CH – 1

All living organisms are made out of cells. Cells are the basic building blocks of all
living organisms. Cells are the smallest unit of life. They are said to be microscopic
and they cannot be seen with naked eye. Large organisms contain millions of cells. Us
humans contain trillions of cells in our body.
Most cells contain certain parts such as nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane.
Some cells have structures missing, for example- red blood cells have no nucleus.

Animal Cell

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Mitochondria
Cell membrane

Cytoplasm; Cytoplasm is a fluid/liquid found in cells. It has a texture like jelly,

somewhere between solid and a liquid. It is made up of about 70% of
water
and is usually clear and colorless. It also contains many substances
dissolved in it such as lipids (fats), carbohydrates and especially
protein. Most chemical reactions/metabolic reaction in the cell take
place in the cytoplasm. Metabolic reactions are the chemical reactions in
the cell that converts food into energy.

Nucleus; Nucleus is the largest organelle (cell’s internal organs) in the cell. Nearly all
cells contain a nucleus. Cells that don’t have nucleus are either dead or don’t

live for a long time. Nucleus controls the activities of the cell. Genetic
information of an organism can be found in the nucleus as it contains
chromosomes which carry the genetic material/genes. (Chromosomes are
made out of DNA). Genes control activities in the cell by determining which
 proteins the cell can make. The DNA remains in the nucleus but the
instructions for making proteins are carried out to the cytoplasm.

Ribosomes; A ribosome is an intercellular structure made of both RNA and protein,

and
it is the site of protein synthesis in the cell . Ribosomes are called ‘protein
factories’ of the cell. Ribosomes are responsible for making protein
through
amino acids. Ribosomes receive information from the cell nucleus and
construction materials from the cytoplasm.

Cell membrane; Cell membrane is found in all types of cells. It is a thin layer like skin
on the surface of the cell. It is made out of proteins and fats. It
separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment. The
cell
membrane is partially permeable and controls what goes in and out
of the cell. Some chemicals and substances can pass into the cell but

some can’t.

Mitochondria; Mitochondria are organelles that are found in large numbers inside the
cell. Mitochondria can be found in almost all types of cells.
Mitochondria
are the power house of the cell because it produces energy that the
cell
can use. It carries out some of the reactions of respiration and release
energy for the cell. (Oxygen is used to release energy from glucose).

Plant Cell

Cytoplasm
Cell membrane

Chloroplast

Cell wall Vacuole

 Nucleus

Mitochondria

All of the structures stated above are found in both animal and plant cells. However,
some structures are only ever found in plant cells. Structures that are stated below are
only found it plant cells.

Cell wall; Only plants cells consist cell walls. Cell walls are the outer covering of a
cell. It is made mainly of a carbohydrate called cellulose. Cellulose is a
molecule that consists hundreds and thousands of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen atoms. Cellulose is a tough material so it helps the plant cell keeps
its shape. Animal cells do not have a cell wall and so they tend to have
many
different shapes. Cell walls are fully permeable which means it allows any

substances to go in and out.

Vacuole; Plant cells often have a large central space surrounded by a membrane,
called
a vacuole. This vacuole is a permanent feature of the cell. It is filled with a
watery liquid called cell sap, which is a store of dissolved sugars, mineral
ions
and other solutes. Animal cells do contain vacuoles, but they are only small,
temporary structures.

Chloroplast; Cells of the green parts of plants, especially the leaves, contain the
chloroplasts. They contain a green coloring pigment called chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll absorbs sunlight and water to make food for the plant by
photosynthesis. Chloroplasts often contain starch grains which have
been made by photosynthesis. Cells from the parts of a plant that are
not
green, such as the flowers, roots and woody stems, have no
chloroplasts.
And it is never found in animal cells.
 Plant Cells
Have cytoplasm
Have nucleus
Have cell membrane
Have mitochondria
Have cellulose cell wall
Have permanent vacuoles
Have chloroplast
Vs Animal Cells
Have cytoplasm
Have nucleus
Have cell membrane
Have mitochondria
Have no cell wall
Have temporary vacuoles
Have no chloroplast

Note: Difference between chloroplast, chlorophyll: chlorophyll is a green pigment which

absorbs sunlight to make food, Chloroplast is an organelle in the cell where

photosynthesis take place.
Difference between cell wall and cell membrane: cell wall is not found in animal
cells and cell membranes are found in all sort of cells. (or) cell wall is full
permeable and cell membranes are partially permeable.

Catalysts are substances that speed up chemical reaction without being used up.
Enzymes are biological catalysts which are made out of proteins. (All enzymes are
proteins but not all proteins are enzymes). Cells contain hundreds of different
enzymes, each catalyzing a different reaction. This is how the activities of a cell are
controlled; the nucleus contains the genes, which control the production of enzymes,
which then catalyze reactions in the cytoplasm:
genes → proteins (enzymes) → catalyze reactions
Enzymes are necessary because without them, the chemical reactions in our bodies
will be too slow to allow life to go on. The reactions can only take place quickly enough
when enzymes are present to speed them up.
The molecule that an enzyme acts on is called its substrate. Each enzyme has a small
area on its surface called the active site. The substrate attaches to the active site of
the enzyme. The reaction then takes place and products are formed. The substrate fits
into the active site of the enzyme like a key fitting into a lock. Just as a key will only fit
one lock, a substrate will only fit into the active site of a particular enzyme. This is
known as the lock and key model of enzyme. After an enzyme molecule has catalyzed
a reaction, the product is released from the active site, and the enzyme is free to act on
more substrate molecules.

Raising temperature generally speeds up a reaction, and lowering temperature slows

down a reaction. This is because higher temperatures give the molecules of the
enzyme and the substrate more kinetic energy, so they collide more often. More
collisions means that the reaction will take place more frequently. However, extreme
high temperatures can cause an enzyme to lose its shape/denatured and stop
working. Enzymes work best at a particular temperature known as the optimum
temperature. Enzymes in the human body have evolved to work best at body
temperature (37°C).

37°C

However, above the optimum, temperature starts to have another effect. Enzymes are
made of protein, and proteins are broken down by heat. From 40 °C upwards, the heat
destroys the enzyme. We say that it is denatured. Denaturing changes the shape of the
active site so that the substrate will no longer fit into it. Denaturing is permanent and
the enzyme molecules will no longer catalyze reactions.
Not all enzymes have an optimum temperature near 37 °C, only those of animals such
as mammals and birds, which all have body temperatures close to this value. Enzymes
have evolved to work best at the normal body temperature of the organism.

