Keys 4 Success: Quick Revision: New Light Institute

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 1
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INDEX
UNIT IV : PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
1. Transport in Plants – 3-11
2. Mineral Nutrition – 12-17
3. Photosynthesis in Higher Plants – 18-22
4. Respiration in Plants – 23-28
5. Plant Growth and Development – 36-36
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186, 187, 190 = 3 Pages
55.4 % QUESTIONS
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TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
1. In a flowering plant the substances that would need to be transported
are water, mineral nutrients, organic nutrients and plant growth
regulators.
2. Transport :
• Small distance : Diffusion, Facilated Diffusion, Active transport.
• Long distance : Translocation.
3. Water and mineral moves unidirectional but organic substance –
multidirectional.
4. When any plant part undergoes senescence, nutrients may be
withdrawn from such region and moved to the growing part.
5. Diffusion :
• Movement is passive
• Short distance
• No energy expenditure takes place
• Molecules move in random fusioh from higher concentration to
lower.
• Slow process and not depends on living system.
• Rate of diffusion depends on : –
• Conc. gradients.
• Membrane permeability
• Temperature
• Pressure
6. Facilitated Diffusion : [NEET-2022, 2013][NCERT-176]
• Gradient must already present.
• Diffusion depends on solubility in lipids, major constituent of
membrane (lipid soluble substance diffuse faster).
7. Special proteins help move substances across membranes without
expenditure of ATP energy.
8. Transport rate reaches a maximum when all of the protein transporters
are being used (saturation).
9. Some carrier or transport proteins allow diffusion only if two types of
molecules move together.
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10. Symport : Both molecules cross the membrane in the same direction;
Antiport : they move in opposite directions. [NEET-2022][NCERT-177]
Uniport : Single molecule moves across a membrane.
11. Porins : Proteins
• Form large pores in the outer membrane of the plastids and
mitochondria and some bacteria.
• Allowing molecules upto size of small proteins to to pass through.
• Made up of eight different type of aqua porins water channel.
12. Active Transport : Uses ATP energy to transport and pump molecules
against a concentration gradient
13. Transport substances from a low concentration to a high concentration
(‘uphill’ transport).
14. Both Active Transport and facilated diffusion ‘shows’ -
• Liable to saturate, respond to inhibitors and are under hormonal
regulation.
15. Water :
• Essential for all physiological activities of the plant.
• Provides medium in which most substances dissolved.
• Watermelon has over 92 per cent water.
• Herbaceous plants have 85-90 % of water.
• Seed may approximatly dry but it still has water.
• Mustard plant absorbs water equal to its own weight in about 5
hours.
• Corn plant absorbs almost three litres of water in a day.
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16. Water Potential [NEET-2022][NCERT-179]

w = s + p w = Water Potential (Zero / negative)
s = Solute Potential (always negative)
p = Pressure Potential (usually negative)
17. Greater the concentration of water in a system, the greater is its kinetic
energy or ‘water potential’.
18. Two systems containing water are in contact, random movement of
water molecules will result in net movement of water molecules from
higher energy to lower energy or higher water potential to lower water
potential.
19. Water potential of pure water at standard temperatures, which is not
under any pressure, is taken to be zero. [NEET-2017][NCERT-179]
20. If some solute is dissolved in pure water, concentration of water
decreases, reducing its water potential.
21. For a solution at atmospheric pressure, water potential = Solute
potential.
22. Osmotic pressure = Positive but Osmotic Potential = Negative.
23. Osmosis :
• Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
• Water move from higher chemical potential to lower chemical
potential.
• Osmosis occurs spontaneously in response to a driving force.
• Net direction and rate of osmosis depends on Pressure gradient
and concentration gradient
24. Isotonic – If external solution balance, the osmotic pressure of
cytoplasm.
Hypotonic – If external solution more dilute them cytoplasm.
Hypotonic – If external solution more concentrated then that of
cytopolasm [NEET-2019][NCERT-182]
25. Cells swell – Hypotonic Solution
Shrink – Hypertonic Solution
26. Cell flacid in isotonic, Turgid in Hypotonic and plasmolysed in
Hypertonic.
