Project Report on:

RACE

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Dr. Ajay Ranga Hemlata
B.A.LLB (Hons)
Roll no. – 82/15
(13060)
Section – ‘B’
Semester – 9th
 SUPERVISOR’S CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the work incorporated in the project report entitled “Race” submitted by
Hemlata, (82/15) in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of internal assessment
in the subject of Forensic Science to University Institute of Legal Studies, Panjab University,
Chandigarh is a record of the candidate’s own work carried out by her under my guidance
and supervision. To the best of my knowledge and belief the project report

1. Embodies the work of the candidate herself,

2. Has duly been completed,
3. Is up to the desired standard both in respect of contents and language for being
referred to the examiners.

DR. AJAY RANGA Place: Chandigarh

(ASST. PROFESSOR) Date:

University Institute of Legal Studies,

Panjab University,

Chandigarh.
 STUDENT CERTIFICATE

I, the undersigned, hereby solemnly declare that the Project Report entitled: “Race”,
submitted to the University Institute of Legal Studies, Panjab University, Chandigarh, in
partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of internal assessment in the subject of
Forensic Science, is an original and bonafide research work of mine and has been done under
the supervision of Dr. Ajay Ranga (Asst. Professor), University Institute of Legal Studies,
Panjab University, Chandigarh. The project has not been submitted anywhere else at any time
and all the information declared hereby is true to the best of my knowledge.

HEMLATA Place: Chandigarh

82/15 Date:
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Success comes to those who strive for it. To achieve one’s goal, one puts in a lot of hard
work and efficiency. In this process, one takes all the encouraging and helping hands of the
people.

I would like to convey my heart full thanks to Dr. Ajay Ranga, my teacher and guide, who
guided me through this project and also gave valuable suggestions and guidance for
completing this project. He provided me with this opportunity and whose immaculate
knowledge was a key in completion of this project.

I owe my regards to the entire faculty of the Department of Legal Studies, from where I have
learnt the basics of Law and whose informal discussions, intellectual support and able
guidance was a beacon light for me in the entire duration of this work. I would also like to
thank staff of the UILS library and A.C. Joshi Library for availing me all the relevant data.

So, with the concrete efforts and utmost honest intentions, I hereby present this project.

- Hemlata
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1
THE HISTORY OF THE IDEA OF RACE ........................................................................................... 3
DEFINITION .......................................................................................................................................... 4
FORMATION OF RACES ..................................................................................................................... 6
1) MUTATION ............................................................................................................................... 6
2) NATURAL SELECTION ........................................................................................................... 6
3) GENETIC DRIFT ....................................................................................................................... 7
4) MIGRATION .............................................................................................................................. 7
5) ISOLATION ............................................................................................................................... 7
6) HYBRIDIZATION ..................................................................................................................... 8
7) SEXUAL SELECTION .............................................................................................................. 8
8) SOCIAL SELECTION ............................................................................................................... 8
BASIS OF RACIAL CLASSIFICATION .............................................................................................. 9
1) PHENOTYPIC TRAITS: ............................................................................................................ 9
INDEFINITE PHYSICAL (PHENOTYPIC) TRAITS .................................................................. 9
DEFINITE PHYSICAL (PHENOTYPIC) TRAITS ....................................................................... 9
2) GENOTYPIC TRAITS: .............................................................................................................. 9
SKIN COLOUR .................................................................................................................................... 11
HAIR FORM ........................................................................................................................................ 12
COLOUR .......................................................................................................................................... 13
TEXTURE ........................................................................................................................................ 13
.......................................................................................................................................................... 13
QUANTITY ...................................................................................................................................... 13
CROSS SECTION ............................................................................................................................ 14
HAIR WHORL ................................................................................................................................. 14
HEAD FORM ....................................................................................................................................... 15
FACE FORM ........................................................................................................................................ 16
NOSE .................................................................................................................................................... 17
EYE ....................................................................................................................................................... 18
RACIAL CLASSIFICATION .............................................................................................................. 19
ASHLEY MONTAGU CLASSIFICATION .................................................................................... 19
RACIAL GROUPS OF INDIA ............................................................................................................ 21
 1. THE NEGRITOS .......................................................................................................................... 21
2. THE PROTO-AUSTRALOIDS .................................................................................................... 21
3. THE MONGOLOIDS ................................................................................................................... 22
A. PALEO-MONGOLOIDS............................................................................................................. 22
B. TIBETO-MONGOLOIDS............................................................................................................ 22
4. THE MEDITERRANEANS ......................................................................................................... 22
A. PALEO-MEDITERRANEANS ................................................................................................... 22
B. MEDITERRANEAN’S ................................................................................................................ 22
C. ORIENTAL-MEDITERRANEAN’S ........................................................................................... 23
5. THE BRACHYCEPHALICS (WESTERN RACE WITH BROAD HEAD): .............................. 23
6. THE NORDICS: ........................................................................................................................... 23
RACE DETERMINATION .................................................................................................................. 24
Clothing ............................................................................................................................................ 24
Complexion and Features ................................................................................................................. 24
BHOWAL SANYASI CASE........................................................................................................ 25
Eyes ................................................................................................................................................... 25
Hair ................................................................................................................................................... 25
Teeth ................................................................................................................................................. 26
Feet.................................................................................................................................................... 26
Tattoo Marks ..................................................................................................................................... 26
Skelton .............................................................................................................................................. 26
i. SPINAL COLUMN: ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
ii. THE POSTERIOR SURFACE OF THE FEMUR................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
iii. TIBIA ................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
iv. ASTRAGALS: .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
VARIOS INDICES RELATED TO BONES ....................................................................................... 27
(A) THE CEPHALIC INDEX ..................................................................................................... 27
(B) Brachial Index: ...................................................................................................................... 27
(C) Crural Index: ......................................................................................................................... 27
(D) Humero-Femoral Index:........................................................................................................ 27
UNESCO STATEMENT ON RACIALCLASSIFICATION ............................................................... 28
CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................................... 29
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................................. 30
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ed - Edited by