The pH around the enzyme is also important. pH is a measure of how acidic or alkaline
the solution is. The pH inside cells is neutral (pH 7) and most enzymes have evolved to
work best at this pH. The pH at which the enzyme works best is called its optimum
pH. If pH becomes very acidic or alkaline, enzymes will be denatured. Some enzymes
have pH that is not neutral. For examples, proteases have optimum pH about 2. This
is because hydrochloric acid in your stomach and proteases must be able to work well
in acidic conditions.

Type of enzymes:
Amylase; enzymes that digest starch
Carbohydrase; enzymes that digest carbohydrates
Protease; enzymes that digest proteins
Lipase; enzymes that digest lipids/fats
Maltase; enzymes that digest maltose
Sucrase; enzymes that digest sucrose
Buffer solutions are water solvent-based solutions which resist changes in pH when
acid or alkali is added to it. Buffer solutions are useful for finding the effect of pH on
enzyme activity.
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a product of metabolism. Hydrogen peroxide is toxic so
it must not be allowed to build up in cells. The enzyme catalase protects cells by
breaking down hydrogen peroxide into the harmless products water and oxygen:
2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
Potato cells contain a high concentration of catalase. A large potato is chopped into
small pieces and placed in a blender with an equal volume of distilled water. Distilled
water is water that has been freed of dissolved solids. The blender is switched on to
mince up the potato tissue and release the catalase from the cells. The potato debris
(minced potato) is allowed to settle to the bottom and the liquid extract above the
debris is removed. The extract is tested for catalase activity at different values of pH.
Using a syringe, 5 cm3 of extract is placed in a boiling tube and 5 cm 3
of pHof7 buffer
Bubbles
solution added from another syringe. The tube is shaken to mix the buffer with the
oxygen
3
potato extract. The mixture is left for 5 minutes, then 5 cm of 5% hydrogen peroxide
solution is added to the tube from a third syringe. A bung and delivery tube are quickly
inserted in the boiling tube and the end of the delivery tube placed in a beaker of water.
The bubbles of oxygen gas produced in the first minute after adding the hydrogen
peroxide are counted. The number of bubbles per minute is a measure of the initial
reaction rate.

Respiration is a process of gas exchange (exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide). It

takes up oxygen and send carbon dioxide out, in order to satisfy energy requirements.
Respiration happens in all the cells of our body. The energy comes from the food you
eat. The food is digested (broken down into pieces) which are absorbed by the
intestine and blood transport the nutrients to all cells in the body. The cells take up the
nutrients they need.
The main food that is digested is glucose. Glucose contains stored chemical energy
that can be converted into other forms of energy that the cell can use. The energy
released in the ATP molecules which can be used for variety of purposes. ATP is the
abbreviated form adenosine triphosphate. ATP can be found in all living cells. (The
energy released as heat is also used to maintain a constant body temperature in
mammals and birds).
Overall reaction for respiration- equation:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O (+ energy)
glucose oxygen carbon dioxide water

Most of the time, your cells release energy from glucose by combining it with oxygen.
This is called aerobic respiration. This is called aerobic respiration, because it uses
oxygen. Aerobic respiration happens in the cells of humans and those of animals,
plants and many other organisms. It takes place in the mitochondria.

There are some situations where cells can respire without using oxygen. This is called
anaerobic respiration. In anaerobic respiration, glucose is not completely broken
down, so less energy is released. The advantage of anaerobic respiration is that it can
occur in situations where oxygen is in short supply. The glucose is broken down into
ethanol (alcohol).
Reaction equation:
C6H12O6 -> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
glucose ethanol/alcohol carbon dioxide

Muscle cells can also respire anaerobically when they are short of oxygen. If muscles
are overworked, the blood cannot reach them fast enough to deliver enough oxygen for
aerobic respiration. This happens when a person extreme exercise. This time the
glucose is broken down into a substance called lactate and no carbon dioxide is
produced.

Some peas are soaked in water for 24 hours, so that they start to germinate. A second
batch of peas is boiled, to kill them. Each set of peas is washed in a 1% bleach
solution, which acts as a disinfectant, killing any bacteria present on the surface of the
peas. You need to kill the bacteria are alive, they will contribute to the increase of
temperature because they are respiring. The peas are then rinsed twice in distilled
water to remove any traces of bleach.
Each batch of peas is placed in an inverted vacuum flask leaving some air in each
flask. A vacuum flask insulates its contents, so that any small temperature change
inside the flask can be measured. Cotton wool is used to hold the seed in the flasks.
Cotton wool is used because it allows oxygen into the flask. The apparatus is left set
up for a couple of days, and the temperature inside each flask measured at the start
and end of the experiment.
Results:
Temperature in both flasks at the start = 21 °C
Temperature in flask with dead peas at the end = 21 °C
Temperature in flask with living peas at the end = 24 °C

The temperature of the flask with living peas rises because the germinating seeds
produce heat from respiration.
Atoms, molecules and ions are always moving. The higher the temperature, the faster
they move. In some state of matters, the particles are held tightly together so they
cannot move. As soon as they are free to move, the particles tend to spread
themselves out as much as they can.
Cells need to take in certain substances from their surroundings to perform specific
tasks. As stated in page 2, the cell membrane is partially permeable and controls what
goes in and out of the cell. There are three main ways that particles can move through
the membrane. They are diffusion, active transport and osmosis.

Diffusion is the process of molecules moving from a high concentration area to low
concentration area. For example;
Plants need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the air to
the leaves. It does this because there is lower concentration of carbon dioxide in the
leaves (because the cells are using it) than the outside environment. Oxygen the waste
of photosynthesis also diffuses the same way out. There is higher concentration of
oxygen in the leaves (because it’s being made) than the outside. So the oxygen
diffuses out from the leaves to the air outside. (Diffusion happens because of the
kinetic energy of the particles and it does not need an ‘extra’ source of energy from
respiration).
This difference in concentration is called a concentration gradient.

The rate of diffusion is affected by various factors:

-> The concentration gradient. Diffusion happens more quickly when there is a steep
concentration gradient (a big difference in concentrations between two areas).
-> The surface area to volume ratio. A larger surface area in will increase the rate of
diffusion.
-> The distance. If the diffusion distance is small, diffusion happens faster because the
particles do not have as far to travel.
-> The temperature. The rate is greater at higher temperatures. This is because a high
temperature provides the particles with more kinetic energy.

Note: A small cell has a larger surface area to volume ratio than a large cell. Because
surface area to volume ratio of cells generally decreases as cells get larger.

There are times when cells need to take in substances which are only present in very
small amount around them. In other words you have to take in the substances against
the concentration gradient. For example:
Root hair cells in plants take in nitrate ions from the soil. Usually the concentration of
nitrate is higher in the root hair cells than the soil. The diffusion gradient for the nitrate
is out of the root hair cells to the soil. Despite this, root hair cells are still able to take in
nitrate ions by a process called active transport. Active transport is the process of
molecules moving from low concentration area to high concentration area, against the
concentration gradient. Active transport is an energy consuming process and the
energy needed is provided by respiration.