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27. In plasmolysis, water move out 1 lost from cytoplasm and then from
vacuole.
28. Spaces occupied between cell wall and shrunken protoplast in
plasmolysed cell is Hypertonic solution.
29. Turgor Pressure : Water diffuses into the cell causing the cytoplasm
to build up a pressure against the wall.
30. Pressure Potential : The pressure exerted by the protoplasts due to
water against the rigid walls.
31. Because of the rigidity of the cell wall, the cell does not rupture. This
turgor pressure is ultimately responsible for enlargement and extension
growth of cells.
32. Imbibition : Special type of diffusion, water absorbed by solids –
(colloids) – causing them to increase in volume.
e.g., Absorption of water by seeds and dry wood.
33. The pressure that is produced by the swelling of wood had been used
by prehistoric man to split rocks and boulders.
34. Water potential gradient between the absorbent and the liquid imbibed
is essential for imbibition.
35. Water and minerals, and food are generally moved by a mass or
bulk flow system.
36. Mass flow is the movement of substances in bulk or en masse from
one point to another due to which pressure differences between two
points.
37. Bulk flow can be achieved either through a positive hydrostatic pressure
gradient (e.g., a garden hose) or a negative hydrostatic pressure
gradient (e.g., suction through a straw).
38. Translocation : Bulk movement of substances through the conducting
or vascular tissues of plants.
39. Xylem : Associated with translocation of mainly water, mineral salts,
some organic nitrogen and hormones, from roots to the aerial parts of
the plants.
40. Phloem : Translocation of a variety of organic and inorganic solutes,
from leaves to other parts of the plants.
41. Water is absorbed along with mineral solutes, by the root hairs, purely
by diffusion. It can move deeper into root layers by two distinct
pathways: (Apoplast pathway and Symplast pathways).
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42. Apoplast pathway : [NEET-2022][NCERT-184]

• System of adjacent cell walls that is continuous except at the
casparian strips of the endodermis.
• This movement occurs through intercellular spaces and walls of
the cells. [NEET-2022][NCERT-184]
• Does not provide any barrier to water movement and water
movement through mass flows.
• Most of water flow in the roots occurs via Apoplast.
• Fast movement (Passive)
43. Symplastic :
• System of interconnected protoplasts through plasmodesmata.
• Slow movement.
• Symplastic movement may be aided by cytoplasmic streaming.
• In Hydrilla leaf; the movement of chloroplast due to streaming is
easily visible.
• Movement of water through the root layers is ultimately symplastic
in the endodermis.
• Pinus seeds cannot germinate and establish without the presence
of mycorrhizae.
44. Root Pressure : [NEET-2015][NCERT-186]
• Pushing up water to small heights in the stem.
• Effects of root pressure is observable at night and early morning
when evaporation is low.
• Greatest contribution of root pressure may be to re-establish the
continuous chains of water molecules in the xylem which often
break under the enormous tensions created by transpiration.
[2015] [NCERT-186]
45. Guttation : Water loss in its liquid phase. [2020] [NCERT-186]
Transpiration pull : Most plants meet their need by this method.
46. Cohesion - tension - transpiration pull model of water transport.
47. Less than 1 percent of water reaching the leaves is used in
photosynthesis and plant growth.
• Most of it is lost through stomata in the leaves called transpiration.
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48. Less than one per cent of the water reaching the leaves is used in
photosynthesis and plant growth. Mostly lost through the stomata in
the leaves. This water loss is called transpiration.
49. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the leaf also occurs through
pores called stomata. Stomata normally open in the day time and
close during the night.
50. Inner wall of guard cells, towards the pore is thick and elastic.
[2017] [NCERT-187]
51. Opening of stomata is due to turgity in guard cell and orientation of
microfibrils. Cellulosic microfibrils oriented radially rather than
longitudinally.
52. When guard cells loss turgidity, due to water stress, inner wall regain
their shape, guard cell flaccid and stoma close.