Art - Article

Vol - Volume

Iss - Issue

et.al. - and Others

eds - Editors

FSL - Foresenic Science Laboratory

Hon. - Honorable

IPC - Indian Penal Code

J. - Justice

Mad - Indian Law Reports Madras series

No. - Number

p. - Page

s. - Section

SC - Supreme Court

SCC - Supreme Court Cases

SCR - Supreme Court Reporter

v. - versus

UWOJA - University of Western Ontario Anthropology Journal

 INTRODUCTION

In common parlance, race refers to the classification of human being’s, ancestry, its origins
and ethnicity. Race refers to classification of humans into relatively large and distinct
population groups based on appearance through heritable phenotypic characteristics, often
influenced by and correlated with culture, ethnicity and socio-economic status. Race is a
concept, applied in various senses, even by human biologists. As a biological term, race
denotes genetically divergent human populations that can be marked by common phenotypes.
The concept of race has varied across the whole world and has been subjected to controversy
for social, biological and political reasons.1

Race brings out differences between skin color, language, nationality and religion. The
concept of race can be understood in two different landscapes – biological and social. The
concept of race provides a frame where all the individuals can be arranged systematically. A
race is a grouping of humans based on shared physical or social qualities into categories
generally viewed as distinct by society.2

RACE
Differences Skin color

Language Nationality Religion

The modern concept of race emerged as a product of the colonial enterprises of European
powers from the 16th to 18th centuries which identified race in terms of skin color and
physical differences. This way of classification would have been confusing for people in the

1
Racial Classification, available at: http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/41420/1/Unit-4.pdf (Visited on
October 18, 2019).
2
Barnshaw, John (2008). "Race". in Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society,
Volume 1 1091–3 (SAGE Publications).

1
ancient world since they did not categorize each other in such a fashion.3 India is a vast
country where varied castes and creed, races and religions do inhibit. In Northern Eastern part
of Himalayas mixture of Mangolian traits, and Aryan trait is commonly observed. Dravidian
trait is commonly noticed in Southern India. In India, the religion of the unknown body has
got to be determined prior to its disposal to see whether it is to be cremated or buried.

One major problem in these racial classifications is that they do not take into account the
occurrence of racial hybridity. Afro-Americans themselves are admixtures of different racial
stocks and skeletally difficult to differentiate. Geographic movement occurs on a very large
scale, resulting in larger populations of admixed individuals who exhibit mix of different
racial traits.4

The question of the determination of race or community arises in the identification of

unknown or unclaimed dead bodies found in railway carriages, cases of mass disasters, air
crash or lying in streets, roads, and fields in the vicinity of villages, or recovered from wells,
tanks, canals and rivers. This question also arises in seaport towns, where there is always a
conglomeration of races and communities.

3
Kennedy, Rebecca F., "Introduction" in Race and Ethnicity in the Classical world : An Anthology of Primary
Sources in Translation xiii (Hackett Publishing Company, 2013).
4
Blumenfeld Jodi “Racial Identification in the skull and teeth”, Vol 8, Iss 1, Art 4 UWOJA (2000).
The author gives a tabulation broadly recognizing the three categories as found in this book but makes
substantially additional observations on nasal bone size, nasal profile, nasal spine, nasal sill, among other
distinctive features in a human body belonging to the three races.

2
 THE HISTORY OF THE IDEA OF RACE

Race as a categorizing term referring to human beings was first used in the English language
in the late 16th century. The term was first used to refer to speakers of a common language
and then to denote national affiliations. By the 17th century the term began to refer to
physical (phenotypical) traits.5

Until the 18th century it had a generalized meaning similar to other classifying terms such as
type, sort, or kind. Occasional literature of Shakespeare’s time referred to a “race of saints” or
“a race of bishops.” By the 18th century, race was widely used for sorting and ranking the
peoples in the English colonies—Europeans who saw themselves as free people, Amerindians
who had been conquered, and Africans who were being brought in as slave labour—and this
usage continues today.

The peoples conquered and enslaved were physically different from western and northern
Europeans, but such differences were not the sole cause for the construction of racial
categories. The English had a long history of separating themselves from others and treating
foreigners, such as the Irish, as alien “others.” By the 17th century their policies and practices
in Ireland had led to an image of the Irish as “savages” who were incapable of being
civilized. Proposals to conquer the Irish, take over their lands, and use them as forced labour
failed largely because of Irish resistance. It was then that many Englishmen turned to the idea
of colonizing the New World. Their attitudes toward the Irish set precedents for how they
were to treat the New World Indians and, later, Africans.6

5
C.S. Coon, The Origin of Races. (Alfred M. Knopf, New York, 1962).
6
Yasuko I. Takezawa, Audrey Smedley et.al., “Race”, available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/race-
human/The-history-of-the-idea-of-race (Visited on October 19, 2019).

3
 DEFINITION

Different cultures define different racial groups, often focused on the largest groups of social
relevance, and these definitions can change over time.

According to Cambridge Dictionary race is a group, especially of people, with particular

similar physical characteristics, who are considered as belonging to the same type, or the fact
of belonging to such a group and who share the same language, history, characteristics, etc.7

According to Collins Dictionary a race is one of the major groups which human beings can
be divided into according to their physical features, such as the colour of their skin.8

E.A. Hooton in 1946 has defined race as a great division of mankind where the members
individually vary and are characterized by combinations of morphological and metrical
features which are non-adaptive and are derived from a common descent.9

He further divided races into Primary and Secondary.

RACE

Primary Secondary

Primary races resulted due to early geographical differentiation and genetic isolation. It
resulted by mutation, selection, migration and drift. Secondary races came into existence due
to hybridization among the primary races.

7
Race, available at: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/race (Visited on October 20, 2019).
8
Race, available at: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/race (Visited on October 20, 2019).
9
Race: Definition and Factor’s behind the Formation of Racial Groups, Article shared by : Jitendu Sarkar
available at http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/biology-essay/race-definition-and-factors-behind-the-
formation-of-racial-groups/41786 (Visited on October 20, 2019).