Osmosis is a process of molecules of a solvent passing through a (partially

permeable) membrane from low concentration area to high concentration area.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules. Osmosis happens when the total
concentrations of all dissolved substances inside and outside the cell are different.
Water will move across the membrane from the more dilute solution (a solution that
has more water than other dissolved solutes) to the more concentrated one. The water
moves from where there is a higher concentration of water molecules to a lower
concentration of water molecules. Osmosis can only happen if the membrane is
permeable to water but not to some other solutes.

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two daughter cells with
the same genetic material. (The process of making new body cells). There are two
types of cell division, mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis produces two genetically identical
daughter cells from a single parent cell, whereas meiosis produces cells that are
genetically different from the parent and contain only half amount of the DNA.
Multicellular organisms like animals and plants begin life as a single fertilized egg cell,
called a zygote. A zygote is an egg that has been fertilized by sperm, and which could
develop into an embryo. The zygote divides into two cells, then four, then eight and so
on, until the adult body contains countless millions of cells. This division is known a
mitosis. The chromosomes in the nucleus are copied, then the nucleus splits into two,
so that the genetic information is shared equally between the two daughter cells.

zygote daughter cells

Cells with a similar function are grouped together as tissue. (tissue = group of cells).
Several tissues carrying out a particular function is called an organ. (organ = group of
tissues). Several different organs working together is called an organ system. (organ
system = group of organs). There are 7 main systems in the human body (but I’ll just
state 4 of them):

-> nervous system; brain: controls every process that regulates our bodies such as
breathing, movement of arms and legs, function of organs

talking and senses.

spinal cord: deliver commands from the brain to the body. Report
senses to your brain.
nerves: deliver signals from the brain to the rest of the body
including internal organs.

-> respiratory system; nose: allows air to enter your body (breathing) serves the
sense of smell.
trachea: carry oxygen into your lungs and carry carbon dioxide
out of the lungs.
lungs: exchanges gases and delivers oxygen to cells in your
body.
-> digestive system; mouth: digests food, break down food into smaller pieces which
are easier to swallow.
esophagus: transports food from mouth to stomach.
stomach: produces acid and enzymes to digest food and stores
food.
small intestine: absorbs nutrients.
large intestine: get rid of waste, undigested food.

-> excretory system; kidney: remove wastes and extra fluid from your body, control
blood pressure.
bladder: stores urine, allowing urination to be infrequent and
controlled. (storage and emptying of urine).

CH – 2

There are more than ten million species of organisms alive on Earth and many more
that once lived on Earth but are now extinct. In order to make sense of this enormous
variety biologists classify organisms, putting them into groups. Members of each group
are related; they are descended from a common ancestor by the process of evolution.
A common ancestor is an ancestor that species have in common. For example,
mammals descended from a common ancestor named therapsid who lived over 200
million years ago. This common ancestry is reflected in the similarities of structure and
function of the members of a group. Living things are divided into five kingdoms:
animal, plant, fungi, protoctist and bacteria.

Animals; Animals are multicellular (consists many cells) organisms. Their cells never
contain chloroplasts so they are unable to carry out photosynthesis. Instead
they feed on/get nutrition by feeding on organic substances made by other
living organisms (on other animals and plants). Animal cells also lack cell
walls, which allows their cells to change shape. Animals are usually easy to
recognize because of their active movement. Animals move for a variety of
reasons, such as to find food, a mate, a shelter, or to escape predators.
 Movements include walking, running, jumping, hopping, flying, swimming,
crawling, sliding and etc. Animals of all shapes and sizes move around in
many
different ways using different body parts to help them. Another feature
common to most animals is that they store carbohydrate in their cells as a
compound called glycogen. It is stored in the liver and the muscles to be
used
when needed.
Animals are then classified into two groups; vertebrates (animals with back
bone) and invertebrates (animals without back bone). These two groups are

then classified into more groups afterwards

Plants; Plants are also multicellular organisms. Their cells contain chloroplasts and
they
carry out photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the carried out by plants which
convert sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to organic compounds that the cell
can use as energy. One of these organic compounds is the carbohydrate
cellulose. Plant’s cell walls are made out of cellulose and it helps and helps
the
plant cell to remain stiff and strong. (it keeps the structure of the cell wall
strong).
Plants can make many other organic compounds as a result of photosynthesis
such as starch and sucrose. The plant you’re most familiar are flowering
plants which include most type of trees. These plants consist leaves, stems,
flowers and roots.

Fungi; In the past, fungi were classified as plants. Fungi can be defined with ‘plants
that
do not carry out photosynthesis. Fungi don’t have chlorophyll so they cannot
 carry out photosynthesis. Since fungi cannot carry out photosynthesis, fungi
feed
on dead and decayed materials. When an organism feed on dead, decayed
materials, it is said that they feed saprophytically. They have cell walls but
not
made out of cellulose. Instead it is made out of a chemical called chitin (the
same material which made up the skeleton of insects). Fungi can be either
multicellular or unicellular (made out of only one cell). Multicellular fungi are
called molds and unicellular fungi are called yeast.
Molds include all species of fungi that grow in the form of multicellular filaments,

called hyphae. Hyphae grouped together is called mycelium. Hyphae absorb

nutrients from the environment and transport them to other parts of the
thallus (fungus’s body). If you leave a piece of bread or fruit exposed to the air
for a few days, it will soon become moldy. Mold spores carried in the air have
landed on the food and grown into a mycelium of hyphae. When a spore lands
on the food, a hypha grows out from it. The hypha grows and branches again
and again, until the mycelium covers the surface of the food. The hyphae
produce
digestive enzymes on to the food, breaking it down into soluble substances
such
as sugars, which are then absorbed by the mold. This is called the saprophytic

nutrition (feeding on dead, decayed materials)

Protoctists; Protoctists are sometimes called the ‘dustbin kingdom’, because they are
a mixed group of organisms that don’t fit into the plants, animals or fungi.
Protoctists are difficult to characterize because of the great diversity of the

kingdom. These organisms vary in body form, nutrition, and reproduction.

They may be unicellular or multicellular. It consists of plant-like organism,
as well as animal-like organism. Some protoctists’ cells look like animal
cells such as Amoeba (a single celled organism). These are known as
 protozoa (single celled organisms). Other protoctists’ cells have
chloroplasts and carry out photosynthesis. Some protoctists are agent of
disease such as Plasmodium, the organism that causes malaria.