53. External factors which affect transpiration are temperature, light,
humidity, wind speed. Plant factors that affect transpiration are number
and distribution of stomata, number of stomata open, water status of
the plant, canopy structure etc
54. Transpiration depends upon following physical properties of water
Cohesion, Adhesion and Surface Tension.
[NEET-2021, 22] [NCERT-188]
55. These properties give water high tensile Strength (an ability to resist
a pulling force) and high cuapillary (ability to rise in thin tube)
56. Forces generated by transpiration can create pressures sufficient to
lift a xylem sized column of water over 130 metres high.
57. Transpiration and Photosynthesis – a Compromise
Transpiration has more than one purpose it
• creates transpiration pull for absorption and transport of plants
• supplies water for photosynthesis
• transports minerals from the soil to all parts of the plant
• cools leaf surfaces (10 to 15 degrees)
• maintains the shape and structure of the plants by keeping cells
turgid
58. C4 plants are twice as efficient as C3 plants in terms of fixing carbon
dioxide (making sugar). However, a C4 plant loses only half as much
water as a C3 plant for the same amount of CO2 fixed.
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59. Minerals are present in the soil as charged particles (ions) which cannot
move across cell membranes and concentration of minerals in the soil
usually lower than the concentration of minerals in the root.
60. Most minerals must enter the root by active absorption into the cytoplasm
of epidermal cells. Some ions also move passively.
61. The endodermal cells have many transport proteins embedded in their
plasma membrane.
62. Transport proteins of endodermal cells are control points, where a
plant adjusts the quantity and types of solutes that reach the xylem.
63. Root endodermis because of the layer of suberin has the ability to
actively transport ions in one direction only.
64. The chief sinks for the mineral elements are
• growing regions of the plant, (Apical and Lateral meristems).
• young leaves.
• developing flowers, fruits and seeds, and the storage organs.
65. Unloading of mineral ions occurs at the fine vein endings through
diffusion and active uptake by these cells.
66. Mobilised elements are phosphorus, sulphur, nitrogen and potassium.
Some elements that are structural components like calcium are not
remobilised.
67. Food (sucrose), is transported by the vascular tissue phloem from a
source to a sink
68. Source (synthesises food) and sink (the part that needs or stores the
food).
69. Source and sink may reversed depending on the season.
70. Source and sink relationship is variable, the direction of movement in
the phloem can be upwards or downwards (Bi-directional)
[NEET-2019] [NCERT-191]
71. Phloem sap is mainly water and sucrose, but other sugars, hormones
and amino acids are also transported or translocated through phloem.
72. Pressure flow or Mass flow Hypothesis.[NEET-2022][NCERT-191]
• Accepted mechanism used for the translocation of sugars from source
to sink.
• Sucrose move into the companion cells then into the living phloem
sieve tube cells by active transport. (Loading)
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• Water in the adjacent xylem moves into the phloem by osmosis.

• Loading and unloading both are active process.
73. Girdling experiment used to identify the tissues through which food
and transported (Phloem is the tissue responsible for translocation of
food and transport takes place in one direction.
[NEET-2015][NCERT-192]
74. Apoblastic pathway [NEET-2022][NCERT-184]
75. Solute potential [NEET-2022][NCERT-179]
76. Facilitative Diffussion [NEET-2022][NCERT-177]
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198, 201, 202 = 3 Pages
56 % QUESTIONS
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MINERAL NUTRITION
1. In 1860 julius von sachs (German Botanist) demonstrated 1st time
that plants could be grown to maternity in a defined nutrient soln in
complete absence of soil. (Hydroponics)
2. Hydroponics has been successfully employed as a technique for the
commercial production of vegetables such as Tomato, seedless
cucumber & lettuce.
3. More than sixty elements of 105 discovered found in different plants.
Some plants species accumulate. Selenium, some other gold while
some plants growing near nuclear test sites taks up Radioactive
strontium.
4. Criteria for Essentiallity.
1. Elements which required for growth & Reproduction, in the absence of
the element the plants do not complete their life-cycle OR set of seeds.
2. Defficienty of any one element cannot be met by supplying some other
element.