4
According to one drop rule, a sociological and legal priniciple of racial classification that
was historically prominent in the United States stating that any person having one ancestor of
sub-Saharan African ancestry is considered to be black or Negro.

Malcomson, (2001) propounded a book named One Drop of Blood – The American
misadventure of Race. In this book he concluded about race which is

✓ Not a fixed, concrete, natural attribute

✓ The institutionalization of physical appearance
✓ Socially or culturally and historically constructed
✓ Categories defined and assigned significance by the society
✓ Social meaning which has been legally constructed
✓ Shaped by those in power10

In short, the term ‘race’ is applied to a physically distinctive groups of people, on the basis of
their difference from other groups in skin colour, head shape, hair type and physique.
Anthropologists take the word ‘race’ in its zoological sense. “If the people of one race may
be distinguished by physical markings, then they constitute a race.”

10
Barnshaw, John "Race". in Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society, 1091–3
(SAGE Publications, Volume 1, 2008)

5
 FORMATION OF RACES

Race formation is a complex process where several factors are involved. These may be
summarized as:

SEXUAL MUTATION GENETIC DRIFT

SELECTION

RACE SOCIAL NATURAL

SELECTION SELECTION
FORMATION

HYBRIDIZATION ISOLATION MIGRATION

1) MUTATION

The basic mechanism by which genetic variability is introduced is through mutation.

Mutation is a sudden change in genes resulting in hereditary variation. As soon as a
new mutant gene appears, it multiplies from one generation to another and becomes a
distinctive characteristic of the particular population, provided other conditions are
favorable.

2) NATURAL SELECTION

Natural selection is an important factor that operates to pattern and maintain inter and
intra specific variability, when applied at the genetic level to the alleles operating at
individual loci, as it predicts the behavior of genes under specific conditions.
Selection moulds the genotypes of an organism such that they produce phenotypes
fitting to the environment in which organism lives.11 But natural selection does not
operate directly on the genotypes; it acts through the phenotypes of the individuals

11
Strkalj, G., Form and Race : Terminological concepts for the study of human variation, 109-118 ( Mankind
Quart., 2000).

6
 and their gametes. With natural selection advantageous genes are multiplied more
rapidly than the disadvantageous genes, as the latter will be eliminated by nature.12

3) GENETIC DRIFT

Chance fluctuations of gene frequencies may lead to appreciable genetic differences

between completely isolated sub-populations. This effect becomes stronger, if the
effective breeding size of population is small. There may be lessened variability
owing to the random loss of alleles for a predictable proportion of genes. In this
process, increase or decrease of the frequency of a gene in a certain population does
not depend upon advantageous or disadvantageous conditions of life in a particular
locality, but happens merely as an accident or chance. The different frequency of gene
for tasting or not tasting PTC in different populations forms a good example of
accidental fluctuation of genes.

4) MIGRATION

Migration plays an important role in racial differentiation. It helps in isolation,

hybridization and mixing of different populations with the migrants. Groups of people
migrate from mother population to different directions from the common centre and
become isolated from one another and due to endogamy, pressure of natural selection
and process of hybridization may cause formation of races.

5) ISOLATION

Isolation may be geographical or social and is considered to be a great race maker.

The natural selection and genetic drift, will act effectively only when a particular
population is isolated from the neighbouring populations. On the other hand, people
migrated in groups acquire new traits that appear through mutation. Some of the traits
being selected by nature become adaptive to particular sets of conditions, thus
forming new gene pools. As isolation increases, the possibility of intermarriages
among groups decreases, thus introducing new genes transmitted from generation to
generation by the process of heredity resulting in new racial strains.13

12
Dr. Kumar. Anthropology: Social and Cultural, 104-112 (Lakshmi Narain Agrawal Educational Publishers,
Agra1992).
13
D.N. Majumdar, Races and Cultures of India., (Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 1973).

7
 6) HYBRIDIZATION

Hybridization is a process by which genes within a species are introduced into other
populations resulting in genetic combinations which are entirely new. Through
hybridization, genetic variation is introduced in a population called as gene flow that
leads to the formation of new race. For example, the mingling of Americans and
Negroes has produced a new racial population, an ongoing process.

7) SEXUAL SELECTION

It is a process of selecting mates on the basis of some preferred qualities, as a result of

which the sexually preferred type would become the dominant variety of the
individuals. For example, in a population where blue eye colour was preferred to
brown colour, the brown coloured individuals’ would get lesser and lesser number of
mates. Ultimately the gene of brown eye might be eliminated by this process or, the
blue-eyed would marry blue eyed and brown-eyed would marry brown-eyed. In such
case two distinct types of subgroups would be formed.

8) SOCIAL SELECTION

In social selection, breeding is regulated by artificially instituted barriers between

socially approved individual and groups within a population, so that mating occurs
between individuals preferred by such social standards rather than at random. In such
situations strong isolating mechanisms are developed which in due course may
produce modifications in a population.14

14
S. Garn, Human Races, C.C. Thomas, Springfield, 2nd Ed., 1962).

8
 BASIS OF RACIAL CLASSIFICATION

Racial classification is given to a group of individuals, who share a certain number of

anthropological traits, which is necessary such that they are not confused with others. There
are two aspects to distinguish people based on phenotypic and genotypic traits.

1) PHENOTYPIC TRAITS: Phenotypic traits are those physical characteristics of an

individual, which may be examined. These are of two types:
• Indefinite Physical (Phenotypic) Traits and
• Definite Physical (Phenotypic) Traits

In order to classify the vivid people of the world into various groups or races a large number
of external and internal physical characteristics are used, and is not restricted to only one
particular trait.

INDEFINITE PHYSICAL (PHENOTYPIC) TRAITS - Those physical traits which are observable
but immeasurable to any measurement are called indefinite physical traits, such as the colour
of skin, hair and eyes. Hence they can only be described.