All organisms stated above are eukaryotic organisms. Eukaryotic means ‘having a
nucleus’; their cells contain a nucleus surrounded by a membrane, along with other
membrane bound organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. Organisms which
are made out of cells which do not have nucleus, mitochondria or chloroplasts are
called prokaryotic organisms. Prokaryotic means ‘before nucleus’. The main form of
prokaryotic organisms are bacteria.

Bacteria; Bacteria are microscopic single celled organisms which are found in every
habitat on Earth. Bacteria can survive on its own, inside or outside the
body. Some species can live under extreme conditions of temperature and
pressure. The human body is full of bacteria, and in fact it is said to be that
the
human body contain more bacterial cells than human cells. Most bacteria are
 not harmful but some can cause infections.
All bacteria are surrounded by a cell wall, which protects the bacterium and
keeps the shape of the cell. Bacterial cell walls are not made of cellulose but
a
complex compound of sugars and proteins called peptidoglycan. Some
species have another layer outside this wall, called a capsule; a slime layer.
Both give the bacterium extra protection. Underneath the cell wall is the cell
membrane. The middle of the cell is made of cytoplasm. Since it is a
prokaryotic
cell, the bacterium has no nucleus. Instead, its genetic material (DNA) is in a
single chromosome, loose in the cytoplasm, forming a circular loop.

Chromosome

Capsule

Flagellum
Cell wall

Cell membrane
Plasmids

Some bacteria contain a form of chlorophyll in their cytoplasm, and can carry out
photosynthesis. However, most bacteria feed off other living or dead organisms. Along
with the fungi, many bacteria are decomposers (organism that breaks down dead
organic material) recycling dead organisms and waste products in the soil. Bacteria are
also called pathogens which means they cause diseases.

Viruses; Viruses are microorganisms which infect cells and cause diseases. All viruses
 are parasites. Parasites are organisms which live in or on an organism and
get its food from the organism that it is living in/on. The organism that the
virus
live in is called the ‘host’.
Viruses are not considered as living organisms. This is because they do not
carry out any of the normal characteristics of living things except reproduction

(and they can only do this parasitically).

A virus reproduces by entering the host cell and taking over the host’s genetic

machinery to make more virus particles. After many virus particles have been
made, the host cell dies and the particles are released to infect more cells.
Many
human diseases are caused in this way. But the reproduction process does
not
continue forever. Usually, the body’s immune system destroys the virus and
the
DNA/RNA
person recovers. Sometimes, however, a virus cannot be destroyed by the
immune system quickly enough, and it may cause permanent damage or
death.
With other infections, the virus may attack cells of the immune system itself.
Viruses are not made of cells.
A virus particle is very simple.
It has no nucleus or cytoplasm, Envelope
and is composed of a core of
genetic material surrounded by
a protein coat. The genetic
material can be either DNA,
or a similar chemical called RNA.
In either case, the genetic material
makes up just a few genes that is
needed for the virus to
reproduce inside its host cell.

Protein coat
 CH – 3

Cells get their energy from a process of called respiration. Respiration breaks down
glucose to produce ATP, which cells may use as energy. (Check page 8).
The difference between breathing and respiration;
Breathing is the mechanical process of taking air into the lungs and removing carbon
dioxide from the lungs. Respiration is the chemical process which takes place in every
cell to release energy. The lungs and associated structures are often called the
respiratory system but this can be confusing. It is better to call them the gas exchange
system.

The gas exchange system consists two lungs. Each lung is filled with many tiny air
spaces called air sacs or alveoli. It is here that gas exchange with the blood takes
place (oxygen diffuses to blood). The lungs are enclosed in the chest or thorax by the
ribcage and a muscular sheet of tissue called the diaphragm (major muscle of
respiration). The inside of the thorax is separated from the lungs by two thin, moist
membranes called the pleural membranes. They make up a continuous envelope
around the lungs, forming an airtight seal. Between the two membranes is a space
called the pleural cavity, filled with a thin layer of liquid called pleural fluid. This acts
as lubrication, so that the surfaces of the lungs don’t stick to the inside of the chest wall
when we breathe.
Joining each rib to the next are two sets of muscles called intercostal muscles
(muscles that present within the rib cage). It consists three layers of muscles; external,
internal, and innermost layer. They combine to fill the space between the ribs.
Air can enter the body through your nose or mouth. But normally people breathe in
through the nose and it is better to breathe through the nose. It is because the
structure of nose allows the air to become filtered before it gets to the lungs. Hairs in
the nose trap the dust particles in the air.
From the nose or mouth, the air is then pass down the windpipe aka the trachea. The
trachea splits into two tubes called the bronchi, one leading to each lung. Each
bronchus divides into smaller and smaller tubes called bronchioles, eventually ending
at alveoli.
The walls of trachea and bronchi contain C-shaped rings called cartilage. These
support the airways and keep them open when we breathe in. These also support the
trachea not to collapse when we breathe in. The open part of the ring allows food to
pass through the esophagus without catching on the rings.

The trachea and larger airways are lined with a layer of cells that have an important
role in keeping the airways clean. Some cells in this lining produces a sticky liquid
called mucus, which traps particles of dirt or bacteria that are breathed in. Other cells
are covered with tiny hair-like structures called cilia. The cilia beat backwards and
forwards, sweeping the mucus and trapped particles out towards the mouth. In this
way, dirt and bacteria are prevented from entering the lungs.

Ventilation means moving air in and out of the lungs. This requires a difference in air
pressure, the air moves from high pressure area to low pressure area.
When we breathe in, our ribs move upwards and outwards. They are moved by the
intercostal muscles. The outer (external) intercostals contract pulling the rib up. At the
same time, the muscles of the diaphragm contract pulling the diaphragm down into a
more flattened shape. These movements increase the volume of the chest, lowering
the pressure and allowing the oxygen enters the lungs.
In the air sacs of the lungs, oxygen enters the blood. And the blood takes the oxygen
around the body, give its oxygen to cells and gain carbon dioxide. The blood returns to
the lungs and carbon dioxide leaves the blood.
The opposite happens when we breathe out. When we breathe out, the external
intercostals relax and the internal intercostals contract, pulling the ribs down and in.
The diaphragm muscles also relax and the diaphragm goes back to normal shape.
These movements decrease the volume of the chest, raised the pressure and forces
the air out of the lungs.

You can tell what is happening during gas exchange if you compare the amounts of
different gases in atmospheric air with the air breathed out.

