most of this is in the form of water (H2O).
Oxygen also makes up about 30% of the Earth and 20% of the atmosphere.
The Oxygen Cycle

Oxygen is constantly being used and created by different processes on planet Earth. All of these
processes together make up the oxygen cycle. The oxygen cycle is interconnected with the carbon
cycle.
Processes That Use Oxygen
● Respiration:
Animals take in simple sugars (glucose) and oxygen and release carbon dioxide, water and energy.
● Decomposition: Is a minor part of the Carbon/Oxygen cycle
Decomposition is when any organic matter (plants, animals) breaks down chemically into all the
simple elements that they are made of and these elements return back to the environment.
As plants and animals die and decay or decompose (or when animals defecate and their waste
materials decompose), the carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, water, calcium etc. return to the soil and air
during decomposition.
Processes That Produce Oxygen
● Photosynthesis:
Green plants/trees take in Carbon Dioxide and water using the chlorophyll in their leaves and energy
from the sun they release Oxygen, sugar and water vapor.
● Sunlight - Some oxygen is produced when sunlight reacts with water vapor in the
atmosphere.
Ozone Layer
Elemental oxygen is normally found in the form of a diatomic molecule. However, in the upper
reaches of the atmosphere, a molecule containing three atoms of oxygen is found. This would mean
a formula of O3 and this is called ozone.
This is simply a layer in the stratosphere containing a relatively high concentration of ozone. The
ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere from approximately 20 to 30
kilometers (12 to 19 mi) above earth, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically.
Ozone is poisonous and it is not stable nearer to the Earth’s surface. But, it performs an essential
function where it is found. It absorbs harmful radiations from the Sun. This prevents those harmful
radiations from reaching the surface of the Earth where they may damage many forms of life.
Depletion of ozone layer:
Ozone layer depletion is simply the reduction of the amount of ozone in the stratosphere. Ozone
depletion is caused because of one the industries that manufacture things like insulating foams,
solvents, soaps, cooling things like Air Conditioners, and Refrigerators that use chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs). Depletion begins when CFC’s get into the stratosphere. Ultra violet radiation from the sun
breaks up these CFCs. The breaking up action releases Chlorine atoms. Chlorine atoms react with
Ozone, starting a chemical cycle that destroys the good ozone in that area. One chlorine atom can
break apart more than 100,000 ozone molecules.

Fundamental Unit of Life Cell Theory

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Fundamental Unit of Life Cell Theory

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The Fundamental Unit of Life

Discovery of Cell and Cell Theory

Cell theory state that:

● All living organisms are composed of cells.

Shape and Size of Cells

The cells can be categorized in two types:

1. Prokaryotic Cell 2. Eukaryotic Cell

Cell is composed of some basic structures:

Protoplasm: It is a jelly-like, viscous, colourless semi-fluid substance in various cell organelles

Protoplasm consists two parts: cytoplasm and nucleoplasm.

Cytoplasm is that part of protoplasm which surrounds the nucleus.

Nucleoplasm is that part of protoplasm which is located inside the nucleus.

● Golgi bodies store, modify, package and dispatch the substances.

Mitochondria: Mitochondria are small rod-shaped organelles. It is a double membrane structure.

● They provide energy for the vital activities of living cells.

Centrosome and Centrioles:

Plastids are of three types:

1. Chloroplasts: Green coloured plastids containing chlorophyll. Chloroplasts manufacture

● Lisosomes help in digestion of foreign substances and worn-out cell organelles.

There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum:

● It gives internal support to cell.

● Nucleus controls all the metabolic activities of cell.

Transport of Substances through Plasma Membrane

Tissue is a group of cells that work together to perform a particular function.

Division of Labour / Cell Specializing

Tissues are mainly classified in two types:

1. Plant Tissues 2. Animal Tissues

Meristematic Tissue (Meristem)

Meristematic tissues are of three types:

● Cells of meristematic tissues are very active and work faster.

● Take 2 onions in jars as shown.

Cells of meristematic tissues differentiate to form different types of permanent tissues.

Permanent tissues are of two types:

1. Simple Tissues: This type of tissue is composed of same type of cells.

● Supports plant body.

● Provides mechanical support to plant.

● Makes parts of plant hard and stiff.

Complex tissues are of two types:

Parenchymas are living cells. They store food and nutrients.

Phloem parenchyma store food.

Experimental Study of Stem

● Cut stem into thin slices.

You will see a microscopic view of stem.

Experimental Study of Epidermis

Animal tissues are of four types:

Muscular tissues are of three types:

● They give us ability to respond to stimuli.

Epithelial Tissue (Epithelium)

● It protects the organs which it covers.

Types of Epithelial Tissue:

Biodiversity or biological diversity means the variety of living organisms

Taxonomy - It is a branch of biology which deals with identification, nomenclature,

1. Two kingdom classifications: Carolus Linnaeus in 1758 classified the living

2. Five kingdom classification: H. Whittaker in 1959 further classified the organisms

Linnaeus proposed a classification system by arranging organisms into taxonomic

The Five kingdom classification

1. Type of cellular organization -

3. Mode of obtaining food -

Nomenclature - An organism can have different names in different languages. This

Following are some conventions in writing the scientific names:

● Genus should be written followed by the species.

Example – Homo sapiens for humans, Panthera tigris for tiger.