DEFINITE PHYSICAL (PHENOTYPIC) TRAITS - Definite physical traits are those, which can
be measured with the help of anthropological methods and instruments. E.g. Stature, head
form, nose form, face form, etc.

2) GENOTYPIC TRAITS: A new approach to classify human races is based on some

genetic traits. The genotypic traits are blood groups, Dermatoglyphics, Hemoglobin
variants, DNA Fingerprints, etc.15

Sarkar (1965) stated the various points to be kept in mind before studying the various races.

1. The racial classification should not be based on a single trait.

2. While studying the racial classification more emphasis should be given in studying
the racial criteria.
3. In order to avoid inaccuracy, more people should be studied.

15
S. Mohar, Human Variation: Race, Types and Ethnic Group, (Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 1998).

9
 4. The various features of racial classification depended on the age and sex of the
individual, therefore a comparison between individuals of same age and sex should be
carried out.16

• PHENOTYPIC • FACE
CRITERIA FORM

SKIN
HAIR
COLOUR

• EYE
STATURE HEAD
FORM

• NOSE
FORM

There are seven basic phenotypic criteria’s to be undertaken while studying race. These are

i. Skin colour
ii. Hair
iii. Stature
iv. Head Form
v. Face Form
vi. Nose Form
vii. Eye

16
G. Strkalj, 2007. The Status of the Race Concept in Contemporary Biological Anthropology: A Review by
Anthropologists, 9 : 73-78.

10
 SKIN COLOUR

The colour of the skin is an eminent character that attracts one’s interest for racial
classification by some authorities the pigmentation of the skin is due to the presence of
various granules in the deeper layer of epidermis and frequency among the presence of these
granules leads to different skin color among people.

(A) LEUCODERMS OR WHITE SKINNED PEOPLE

Caucasians, Europeans, Western Asiatics, North Africans, Polynesians etc. come
under this group. They vary from pinkish white in the north to tawny white or light
brown in the south.
(B) XANTHODERMS OR YELLOW SKINNED PEOPLE
The best example in this criterion is that of Asiatic Mongloids, Armenoids,
Hottentots and Bushmen. These exhibit a yellowish tinge in the colour of their skin.
(C) MELANODERMS OR BLACK SKINNED PEOPLE
The Negros, Negroids, Papuans, Melanesians, Pre Dravidians and Australians are the
best example of this group. They are usually a dark chocolate brown, but are really
black in colour in Africa.17

17
M.H. Wolpoff and R. Caspari, Race and Human Evolution: A Fatal Attraction (Simon and Schuster, New
York, 1997).

11
 HAIR FORM

Hair form can be divided into three broad groups:

(A) LEIOTRICHY OR STRAIGHT HAIR
This type of hair is found among the mongoloids and is further divided into three
types:
i. Stretched: This hair type is thick, coarse and straight.
ii. Smooth: The hair type is thinner and soft.
iii. Flat Wavy: This type of hair has a tendency of forming waves with largest
radius.
(B) CYMOTRICHY OR WAVY HAIR
This type is widely distributed among the people of western Asia, some parts of
Africa and Europe. It can also be divided into three types.
i. Broad Wavy: This hair type possesses waves with smaller radius.
ii. Narrow Wavy: In this type of hair, the waves lies in one plane and strong
curvature.
iii. Curly: The spirals present in third type of hair are broad and the curvatures do
not lie in one plane.
(C) ULOTRICHY OR WOLLY HAIR
This type of hair is found among the Negroids, Andamanese, Bushmen, Melanesians
and Papuans. It is further divided into the following:
i. Frizzly: This type possesses short and deep waves.
ii. Loose Frizzles: This type of hair has spirals that re circular and flat.
iii. Thick Frizzles: The spirals in this case are thick.
iv. Fulfil: This type of hair are popularly rolled and are called as peppercorn.18

18
B.R.K. Shukla and S. Rastogi, Physical Anthropology and HumanGenetics: An Introduction 374-450 (Palaka
Prakashan, Delhi, 1999).

12
COLOUR

The colour of the hair is due to some brown or black granular and non-granular pigments.
The hair shaft consists of three parts namely, the outer layer (unpigmented), cortex and
medulla. The cortex consists of hair pigments, in some cases it is also found in the medulla.
The grey colour in the hair is due to reflection of light from the unpigmented cortex and
medullary spaces of the hair shaft. During old age the greyness in hair increases due to
increase in the medullary spaces.

TEXTURE

The texture of a hair strand can be divided into three broad categories namely coarse, medium
and fine. The texture of the hair may be found by rubbing it with the help of fingers. Garn has
given a classification to study the texture of hair which are as follows:

(A) Fine Hair – 56 micron

(B) Medium Hair – 57 micron – 84 micron
(C) Coarse Hair – 84 micron19

QUANTITY

The quantity of hair has been classified into groups namely Scanty, Medium, Thick, Very
thick and Rich. Hair is sparsely distributed all over the face and body in Negroids and
Mongoloids. White races shown rich quantity of body and face hair.

19
A. Montagu, The Concept of Race, (Free Press, New York, 1964).

13
CROSS SECTION

The cross section of human hair can be divided into two groups Circular and Oval. Circular
type of cross section is found among the hair of mongoloids whereas the oval type of cross
section is found among the hair of Negroids.

HAIR WHORL

Hair Whorl is undertaken in the study to know the nature of the hair of an individual. The
hair whorl can be of two types:

(a) Clockwise and

(b) Anti-clockwise.20

20
C.L. Brace, Race is a Four-Letter Word : The Genesis of the Concept, (Oxford University Press, Oxford,
2005).

14
 HEAD FORM

This distinction can be made by Cephalic Index which is the ratio of the breadth to its length,
the latter taken as 100. When the ratio falls below 75 the skull is termed as dolichocephalic
(narrow headed), when it is between 75 and 80 it is mesocephalic (medium headed), when it
exceeds 80, it is termed as brachycephalic (broad headed).