Gas Atmospheric air /% Exhaled air /%

nitrogen 78 79
oxygen 21 16

carbon dioxide 0.04 4

other gases 1 1
Exhaled air is warmer than atmospheric air, and is saturated with water vapor. The
amount of water vapor in the atmosphere varies depending on weather conditions.
The lungs are absorbing oxygen into the blood and removing carbon dioxide from it.
This happens in the alveoli. To do this efficiently, the alveoli must have a structure
which brings the air and blood very close together, over a very large surface area.
There are enormous numbers of alveoli. It has been calculated that the two lungs
contain about 700000000 of these tiny air sacs, giving a total surface area of 60m2.
The walls of alveoli are the gas exchange area. Tiny capillaries are closely wrapped
around the outside of the alveoli. Capillary is the smallest type of blood vessel. The
wall of a capillary is thin and leaky, and capillaries are involved in the exchange of
fluids and gases between tissues and the blood. It helps your body move substances
into and out of your bloodstream to and from organs.

Oxygen diffuses across the walls of alveoli into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses
the other way. Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to the lungs and passes
through the capillaries surrounding the alveoli. The air in the alveolus has a higher
concentration of oxygen than the blood entering the capillary network, oxygen diffuses
from the air, across the wall of the alveolus and into the blood. At the same time there
is more carbon dioxide in the blood than there is in the air in the lungs. This means that
there is a diffusion gradient for carbon dioxide in the other direction, so carbon dioxide
diffuses the other way, out of the blood and into the alveolus. The result is that the
blood which leaves the capillaries and flows back to the heart has gained oxygen and
lost carbon dioxide. The heart then pumps the oxygenated blood around the body
again.
The apparatus shown above can be used to compare the amount of carbon dioxide in
inhaled and exhaled air. A person breathes gently in and out through the middle tube.
Exhaled air passes out through one tube of indicator solution and inhaled air is drawn
in through the other tube. If limewater is used, the limewater in the ‘exhaled’ tube will
turn cloudy/milky before the limewater in the ‘inhaled’ tube. (If hydrogen carbonate
indicator solution is used instead, it changes from red to yellow).

For the lungs to exchange gases properly, the air passages need to be clear, the
alveoli need to be free from dirt particles and bacteria, and they must have as big a
surface area as possible in contact with the blood. There is one habit that can upset all
of these conditions; smoking. Smoking is the action or habit
of inhaling and exhaling the smoke of tobacco by sucking on the end of a lit.
Links between smoking and diseases of the lungs are now a proven fact. Smoking is
associated with lung diseases such as lung cancer, bronchitis and emphysema.
Pregnant women who smoke are more likely to give birth to underweight babies.
Bronchitis is a lung disease where the cilia are destroyed by the chemicals in a
cigarette. The reduced numbers of cilia mean that the mucus is not swept away from
the lungs, but remains to block the air passages. The sticky mucus blocking the
airways is the source of smoker’s cough. Bronchitis blocks normal air flow, so the
sufferer has difficulty breathing properly.
Emphysema is another lung disease where the walls of alveoli are damaged, which
break down and fuse together again, forming enlarged, irregular air spaces. It kills
about 20000 people in Britain every year. The damaged alveoli walls reduce surface
area for gas exchange, which becomes very inefficient. The blood of a person with
emphysema carries less oxygen.

Cigarette smoke contains a strongly addictive drug called nicotine. Smoke contains
over 7000 chemicals, including; carbon monoxide, arsenic, ammonia, formaldehyde,
cyanide, benzene, and toluene. More than 60 of the chemicals are known to cause
cancer. These chemicals are called carcinogens, and are contained in the tar that
collects in a smoker’s lungs. Cancer happens when cells mutate and start to divide
uncontrollably, forming a tumor. When tumor is formed, it may grow large and spread
the cancer cells to other tissues of the body. Tumors in the lungs usually cause no
pain, so they are not discovered until it is too late , it may be inoperable, or tumors may
have developed elsewhere. If you smoke you are not bound to get lung cancer, but the
risk that you will get it is much greater. In fact, the more cigarettes you smoke, the
more the risk increases.
One of the harmful chemicals in cigarette smoke is the poisonous gas carbon
monoxide. When this gas is breathed in with the smoke, it enters the bloodstream
together with oxygen. Oxygen is carried around in the blood in the red blood cells,
attached to a chemical called haemoglobin. Carbon monoxide can combine with the
haemoglobin much more tightly than oxygen can. So it displaces oxygen and combine
with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin. When this happens, the blood carries
much less oxygen around the body.

Smoking can be given up by various ways. . One method is vaping, which involves
inhaling a vapor containing nicotine from an electronic cigarette/e-cigarette. Other
methods use nicotine patches or nicotine chewing gum. Nicotine patches release
nicotine into the blood through the skin. When a smoker is trying to give up the habit,
they reduce the craving for a cigarette. They all work in a similar way, providing the
smoker with a source of nicotine without the harmful tar from cigarettes. The nicotine is
absorbed by the body and reduces the craving for a cigarette. Gradually, the smoker
reduces the nicotine dose until they are weaned off the habit.

CH – 4

We eat food because food provides the energy to keep the body alive, it provides the
energy to run body functions and the building blocks to grow and repair body
tissue. What you eat matters because the cells in your body need certain things that
you can provide only by eating.
The food that we eat is called our diet. Your diet must include carbohydrates, lipids
(fats), proteins, minerals and vitamins, along with dietary fiber and water for your
body to work properly and stay healthy. The food you eat should provide you with all of
these substances, but they must also be present in the right amounts. A diet that
provides enough of these substances and in the correct proportions is called a
balanced diet.
Bodies of living things are made out of many chemicals. In most organisms, 80% of the
body is made out of water. Water is important to living organisms because metabolic
reactions can only take if the reacting chemicals are dissolved in water. If the cells dry
out, the reactions stop and the organism dies. Bodies of living things also contain
carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

Carbohydrates; Carbohydrates are sugar molecules. They are organic compounds

which contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrates are
found in both healthy and unhealthy foods such as bread, rice,
cereal,
beans, milk, potatoes, spaghetti, cookies and etc. Carbohydrates
only
make up about 1% of the human body, but they have a very
important
role. They are the body’s main fuel, the body's major source of
energy.
 Cells release the energy by oxidizing a sugar called glucose by cell
respiration (check page 8). Glucose and other sugars belong to one
group of carbohydrates. Glucose is found naturally in many sweet-
tasting foods, such as fruits and vegetables. Other foods contain
different sugars, such as the fruit sugar called fructose, and the milk
sugar, lactose. Ordinary/normal sugar which people put in their tea
or
coffee, is called sucrose. Sucrose is the main sugar that is
transported
through plant stems, this is why we can extract it from sugar cane,
like
plants.
Note: Sugars have two physical properties; they all taste sweet, and are soluble in
water.