3. Element must be directly involved in the metabolism of the plant.
5. Micronutrients (Large amount, excess of 10 m mole kg–1 of dry matter)
eg: C, N, O, H, P, S, K, Ca, Mg (NEET-2016, 2015) [NCERT-196]
6. Micronutrients or Trace elements (small amount, less than 10 m
mol kg–1 of dry matter) e.g.: Fe, Mn, Cu, Mo, Zn, B, Cl, Ni.
7. Beneficial elements eg: Na, Si, Co, Se (Required by higher plants)
8. Essential elements (4 categories) on the basis of their diverse
functions.
1. Component of Biomolecules (structural elements of cell)
e.g. : C, H, O, N
2. Component of energy-related chemical compound in plants.
e.g.: Mg in chlorophyll, phosphorous in ATP.
3. Activate or inhibit enzyme.
e.g.: Mg++– Activator of RuBP & PEP (Critical enzyme photosynthetic
carbon fixation)
Zn2+ – Activator of Alcohol dehydrogenase
Mo – Nitrogenase during Nitrogen metabolism
4. Potassium play role in opening & closing of stomata.
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9. Role of Essential elements: Permeability of cell membrane, maintain

osmotic concentration of cell sap & co-enzyme.
[NEET-2022][NCERT-197]
10. Functions of Mineral elements
1. Nitrogen: Required by plants in greatest amount. Absorbed mainly
as NO–3. Some also by NO–2 or NH4+. Required by all part of plant
such as meristermatic tissues, metabolically active cells.
Major constituents of protein, Vitamins & Hormones.
2. Phosphorous: Absorbed in the form of H2 PO–4 or HPO3–4. constituent
cell membrane, certain protein. All nucleic acid, nucleotides & required
for all phosphorylation reactions.
3. Potassium: Absorbed as K+ required in more abundant quantity in the
meristematic tissues, buds, leaves & root tips. Help in maintaining
anion-cation balance. Protein synthesis, opening & closing of stomata
& maintain turgidity of cells. (NEET-2018) [NCERT-197]
4. Calcium: Absorbed as Ca++. During cell division it is used in synthesis
of cell wall. Particularly as calcium pectate in the middle lamella.
Also needed during formation of mitotic spindle. Accumulate in
older tissue.
5. Magnesium: Absorbed as Mg2+. Activates enzyme for respiration.
Photosynthesis & involved in the synthesis of DNA & RNA. Constituent
of the ring structure of chlorophyll & maintain the ribosomes
structure.
6. Sulphure: Absorbed as SO42–. Present in two amino acid cystein &
Methinine & main constituent of several coenzymes, vitamines
(thiamine, Biotin, Co-enzyme-A) & Ferredoxin.
7. Iron : Absorbed as Fe3+. Required in large amount in comparison to
other micronutrients. Involved in transfer of electrons like Ferrendoxin
& cytoctromes. Reversible oxidised from Fe2+ to Fe3+. Activate catalase
enzyme & essential for the formation of chlorophyll.
(NEET-2020, 2018) [NCERT-197]
2+
8. Manganese: Absorbed as Mn . Activate many enzyme involved in
Photosynthesis, Respiration & Nitrogen metabolism. Best defined
function of manganese is in the splitting of water to liberate oxygen
during photosynthesis. (NEET-2020, 2015) [NCERT-198]
9. Zinc: Absorbed as Zn2+. Activate carboxylase enzyme. Needed in
synthesis of Auxin. (NEET-2020) [NCERT-198]
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10. Copper :Absorbed as Cu++. Essential for overall metabolism in plants.
Associated with certain enzymes involved in Redox reactions &
reversibly oxidised from Cu+ to Cu++.
11. Boron: Absorbed as Bo33– or B4O72–. Required for uptake & utilisation
of Ca++. membrane functioning pollen germination, cell elongation,
cell differentiation & carbohydrates translocation.
(NEET- 2020)[NCERT-198]
2+
12. Molybdenum : Absorbed as MoO . Involved in nitrogenase and nitrate
2
reductase both of which participate in nitrogen metabolism.