Martin classification of head form

• Hyperdolichocephalic (very long and narrow) – 69.9

• Dolichocephalic (long and narrow) – 70.0 – 75.9 N
• Mesocephalic (medium) – 76.0 – 80.9
• Brach cephalic (short or broad) – 81.0 – 85.5
• Hyperbrachycephalic (very short and broad) – 85.621

The head form of the Negroids is Dolichocephalic, of caccoids is Mesocephalic and of

Mangloids is Brach cephalic.

21
Dolichocephalic or Brachycephalic ? Available at: https://forums.skadi.net/threads/175307-Dolichocephalic-
or-Brachycephalic (Visited on October 21, 2019).

15
 FACE FORM

Face length is measured from the nasion to the lowest point in the middle line of the lower
jaw; and the breadth measured by spreading calipers. Facial index is the length expressed as
percentage of the breadth. The facial index tells us whether the face is broad, medium or
narrow.

Morphological Facial Index = Morphological Facial length x 100

Bizygomtic Breadth

• Hyper euryprosopic (very broad face) – 78.9

• Euryprosopic (broad face) – 79.0 – 83.9
• Mesoprosopic (medium face) – 84.0 – 87.9
• Leptoprosopic (narrow face) – 88.0 – 92.9
• Hyper leptoprosopic (very narrow face) – 93.022

22
Proposal of meta‐data in a database for identification using face images available at:
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/scj.10639 (Visited on October 21, 2019).

16
 NOSE

The nasal index of the skull is the ratio of the breadth of the nature aperture to the height
taken from the nasion. Mainly, the descriptive elements of the nose may be observed and
recorded in the following manner:
• Nasal depression: None, shallow, medium, deep
• Nasal bridge: Straight, concave, convex, Concave-convex
• Nasal tip: Sharp, Medium, thick, bulbous
• Nasal septum: Sloping upward, horizontal and sloping downward.
• Disposition of the nares: High and narrow, medium broad, broad and flaring.

The bridge in the profile may be straight, concave, convex or concave convex. The tip of the
nose may be rounded, sharp, pointed, thick or thin. The nasal septum may be directed
downwards or directed upwards,

• Hyperleptorrine (very narrow nose) – 54.9

• Leptorrhine (Narrow Nose) – 55.0 – 69.9
• Mesorrhine – 70 – 84.9
• Platyrrhine or Chamaerrhine - 85.0 – 99.9
• Hyperplatyrrhine – 10023

23
Nose Hairs in Humans - An Idle Evolutionary Speculation available at: http://thesymbiont.
blogspot.com/2012/01/nose-hairs-in-humans-idle-evolutionary.html (Visited on OCtober 22, 2019).

17
 EYE

Hooton gave only two types of eye. The one was the mongoloid and a non- Mongolian eye.

• A Mongolian eye consists of a Mongolian eyelid where a fold (inner epicanthus or

epicanthic) of skin hangs over the upper lid and extends from outer corner to inner
corner and appears not to be straight on an axis. This kind of eyelid shows variation
with different age group (young, middle aged and old) and sex (male or female). This
kind of eye occurs among Mongoloids, Bushmen, African Negros and Hottentots.
• The non – mongoloid eye is open, wide and straight and eye fold is absent. This type
of eye is observed among the members of white racial stock. 24

24
Strkalj, G., Form and Race: Terminological concepts for the study of human variation, 109-118 (Mankind
Quart., 2000).

18
 RACIAL CLASSIFICATION

Different ethnologists have classified human races differently.

ASHLEY MONTAGU CLASSIFICATION

In 1951, Ashley Montagu proposed a classification, which was accepted by many

anthropologists. He used skin colour, hair form and head form. He classified mankind into
three main groups, viz.

1. Negroid
2. Mongoloid and
3. Caucasoid.25

He further pointed out that another division which is larger than an ethnic group may be
distinguished as Australoid, who is in fact archaic. The physical characteristics of the three
major races are as follows:

S.No Characters Caucasoid Negroid Mongloid

1. Skin Light reddish white Brown to Brown Black. Light yellow to
Colour to olive brown. Some are yellow-brown yellow-brown. Some
Some are brown are reddish Brown.
2. Head Hair Light blond to dark- Brown-Black in colour, Brown to brown
brown in colour, fine coarse in texture, curly black in colour,
to medium in to frizzly or woolly in coarse in texture,
texture, straight to form straight in form
wavy in form

25
Racial Classification available at: http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/41420/1/Unit-4.pdf (Visited on
October 22, 2019).

19
3. Head Form Dolichocephalic to Predominantly Predominantly
branchycephalic, dolichocephalic, Height branchy-cephalic
Height is medium to is low to medium height is medium
very high
4. Body Hair Moderate to profuse Slight Sparsely distributed
Quantity
5. Face Narrow to medium Medium broad to Medium broad to
broad narrow. Prognathism is very broad. Check
very often present bones are high and
flat
6. Eye Colour is light blue Brown to brown black Brown to dark
to dark brown brown. Mongoloid
eye fold is very often
present
7. Nose Leptorrhine to Platyrrhine, usually Mesorrhine to
mesorrhine, usually bridge is low playtyrrhine, usually
bridge is high bridge is low to
medium
8. Chin Usually projecting Slight Medium
9. Lips Very thin to Thick, much aversion Medium thickness
medium, small with aversion of
aversion membranous often
heavy integumented
lips
10. Stature Medium to tall Very short to tall Medium to short
11. ABO Blood Relatively high Relatively high High incidence of
Group incidence of A2 incidence of A2, A1, very low
comparatively high frequency of A2
incidence of B
12. Rh Factor Highest frequency of Moderate frequency of Rh negative is rare
Rh negative Rh negative
13. Dermatogly Low Great dispersion High
phics rangingfrom higher to
pattern lowest
intensity

20
 RACIAL GROUPS OF INDIA

The present population of the Indian subcontinent has been divided into four racial groups-
the Negritos, the Proto-Australoids, the Mongoloids, and the Mediterraneans. The Negritos
were the first of the racial groups that came to India. Proto-Australoid race came here just
after the Negritos and their sources are Australian aborigines. The Mongoloids came to India
through the passes of northern and eastern mountain ranges. The Mediterraneans came to
India from the south-west Asia. 26

The present population of the Indian subcontinent has been divided broadly into the
following racial groups:

1. THE NEGRITOS- Perhaps they were the first of the racial groups that came to India.
They got settled in the hilly areas of Kerala and the Andaman Islands. Kadar, Irula and
Puliyan tribes of Kerala resemble to a great extent with the Negritos. They are related to
Africa, Australia and their neighbouring islands. The Negritos have black (dark) skin, woolly
hair, broad and flat nose and slightly protruded jaws.