We can get all the sugar we need from natural foods such as fruits
and
vegetables, and from the digestion of starch.
We get most of the carbohydrate in our diet from starch. Starch is a
large, insoluble molecule. Plants store carbohydrates as starch so
they
can be found as a storage of carbohydrate in many plants, such as
potato, rice and wheat. Starch is a polymer (a substance made from
long chains of repeating groups of atoms) of glucose. It is made of
long
chains of hundreds of glucose molecules joined together.
Note: Large carbohydrates such as starch and glycogen have to be broken down into
simple sugars during digestion, so that they can be absorbed into the blood.

The simplest kind of carbohydrates are called the simple sugars or

monosaccharides. Glucose and fructose are examples of monosaccharides. If two
simple sugar molecules join together, they form a complex sugar called disaccharide.
Sucrose molecules are made of two monosaccharides (glucose and fructose) joined
together, so sucrose is a disaccharide. If many simple sugar molecules join together,
they form polysaccharides. Polymers of sugars, such as starch, glycogen and
cellulose, are polysaccharides.
Testing for carbohydrates:
You can test the presence of sugars by adding benedict’s solution to a food and
heating it. Benedict’s solution is a chemical solution that changes color in the presence
of glucose and other reducing sugars. All simple sugars and some complex sugar
such as maltose are reducing sugars. If the food contains reducing sugars, then the
solution will turn into a brick red color. The mixture changes from blue to green to
yellow to orange and lastly to brick red color. If there is no reducing sugar the solution
will remain blue. If sucrose was tested with benedict’s solution, the solution will remain
blue.
Note: The benedict’s solution has a blue color.

Testing for starch:

You can test the presence of starch by adding an iodine solution to the food. This test
is easier as it doesn’t involve heating. If the food contains starch, a blue-black color is
obtained. If there is to starch, the iodine solution will remain orange-brown. This test
will work on a solid sample of food, such as potato.
Lipids; Lipids are fats. Lipids contain the same three elements as carbohydrates;
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Fats that are solid at room temperature come
from animals which are known as saturated fats. For example, beef and lamb
both contain a fat called tristearin which is solid at room temperature (but it
will
melt if heated). On the other hand, plant lipids are usually liquid at room
temperature, and are called oils. Fats can be found in avocados, butter,
margarine, cheese, mayonnaise, eggs, meats, milk and etc.
Lipids make up about 10% of our body’s mass. Just like carbohydrates lipids
can be used in cells to release to energy. Cells can release twice as much as
energy from fat but most cells use carbohydrates when they need and store
fats
as long-term energy. For example, under the skin of our bodies are filled with
large drops of fats. This layer of fats is called the adipose tissue and it acts as

insulation, reducing heat loss through the surface of the body. Animals such as

walruses which live in very cold places, have thick layers of adipose tissues.
Although lipids are an essential part of our diet, too much lipid is unhealthy
because it leads to weight gain which could leads to diseases such as
diabetes.
It could also increase the risk of heart disease and stroke (brain attack).

Testing for lipids:

You can test the presence of lipids by ethanol emulsion test. First you have to chop
the food that you will use as the test substance. Then add the chopped food to a
tube/bottle together with ethanol and shake it gently. Although fats are insoluble in
water, it is soluble in ethanol. Next, you pour the mixture of ethanol and chopped food
is pour into water. If there were lipids, a white cloudy layer will be formed on the top of
the water. This is caused by the ethanol dissolving in the water and leaving the lipid
behind as a suspension of tiny droplets, called an emulsion. Emulsion has a white and
opaque, milk like color. If there are no lipids, the mixture of water and ethanol will
remain transparent.
Protein; Proteins contain elements which are not present in carbohydrates and lipids.
Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, also nitrogen and a small amount

of sulfur. Proteins are polysaccharides just like starch. Unlike starch, proteins
aren’t made out of 1 molecule but 20. Proteins are made out of 20 different
sub
units called amino acids. The amino acids are linked together in long chains,

which are usually folded up or twisted into spirals, with cross-links holding the

chains together. Any of these 20 can be joined together in any order to make
a
protein. (Each protein is made with amino acids in a precise order). Since
there
are 20 different amino acids, and they can be arranged in any order and even

a small difference in the order, makes a different protein.

Proteins can be found meats, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, yogurt, tofu and etc.
You
will notice that these foods are animal products. Plant material generally
contains less protein, but some foods such as beans, peas and nuts, are
richer
in protein than others.
Proteins make up about 18% of the mass of the body. This is the second
largest
percentage after water. Many compounds in the body are made from protein,
including enzymes. However, we don’t need much protein in our diet to stay
healthy. Unlike carbohydrates, proteins are not normally used to provide
energy.
The proteins you eat are for making new cells. New cells are needed for
growing
and repairing damaged parts of your body. Proteins are also needed to make
antibodies. Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in
response to infection. They are important because they work as body’s
defense
which help kill bacteria and viruses inside the body.

Testing for proteins:

You can test Minerals Mass in an adult body/g Location in body
the
Calcium 1000 Bones
presence of
proteins by Phosphorus 650 Bones and teeth
the biuret Sodium 100 Body fluids (e.g., blood)
test. First Chlorine 100 Body fluids (e.g., blood)
you have to
Magnesium 30 Bones
mix the food
Iron 3 Red blood cells
that you will
use as the test substance with water. Then add dilute copper sulfate solution. Dilute
potassium hydroxide solution is gently added afterwards. If there is protein, the mixture
will turn purple and if there is no protein, the mixture remains blue.

Minerals; All the foods you have read about so far are made from just five chemical
elements; carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur. Our bodies contain

many other elements that we get from our food as minerals. Minerals
are elements on the earth and in foods that our bodies need to develop and
function normally. It includes calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chloride,
magnesium, iron and etc.
Calcium; Calcium is the most abundant (exists in large quantities) mineral in the
human
body, making up 1.5 to 2% of the total body weight. About 1000 g of calcium
are present in the body of an adult human and more than 99% of that
amount
is found in bones. Calcium helps build and keeps your bones and teeth
healthy. And it may also help maintain blood pressure.

Phosphorus; Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral in the body, second to

calcium. About 85% of the body's phosphorus is stored in bones and

teeth. Phosphorus also helps build and keeps your bones and teeth
healthy. It is also needed for growth and repair of all tissues and cells.

Magnesium; An adult body contains about 30 g of magnesium. 60 to 65% of it is found

in bone and 27% is found in muscles. Magnesium helps building

proteins,
strong bones, regulating blood pressure and maintain the health of
muscles, including the heart.

Iron; An adult body contains about 3 or 4 g of iron. About 70 percent of your body's iron

is found in the red blood cells of your blood called haemoglobin and in muscle
cells
called myoglobin. Iron is stored in the body as ferritin (in the liver, spleen,
muscle
tissue, and bone marrow) and is delivered throughout the body.