13. Chlorine: Absorbed as Cl–. Along with Na+ & K+, it help in determining
the solute concentration & Anion-cation balance Essential for water-
splitting reaction in photosynthesis. (NEET-2015) [NCERT-198]
11. Concentration of essential elements below which plant growth is retarted
is termed as critical concentration.
12. The part of the plants that show deficiency symptoms also depend on
the mobility of the elements in the plant.
13. Actively mobilised elements (N, Mg, K) deficiency symptoms tends
to appear first in older tissues. (2014) [NCERT-198]
14. Immobialised elements (S & Ca), deficiency symptoms first appears
in younger tissues.
15. Chlorosis (loss of chlorophyll leading to yellowing in leaves) caused
by deficiency of N,K,Mg,S,Fe,Mn. Zn & Mo.
16. Necrosis (Death of tissue) : Particularly leaf tissue.
Due to deficiency of Ca, Mg, Cu, K.
17. Inhibition of cell division: Lack or low level of N,K,S,Mo.
18. Delay of flowering: N,S,Mo (low concentration).
19. Any mineral ion concentration in tissues that reduces the dry weight
of tissues by about 10 percent is considered as toxic.
20. Toxicity symptoms are difficult to identify and vary for different plants.
21. Manganese toxicity(excess of Mn) induce deficiency of Fe, Mg & Ca.
The prominent symptom of this toxicity is the appearence of brown
spots surrounded by chlorotic veins.
22. Mn completes with Fe & Mg for uptake & with Mg for binding with
enzyme.
23. Mn also inhibits calcium translocation in shoot apex.
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24. Absorption of ions – Both active & passive (mainly active) two phases
of Absorption of ions.
1. First phase – Entry of ions in apoplast (Passive movement)
2. Second phase – Entry of ions in symplast (Both Active & Passive)
25. Component of fertilisers, both Macro-nutrients (N,P,K,S) &
micro-nutrients (Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe).
26. Nitrogen fixation : Conversion of Nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3).
27. Nitrification:
2NH3+ 3O2  2NO2  2H  2H2 O..........(1) (NEET-2022)[NCERT-202]
2NO2  O 2  2NO3 ..........(2) (NEET-2021) [NCERT-201]

Step (1) by bacteria nitrosomonas/Nitrococcus & step (2) by bacteria
Nitrobacter. These nitrifying bacteria are chemoautrotrophs.
28. Only certain prokaryotic species are capable of fixing nitrogen.
29. Reduction of Nitrogen to ammonia by living organism is called
Biological nitrogen fixation by enzyme Nitrogenase.
30. Free living Nitrogen fixing aerobic microbes – Azotobacter,
Beijerinkia. (NEET-2022) [NCERT-202]
31. Free-living anaerobic – Rhodospirillum.
32. Free living Nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria – Anabaena & Nostoc.
33. Symbiotic Nitrogen fixing microbes – Rhizobium & Frankia.
34. Frankia fix nitrogen in non-leguminous plants – Alnus & Casuarina.
35. Denitrificaction NO–3  N2. (NEET-2021, 2019) [NCERT-201]
Bacteria: Pseudomonas & thiobacillus.
36. Rhizobium – in legumes like alfalfa, sweet clover, garden pea, lentils,
broad bean, clover beans etc. (NEET-2021) [NCERT-202]
37. The root nodules in legume plants are Red/Pink due to presence of
leg-haemoglobin (oxygen scavenger) which protect the nitrogenase
enzyme from oxygen). (NEET-2022, 2015) [NCERT-202]
38. Nitrogenase enzyme is a Mo-Fe protein.
39. In biological nitrogen fixation 8 ATP are required for each NH3 production.
40. In symbiotic nitrogen fixation this energy is obtained from the respiration
of the host cells.
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41. Reductive amination:
Glutamate
  Ketoglutaricacid  NH4  NADPH 
Dehydrogenase

Glutamate + H2O + NADP.

42. Transamination: Formation of other amino acids from glutamic acid
enzyme transaminase catalyses all such reactions.
43. Two most important amides – Asparagin & Glutamine
44. Amides are transported to other parts of the plants via xylem vessels.
45. In soyabean, nitrogen is transported as ureides. These compounds
also have high nitrogen to carbon ratio.