2. THE PROTO-AUSTRALOIDS- Perhaps the people belonging to the Proto-Australoid

race came here just after the Negritos. Their sources are Australian aborigines. They are
settled in the central India from the Rajmahal hills to the Aravalis. Santhal, Bhil, Gond,
Munda, Oraon etc. tribes are related to this group. They are physically different from the

26
Diversity of Indian population available at: http://www.igvdb.res.in/references.php (Visited on October 22,
2019).

21
Negritos in many ways, e.g. their hair is coarse and straight instead of being woolly. It is
considered that they were the people who, in collaboration with the Mediterranean race, had
developed the Indus Valley Civilization. Their skeletons have been found in the excavations
of Mohenjodaro and Harappa.27

3. THE MONGOLOIDS- The original homeland of this race was Mongolia (China). The
Mongoloids came to India through the passes of northern and eastern mountain ranges. These
people are concentrated in the nearby areas of the Himalayas, e.g. Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal
Pradesh and other areas of the north-eastern India. The Mongoloids have pale or light pale
skin, short height, comparatively large head, half open eyes, flat face and broad nose. In
India, they can be divided into two branches-

A. PALEO-MONGOLOIDS- They were the first of the Mongoloids who came to India.
These people are settled mainly in the border areas of the Himalayas. They are found mostly
in Assam and the adjacent states.

B. TIBETO-MONGOLOIDS- These people came from Tibet and are settled mainly in
Bhutan, Sikkim, areas of north-western Himalayas and beyond the Himalayas in which
Ladakh and Baltistan are included.

4. THE MEDITERRANEANS- They came to India from the south-west Asia. They may be
divided into three groups-

A. PALEO-MEDITERRANEANS- They were the first of the Mediterranean’s race that

came to India. They were of medium height, black skin, well- built body and long head.
Perhaps they were the people who had begun cultivation for the first time in the north-west
India. The group which came later pushed them towards the central and the south India. At
present, the Paleo-Mediterraneans with their other sub-groups comprise the most part of the
population of the south India and a large part of the population of
the north India.

B. MEDITERRANEAN’S- They came to India later on. They developed the Indus valley
civilization in collaboration with the Proto-Australoids and initiated the bronze culture for the
first time during 2500-1500 BC. Later on, the new invading group coming from north-west

27
D.N. Majumdar, Races and Cultures of India., (Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 1973).

22
pushed them from the Indus valley to the Ganga valley and towards the south of the
Vindhyas. Today, most of the population of lower castes in the north India belongs to this
race.

C. ORIENTAL-MEDITERRANEAN’S- They came to India very late. They are populated

mostly in the north-western border areas of Pakistan and Punjab. They are also found in
sufficient number in Sindh (Pakistan), Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh.

5. THE BRACHYCEPHALICS (WESTERN RACE WITH BROAD HEAD): Apart from

Mongoloid, some other races found in India having broad head are:

• Alpinoids
• Dinarics
• Armenoids

6. THE NORDICS: They are the last of the racial groups that came to India. They came
from Taiga and Baltic regions. They were Aryan speaking families with long head, fair
complexion, and sharp nose, well-developed and well-built body. They are found in the
region of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Jammu.28

28
Racial groups of India available at: https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/racial-groups-of-india-
1448688039-1 (Last modified on Nov 28, 2015).

23
 RACE DETERMINATION

Circumcision or religious marks on forehead may be the visible differences between Hindu
and Muslim males for the purpose of identification but it will be too risky to generalize that
Hindus do not have circumcision. Many do. Among females, forehead marks, mangalsutra or
tattoo marks, depending on local customs could signifiy the differences. Parsi males wear a
sacred thread (kashti) round the waist and a sadra (muslin kurta) on the body. Parsi women
in addition tie a mathabanu (white piece of cloth) on the head.
Race can be determined from the following:
Clothing - Clothing is a good indicator of race. The style of dressing adopted by different
races varies widely. According to State and according to area clothing styles are different.
Traditional Indian dress is different from traditional Western dress although tendency of
wearing Western dress by the Indian people is being noticed increasingly. Even within India,
people can be identified of their place of origin from the nature and manner of wearing
clothing.29
Complexion and Features - It has a limited value for identification of race. There is a
wide range of complexion amongst the population of India starting from dark, brown, light
brown to fair one. Northerners specially Kashmiris are extremely fair complexioned while
southerners and easterners are black or brown in complexion. The skin is black in Negroes,
brown in Indians and fair in Europeans. Decomposition readily produces changes in the
external appearance. This is therefore of limited value.

The features of an individual may resemble those of his supposed parents or relatives. The
features are changeable; it may change due to disease or long duration of time. The criminals
often alter their features by changing their expressions of face to commit offences. The
complexion may be fair dark brown or shallow. It gives clue to identity whether he or she is
foreigner, Negro, South Indian or North Indian etc. The features of an individual may
resemble those of his parents or relatives. The features may change considerably from disease
or dissipation or even from worries of a long duration. The details of the features as regards
the eyes, nose, ears, lips, chin and teeth should be carefully noted for identification through
complexion and feature.30

29
Dr. Subrahmanyam’s, Medical Jurisprudence & Toxicology 89 (Law Publishers (India) Pvt. Ltd, Allahabad,
2011).
30
Arulselvam's, Criminal Court Practice, 54(Part II, First Edition).