If a person doesn’t get enough of a mineral from their diet, they will show the
symptoms of a mineral deficiency disease. A 1-year-old child needs to eat about 0.6 g
of calcium every day, to make the bones grow properly and harden. If they eat anything
less than this could result in poor bone development. The bones become deformed; a
disease called rickets. Rickets is the softening and weakening of bones in children.
Similarly, 16-year-olds need about 12 mg of iron in their daily food intake. If they don’t
get this amount, they can’t make enough haemoglobin for their red blood cells. This
causes a condition called anaemia. Anemia is a condition in which the body does not
have enough healthy red blood cells. People who are anaemic become tired and lack
energy, because their blood doesn’t carry enough oxygen.

Vitamins; Vitamins are a group of substances that are needed for normal cell
 function, growth, and development. There are 13 essential vitamins (but
I’ll just state 5). They are vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin B12, vitamin C,
vitamin D.
Vitamins are grouped into two categories:
Fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamin A and D are stored in the body's
liver, fatty tissue, and muscles. These vitamins are absorbed more easily

by the body.
Water-soluble vitamins such as vitamin B (except B12) and C are not
stored in the body. Any leftover or excess amounts of these are excreted/

leaves the body through the urine.

Vitamin A; Vitamin A helps form and maintain healthy teeth, bones, soft tissue and
skin. Vitamin A deficiency can cause vision loss and blindness/night
blindness

Vitamin B; Vitamin B helps maintain healthy skin and nerves. It also has cholesterol-
lowering effects. Vitamin B deficiency can cause diseases such as
beriberi (weakening of muscles), pellagra or anaemia. People who are
vitamin B deficient may feel tired, numbness or weak, among other
symptoms.

Vitamin B12; Vitamin B12 is important for metabolism and it helps form red blood
cells
and maintain the central nervous system. Vitamin B12 deficiency can
cause neurological problems, which affect your nervous system. This
includes vision problems, memory loss, numbness, mild depression or
anxiety and etc.

Vitamin C; Vitamin C helps the body absorb iron and maintain healthy tissue. It is also
essential for wound healing. Vitamin C deficiency can cause a disease
called scurvy where wounds fail to heal, and bleeding occurs in various
places in the body especially at gums.

Vitamin D; Vitamin D help the body absorb and retain calcium and phosphorus which
are essential for building bone. Vitamin D deficiency can cause loss of
bone
density, bone pain or achiness and ricket (check page 30).
 Food energy is a chemical energy which is transferred to the consumer when eaten.
The energy provided by the food depends on the amount of carbohydrate, protein,
lipids the food contains. And it is measured in kilojoules (kJ).

Water
Thermometer

Burning food on needle

The heat energy supplied to water can be found from the formula
energy = (final temperature – temperature at the start) x mass of water x 4.2
Note: 1°C = 4.2 joules, 1cm3 water = 1g of water
If you divide this by the mass of food, it gives energy per gram.

For example: you have a piece of pasta which weighs 0.55g. The starting temperature
of the 20g water was 21°C and after burning the pasta to heat up the
water,
the temperature was 43°C.
energy = (final temperature – temperature at the start) x mass of water x 4.2
= (43 – 21) x 20 x 4.2 = 1848J
divide this by mass of food = 1848J/0.55g
= 3360J/g

Digestion is the chemical and mechanical breakdown of food. It breaks down food into
substances which can be used as energy by the body. It converts food into their
simplest forms, like glucose, amino acids and fatty acids. The broken-down food is
then absorbed into the bloodstream from the small intestine and the nutrients are
carried to each cell in the body.
The digestive system begins at the mouth and ends at the anus. It is like a long
muscular tube, up to 10 meters long, with digestive organs attached along the way.
Digestion begins in the mouth. The food is ground up by the teeth and moistened with
saliva to make it easy to swallow. The saliva mixes with the food to begin to break it
down into a form your body can absorb and use. When you swallow, your tongue
passes the food into your throat and into your esophagus. Then the esophagus
transports the food to the stomach. The stomach is a muscular hollow organ. The
food is held in the stomach for several hours. The stomach produces digestive
enzymes which helps break down the food into useable form. These enzymes also kill
bacteria that are taken into the gut along with the food, helping to protect us from food
poisoning
Then it passes on to the small intestine in small portions. The small intestine is made
out of 3 parts, the duodenum, jejunum, ileum. The duodenum is the first part of the
small intestine and it helps to further digest food coming from the stomach. The
jejunum and ileum lower in the intestine are mainly responsible for the absorption of
nutrients into the bloodstream. The last part of the gut, the large intestine, is mainly
concerned with absorbing water out of the remains, and storing the waste products
before they are removed from the body.
The pancreas produces digestive enzymes that are transported into the duodenum
that break down protein, fats and carbohydrates. The pancreas also makes insulin
which is a hormone that controls the amount of glucose in your bloodstream. As well
as this, the liver makes a digestive juice called bile. Bile is a green liquid that is stored
in the gall bladder. It breaks down fats into fatty acids which increase surface area of
the lipid, so that lipase enzymes can break it down more easily.
Class of enzyme Examples Digestive Action

Carbohydrase Amylase Starch -> maltose

Maltase maltose -> glucose
Protease Pepsin Proteins -> peptides2
Trypsin Proteins -> peptides
 Peptides Peptides -> amino acids
Lipase Lipase Lipids -> glycerol and fatty acids

CH – 5

Circulatory system is the system that moves blood throughout the body. This system
helps tissues get enough oxygen and nutrients, and it helps them get rid of waste
products.
One of the main functions of a circulatory system in animals is to transport oxygen.
Blood is pumped to a gas exchange organ to load oxygen (The process by which
hemoglobin binds oxygen to form oxyhemoglobin/become oxygenated). Then it is
pumped to other parts of the body where it unloads the oxygen. There are two main
types of circulatory systems in animals:

Single circulatory system; The blood flows to and from the heart through a single
pathway. The blood flows from the heart to the gas
exchange organ and then directly to the rest of the body.
Animals such as fish have single circulatory systems.
Double circulatory system; There are two separate pathways that are connected to
the heart through which blood flows. The blood is flows
from the heart to the gas exchange organ, back to the
heart and then to the rest of the body. Mammals such as

humans have double circulatory system.

There are two parts to a double circulatory system:

Pulmonary circulation; Deoxygenated blood leaves the heart through the pulmonary

arteries (blood vessels that carry oxygen-poor blood from the

right side of your heart to your lungs) to the lungs. In the

lungs,
the deoxygenated blood is purified into oxygenated blood.
Then the oxygenated blood returns to the heart through the
pulmonary veins.