46. 1st stable product of fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in legume plants
is Ammonia. (NEET-2020, 2013) [NCERT-204]
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218, 220 = 2 Pages
38 % QUESTIONS
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS

1. Green plants carry out ‘photosynthesis’, a physico-chemical
process.
2. Half-leaf experiment shows that CO2 is required for photosynthesis.
3. Joseph Priestley – Prooposed the concept of gaseous exchange by
plants with the help of bell jar experiment.
4. Jan Ingenhousz – showed the importance of sunlight and green colour
in photosynthesis by using similar setup as the one used by priestley.
5. Julius von Sachs – provided evidence for production of glucose and
Glucose is usually stored as starch.
6. T.W Engelmann – First action spectrum of photosynthesis was
described resembles roughly the absorption specta of chlorophyll-a
and b using green alga, Cladophora, placed in a suspension of
aerobic bacteria.
7. Cornelius van Niel – Suggested that O2 evolved during photosynthesis
comes from H2O, not from CO2. Experiment on purple and green
sulphure bacteria.
8. In chloroplast membranous system reponsible for trapping the light
energy and also synthesis of ATP and NADPH.
9. Division of labour present in chloroplast, Grana thylakoid and stroma
lamellae is responsible for light reaction and stroma is the place
for dark reaction. [NEET 2015][NCERT-209]
10. Seperation of leaf pigment of any green plant through paper
chromatography.
11. Chlorophyll-a (Bright or Blue green)
Chlorophyll-b (Yellow green)
Xanthophyll (Yellow)
Carotenoids (Yellow to yellow orange)
12. Pigments are substances that have an ability to absorb light, at specific
wavelength.
13. Most of the photosynthesis takes place in blue and red region of the
spectrum. [NEET 2019] [NCERT-210]
14. Chlorophyll-a is the major pigment and chlorophyll-b, xanthophyll and
carotenoids are accessory pigment (protect chlorophyll-a from photo-
oxidation)
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15. One molecule of chlorophyll-a (reaction centre) + Antennae molecules

= Photosystem.
16. PS I – reaction centre (Chl “a” 700, P700) and PS II – reaction centre
(Chl “a” 680 P680).
17. Non-cyclic photophosphorylation is called Z-scheme (due to its
characteristic shape on a redox potential scale).
18. Water splitting (photolysis of water) occurs on the inner side (lumen)
of the thylakoid membrane.
19. Products of non-cyclic photophosphorylation – ATP, NADPH and H+
20. Products of cyclic photosphosphorylation – ATP
[NEET 2021][NCERT-213]
21. Products of light reaction which utilise in dark reaction – ATP, NADPH
and H+. [NEET 2022, 2018][NCERT-213]
22. In Grana thylakoid both cyclic and non-cyclic process occurs.
23. Membrane or lamellae of grana have both PS I and PS II.
24. Stroma lamellae membrance lack PS II as well as NADP reductase
enzyme so only cyclic photophosphorylation occurs.
25. Primary electron acceptor from PSI : Fe–S protein.
26. Primary electron acceptor from PS II : Pheophytin.
27. The chemiosmotic hypothesis has been put forward by peter mitcheli
to explain the mechanism of ATP synthesis in chloroplast
(Photophosphorylation and Mitochondria) (Oxidative phosphorylation)
[NEET 2012] [NCERT-213]
28. According to this hypothesis, ATP synthesis is linked to development
of a proton grodient across a membrane.
29. Creation of proton grodient in chloroplast – low pH in thylakoid lumen
(more H+) . [NEET 2022, 2016] [NCERT-214]
30. Chemiosmosis requires – a membrane, a proton pump, a proton
gradient and ATPase.
31. Melvin calvin C14 radioactive to workout the complete pathway of
hexose formation from CO2. (Calvin cycle) or (C3 cycle).
32. Calvin cycle occurs in all photosynthetic plants (C3, C4 and CAM plants)
33. Calvin cycle has three stages – Carboxylation, Reduction and
Regeneration.
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34. Carboxylation is the most crucial step of calvin cycle.