24
BHOWAL SANYASI CASE. — In the instant case, 'K', the second son of 'R' of Bhowal estates
in Dacca, went to Darjeeling in 1909. He died of biliary colic. After 12 years ‘S’ came to
Dacca and claimed one-third share of the Bhowal Raj Estate by declaring that he was second
son of 'R'. He further alleged that arsenic was administered to him due to which he relapsed
into coma, and in an unconscious condition, he was found on the funeral tyre by some naga
sanyasis, who revived him. Thereafter, he stayed with them as a pupil until 1921.

In 1930, a suit was filed in the court of Subordinate Judge of Dacca, which was keenly
contested by ‘B’ who was married to ‘K’. it was contended that the plaintiff was imposter, a
disciple of a Hindu holy man from Punjab and that second son of ‘R’ died at Darjeeling and
was duly cremated.

The judgment was declared in favour of plaintiff who was declared to be ‘K’ and second son
of ‘R’ on basis of complexion and features and evidence of eye witnesses. Judgement was
upheld by Calcutta High Court and by the Privy Council. In the present case, the marks and
features of ‘K’ were similar to plaintiff. The complexion, hair, moustache, eyes, lips, ears,
syphilis and syphilitic ulcers were similar to that of plaintiff.31

Eyes - Indians have dark or brown iris. Europeans have blue or grey iris.
Hair - Colour, length, appearance and arrangement of hair may be helpful in determining
race. The hair of the Indians are generally black, long and fine; of Negroes wooly, short an
curly; and of Europeans fair, light brown or reddish. Mongolian hair is coarse and dark and
usually circular on cross-section and has a dense uniform pigmentation and dark medulla.
Greying of hairs in elderly subjects occur more or less to match the same degree in all racial
groups. Indian women usually keep long hairs except some Hindu widows who may get their
hairs shaved or cropped. Hair styles differ in different parts of India among the girls.
Racial Features of Head Hairs

Colour Diameter Section

Race Special features Cuticle
(mm)
Caucasoid Even black 70-100 Curly Oval medium
Mongoloid Dense black in 90-120 Straight Round thick
clusters
Negroid Dense auburn 60-90 Straight, wavy Flat Nil
sometime

31
Ganguly’s, Medical Jurisprudence & Toxicology [Principles, Practice and Procedure], (Dwivedi Law
Agency, Allahabad, 2009).

25
Blood grouping of the hair roots has also been used in some cases.32

Teeth - Teeth stained with dark brown or black deposits are commonly seen among Indians
who chew pan.
Feet - Indians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans who wear shoes will show toes cramped.
Those who do not wear shoes will show epidermis of their soles of feet very thick having
cracks and fissures with ingrained dirt and mud. Their soles are widely spread.
Tattoo Marks – Tattoo marks are famous all over the world. Different types of people
prefer different types of tattoo marks on different parts of body with different types of dyes.
Tattoo marks differ from country to country and community to community. Indian people are
interested for making tattoo marks on arms, forearms like flowers, name of God, designs,
swastika marks, etc. Burmese like tattoo mark on buttocks and thighs.
Skelton - Determination of race from skull. Skull of an Indian is mostly Caucasian in type,
with few negroid characteristics. Cephalic index is an Important test for determining race.33
Race can also be determined from certain differences in the skeleton given below in a
tabulated from.

CAUCASIAN MONGOLIAN AFRICAN

DESCENT
1. Skull Rounded/ Medium Square/ Broad Narrow and elongated
2. Forehead Raised Inclined Small and compressed

3. Face Small proportionately Large and flattened Molar bones and jaws
molar bones being projecting; teeth set
prominent obliquely
4.
Orbits Triangular Small Squarish
5. Upper Normal Small Long in proportion to
extremities body forearms large in
proportion to arms,
hands small
6. Lower Normal Small Legs large in
extremities proportion to thighs;
feet wide and flat, heel-
bones projecting
backwards
7. Nose Narrow Medium Broad

32
Dr. B.R. Sharma, Forensic Science in Criminal Investigation & Trials 1238 (Universal law Publishing Co.
Pvt. Ltd, 5th edition).
33
Dr. Subrahmanyam’s, Medical Jurisprudence & Toxicology 89 ( Law Publishers(India) Pvt. Ltd, Allahabad,
2011).

26
 VARIOS INDICES RELATED TO BONES

The following indices relate bones to race

(A) THE CEPHALIC INDEX
The important test for determining race is the cephalic index or the index of breadth, which is
obtained by multiplying the maximum breadth of the skull measured transversely by 100 and
dividing the result by the greatest length measured from front to back.34 The indices of the
long bones may also be helpful in identifying races. The features of palate and teeth can also
help in differentiating the race of an individual.35
Cephalic Index:

Maximum transverse breadth of skull x 100

Maximum anteroposterior length of skull
Determination of Race from Cephalic Index
Types of skull Cephalic index Race
Dolichocephalic 70-75 Pure Aryans, Aborigins
(long head) and Negroes
Mesaticephalic 75-80 Europeans and Chinese
(medium)
Brachycephalic 80-85 Mongolians
(short head)
(B) Brachial Index:
Length of Radius x 100
Length of Humerus
(In average Europeans, the value is 74.5 and in average Negroes, it is 78.5.)
(C) Crural Index:
Length of Tibia x 100
Length of Femur
(In Europeans, the average value is 83.3 and in Negroes, 86.2.)
(D) Humero-Femoral Index:
Length of Humerus x 100
Length of Femur
(In Europeans, the average value is 69 and in Negroes 72.4.)36

34
Krishna Vij, Textbook of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology Principles and Practice (Reed Elsevier India
Private Limited, 5th edition).
35
DH Haines, Medical Science and Law (MSL), 12, 131, 1972.
36
Dr. Subrahmanyam’s, Medical Jurisprudence & Toxicology 92 (Law Publishers (India) Pvt. Ltd, Allahabad,
2011).