Systemic circulation; Oxygenated blood leaves the heart through the aorta (main
artery that carries blood away from your heart to the rest of
your
body) and is transported around all other parts of the body,
where it unloads its oxygen (deoxygenate). Then the
deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through the vena
cava
(vein that carries blood to the heart from other areas of the
body).

Single-celled organisms such as amoeba do not have circulatory systems. It is

because they are made out of only one cell and there is no need to transport things
place to place inside a single cell. They have no specialized respiratory organs/gas
exchange organs and they obtain oxygen by diffusion through the surface membrane
of the cell. The rest of the cell then uses the oxygen.
The area of the cell's surface determines how much oxygen the organism can get (the
supply rate), and the volume of the cell determines how much oxygen the organism
uses (the demand rate).
ratio of supply to demand = surface area/volume
This is called the surface area to volume ratio and it is affected by the size of an
organism. Single-celled organisms have a high surface area to volume ratio because
small cell has a larger surface area to volume ratio than a large cell. Their cell surface
membrane has a large enough area to supply all the oxygen that their volume
demands.
In larger animals, the surface area to volume ratio is lower. Large animals cannot get
all the oxygen they need through their surface because there isn't enough surface to
supply all that volume. To overcome this problem, large organisms have special gas
exchange organs and circulatory systems.
The
human

circulatory system includes the heart,

blood vessels and blood.

Heart; Heart is the main organ of the circulatory system. It’s a muscle at the center of
your circulatory system which pumps blood around the body at different speeds

and pressures according to body’s needs. The heart contains four chambers;
the
left atrium and right atrium (upper chambers), and the left ventricle and
right
ventricle (lower chambers).
Ventricle; The heart is divided into a left ventricle and a right ventricle by a wall of
muscle
called the septum. The two ventricles are thick-walled chambers that
pump blood out of the heart. The right ventricle pumps blood only to the
lungs. The left ventricle is slightly larger than the right and it pumps blood
to
all other part of the body.
Valves; Valves are like doors between your heart chambers. They open and close to
allow blood to flow through. It ensures that the blood can flow only in one
direction through the heart. The valves include the atrioventricular valves
and
the semilunar valves. The atrioventricular valves include two valves; the
tricuspid valve (door between your right atrium and right ventricle) and
bicuspid valve (door between your left atrium and left ventricle).
Atria; The two atria are thin-walled chambers that receive blood from the veins. The
right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from systemic veins (transports blood
from other parts of body to the heart) and the left atrium receives oxygenated
blood from the pulmonary veins (transports oxygenated blood from your lungs to

your heart). They can be stretched to receive blood as it returns to the heart but
can contract with enough force to push blood.

Walls of heart; The walls of the heart are made of cardiac muscle, which can
contract and then relax continuously without becoming fatigued. The
heart walls have three layers: endocardium (inner layer),
myocardium (muscular middle layer) and epicardium (Protective
outer layer).
Blood vessels; The heart pumps blood through three types of blood vessels:
arteries carry oxygenated blood from your heart to around your
body.
There are two types of arteries. The first type, elastic, is like when a
football player catches the ball, absorbing the force from the throw.
This is the type that gets your blood from your heart before passing it
 on to other arteries. The second type, muscular, is like when they
run
down the field with the ball, getting it to where it needs to go. This is
your blood going to your body’s organs.
Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to your heart. Veins hold most

of the blood in your body. About 75% of your blood is in your veins.
The major difference between arteries and veins is the type of blood
they carry. While arteries carry oxygenated blood, veins carry
deoxygenated blood. Veins are also different than arteries when it
comes to the thickness of their walls. Veins have thinner and less
muscular walls. This is because veins have a lower level of pressure
than arteries.
Capillaries are small blood the smallest type of blood vessel.
Capillaries carry blood through organs, bringing the blood close to
every cell in the organ. Substances are transferred between the
blood
in the capillary and the cells. This is also where exchange of
oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood takes place Capillaries
complete the circulatory system by connecting arteries to veins.

The cardiac cycle is a series of pressure changes that take place within the heart.
These pressure changes result in the movement of blood through different chambers of
the heart and the body as a whole.
 2. The walls of the atria 3. When the ventricles are full, they
contract. This contract. This increases the
1. Blood
raises the pressure pressure of blood in the ventricles
enters the
of blood in the which closes the bicuspid and
atria. It cannot
atria which tricuspid valves again. Blood cannot
yet pass into
the ventricles forces open
the bicuspid and return to the atria
because the
bicuspid and tricuspid valves. Blood
tricuspid
valves are passes through these
closed. valves into the ventricles.

5. As the ventricles 4. The ventricles

empty, higher pressure continue to contract and
in the aorta and the pressure continues
pulmonary artery to increase. This forces
closes the valves in open the semi-lunar
these blood vessels. valves at the base of
The cycle then begins the aorta and the
again as the atria start pulmonary artery. Blood
to fill with blood. is ejected into these two
arteries. The pulmonary
artery carries blood to
the lungs. The aorta has
branches that carry
blood to all other parts
of the body.

Coronary heart disease is a disease that affects your coronary arteries, which supply
blood to your heart. The coronary arteries are among the narrowest in the body. They
are easily blocked by a buildup of fatty substances (including cholesterol) in their walls.
Coronary arteries supply oxygenated blood to your heart. The buildup of fatty
substances in these arteries limits how much blood can reach your heart. Your heart
muscle will start to die because it’s not receiving enough blood. Coronary heart disease
can lead to a heart attack or other complications like arrhythmia or heart failure.
Causes of coronary disease are:
Heredity; some people inherit a tendency to develop coronary heart disease
High blood pressure; puts more strain on the heart
Diet; eating large amounts of saturated fat is likely to raise cholesterol levels
Smoking; raises blood pressure and makes blood clots more likely to form
Stress; raises blood pressure
Lack of exercise; regular exercise helps to reduce blood pressure and strengthens the

heart

Your pulse rate, also known as your heart rate, is the number of times your heart
beats per minute. A normal resting heart rate should be between 70 beats per minute.
But this can change according to the needs of the body. When we exercise, muscles
must release more energy. They need an increased supply of oxygen for respiration. To
deliver the extra oxygen, both the number of beats per minute and the volume of blood
pumped with each beat (called stroke volume) increase. When we are angry or afraid
our heart rate again increases. The increased output supplies extra blood to the
muscles, enabling them to release extra energy through aerobic respiration. This
allows us to fight or run away and is called the 'fight or flight' response. When we sleep,
our heart rate decreases as all our organs are working more slowly. They need to
release less energy and so need less oxygen.