27
 UNESCO STATEMENT ON RACIALCLASSIFICATION

The definitions related to race strike a note of discord and there is no opinion expressed in
them. Experiencing this difficulty UNESCO organised a conference of all the prominent and
eminent anthropologists, sociologists and psychologists in order to determine a single
conception of race. The conference proposed the following recommendations related to race:

• Fundamentally, the entire human species has one origin and all men are Homo-
sapiens.
• National, religious, geographical, cultural and linguistic groups are entirely
unconnected with and unrelated to race. These groups do not give indication of any
race. Distinctions can be made between different races on the basis of differences in
physical features but not on the basis of cultural characteristics.
• The differences that exist between the physical characteristics of men are due to both
heredity and environment. Differences in heredity arise due to the processes known as
mutation and inbreeding.
• Some race may claim of purity but this not true. Today pure races cannot be found
anywhere in the world. The process of mixing of races originated long back.
• Human races can be classified but these classifications are based solely on physical
traits. They have no relation of any kind with mental or intellectual superiority or
inferiority.
• The inner capacity for the development of mind and culture is found equally in every
race. Hence distinction between races cannot be based on cultural differences and
levels of intelligence.
• It is possible that in one nation the degree of racial difference may be greater while in
another nation lesser degree. Evidence in support of the fact that the race has no
important effect in the social and cultural differences between various human groups
has been found in historical and sociological studies – By no stretch of imagination
can one conceive of any relation between changes in racial form and social changes.
• That from the biological view point, mixing of races in deleterious, is an essentially
incorrect and invalid belief.37

37
G. Strkalj, 2007. The Status of the Race Concept in Contemporary Biological Anthropology: A Review by
Anthropologists, 9 : 73-78.

28
 CONCLUSION

To sum up that the word ‘race’ is applied for human classification on the basis of biological
characteristics. Race is genetically divergent among human populations, which is marked by
common phenotypes. In other words, race refers to those human groups, which exhibit
heritable physical differences from other human populations. Race formation is a complex
process where more factors, viz. mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, migration,
isolation, hybridization, sexual selection and social selection are involved. The basis of racial
classification is various phenotypic traits, viz. anthropometric measurements, somatoscopic
observations, etc., and genotypic traits viz. blood groups, dermatoglyphics, hemoglobin
variants as well as DNA finger prints.

The various ethnologists have classified human races differently. The physical characteristics
of the three major races (Caucasoid, Negroid and Mongoloid) vary in respect of skin colour,
hair form, head form, face, eye, nose, lips, stature, blood group and dermatoglyphic features.
The UNESCO statement on racial classification stated that fundamentally, the entire human
species has one origin and all men are Homo sapiens. The national groups, religious groups,
geographical, cultural and linguistic groups are unrelated to race.

The variation found to exist between the physical characteristics of men has both the features,
i.e. heredity and environment. In short, it may be stated that race is a group of intermarrying
individuals, who are born of common ancestors, possess’ similar physical characteristics and
primarily heritable physical differences from other human populations.

29
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Articles Referred -

• Barnshaw, John (2008). "Race". in Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.),

Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society, Volume 1 1091–3
(SAGE Publications).
• Kennedy, Rebecca F., "Introduction" in Race and Ethnicity in the
Classical world: An Anthology of Primary Sources in Translation xiii
(Hackett Publishing Company, 2013).

Books Referred-

• Modi's Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology, K. Mathiharan and

Amrit K Patnaik, LexisNexis, Buttersworth, 2010.
• Textbook of Modi’s Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology, K.
Kannan and K. Mathiharan, Buttersworths India, 2012.
• Medical Jurisprudence, R.M. Jhala and K Raju, Eastern Book
Company, 1997.
• Analytical Toxicology, S.N. Tiwari, Govt of India Publication, New
Delhi, 1987.
• Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology (Law Practice and Procedure),
K.S. Narayan Reddy, ALT Publications, 2006.
• G. Strkalj, The Status of the Race Concept in Contemporary Biological
Anthropology: A Review by Anthropologists, 2007.
• C.S. Coon, The Origin of Races. (Alfred M. Knopf, New York, 1962).
• Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and
Society, 1091–3 (SAGE Publications, Volume 1, 2008)
• Strkalj, G., Form and Race : Terminological concepts for the study of
human variation, 109-118 ( Mankind Quart., 2000).
• Dr. Kumar. Anthropology : Social and Cultural, 104-112 (Lakshmi
Narain Agrawal Educational Publishers, Agra1992).
• D.N. Majumdar, Races and Cultures of India., (Asia Publishing House,
Bombay, 1973).

30
 • S. Garn, Human Races, C.C. Thomas, Springfield, 2nd Ed., 1962).
• S. Mohar, Human Variation: Race, Types and Ethnic Group, (Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, 1998).
• M.H. Wolpoff and R. Caspari, Race and Human Evolution: A Fatal
Attraction (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1997).
• B.R.K. Shukla and S. Rastogi, Physical Anthropology and
HumanGenetics: An Introduction 374-450 (Palaka Prakashan, Delhi,
1999).
• A. Montagu, The Concept of Race, (Free Press, New York, 1964).
• C.L. Brace, Race is a Four-Letter Word : The Genesis of the Concept,
(Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005).
• Ganguly’s, Medical Jurisprudence & Toxicology [Principles, Practice
and Procedure], (Dwivedi Law Agency, Allahabad, 2009).
• Dr. B.R. Sharma, Forensic Science in Criminal Investigation & Trials
1238 (Universal law Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, 5th edition).
• Krishna Vij, Textbook of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology
Principles and Practice (Reed Elsevier India Private Limited, 5th
edition).

Dictionaries Referred-

• Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Cambridge English Dictionary.
• Collins Dictionary.

Journals Referred-

• Blumenfeld Jodi “Racial Identification in the skull and teeth”, Vol 8,

Iss 1, Art 4 UWOJA (2000).

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31
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66
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32