35. In reduction step utilisation of 2ATP + 2NADPH + H+ for 1 CO2
molecule.
36. In regeneration step 1 ATP required for phosporylation to form RuBP.
37. For each CO2, 2NADPH2 + 3ATP are required in calvin cycle.
38. To make one molecule of glucose, 6 trans of calvin cycle are required
(18 ATP and 12 NADPH2).
39. In C3 pathway first CO2 fixation product is PGA (3C) and In C4 pathway
first CO2 fixation product is OAA (4C). [NEET 2021] [NCERT-216]
40. In C4 plant primary acceptor of CO2 is PEP (3C) and in C3 plants
primary CO2 acceptor is RuBP (5 Carbon ketose sugar).
[NEET 2022, 2017] [NCERT-216]
41. C4 plants are adapted to dry tropical regions. These plants have
Kranz anatomy in their leaves.
42. Bundle sheath cells or Kranz anatomy are characterised by large
number of chloroplast, thick walls impervious to gaseous exchange
and no intercellular spaces. [NEET-2022] [NCERT-216]
43. In C4 plants, PEPcase is found in mesophyll cell and RuBisCO in
bundle sheath cells.
44. In C4 plants, CO2 transported in the form of malic acid (4C) or aspartic
acid (4C) from mesophyll cell to bundle sheath cell.
[NEET-2022] [NCERT-216]
45. RuBisCO that is the most abundant enzyme in the world, its active
site can bind to both CO2 and O2.
46. RuBisCO has a much greater affinity for CO2 when the CO2 : O2 is
nearly equal. This binding is competitive.
47. In C3 plants same O2 does bind to RuBisCO hence CO2 fixation is
decrease.
48. Photorespiration : RuBP + O2  PGA (3C) + Phosphoglycolate (2C)
[NEET 2020] [NCERT-220]
49. In C4 plants, photorespiration does not occurs because they increase
the concentration of CO2 in bundle sheath cells by pumping it in the
form of C4 acids. [NEET 2016, 2012] [NCERT-220]
50. Photorespiration is wasteful process (Neigther synthesis of sugar
nor of ATP and NADPH2)
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51. Productivity and yield of C4 plants are better, these plants show
tolerance to higher temperature.
52. Example of C4 plants – Maize and sorghum
53. Photosynthesis is under the infleuence of several factors both internal
(plant) and external.
54. Plant factors includes (Internal)– Number, size, age, orientation of
leaves, mesophyll cells, chloroplast, internal CO2 concentration and
amount of chlorophyll.
55. Plant factors are dependent on the genetic predisposition and growth
of the plants.
56. External factors – Availability of sunlight, temperature, CO 2
concentration and water.
57. At any point the rate will be determined by the factor available at sub-
optimal levels.
58. Law of limiting factors (1904) by Blackman’s.
59. CO2 is the major limiting factor for photosynthesis.
60. Light saturation occurs at 10 percent of the full sunlight. Except for
plants in shade or in dense forests, light is rarely a limiting factor in
nature.
61. CO2 saturation for C4 plants at about 360 lL–1 and for C3 plants at
beyond 450 lL–1. [NEET 2017], [NCERT-223]
62. Current availability of CO2 levels is limiting to the C3 plants.
63. C3 plants respond to higher CO2 concentratin by showing increase
rates photosynthesis leading to higher productivity (Experiments on
green house crop such as tomatoes and bell peppers).
64. Dark reactions being enzymatic are temperature controlled.
65. C4 plants respond to higher temperatures and show higher rate of
photosynthesis.
66. Water stress causes the stomata to close hence reducing the CO2
availability.
67. Water stress also make leaves wilt thus reducing the surface area of
the leaves and their metabolic activities as well.
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230, 233 = 2 Pages
46 % QUESTIONS
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RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
1. All the food that is respired for life processes comes from
photosynthesis.
2. Breaking of the C–C bonds of complex compounds through oxidation
within the cells, leading to release of considerable amount of energy is
called Respiration.
3. ATP - Energy currency of the cells.
4. Reason behind absence of specialised respiratory organ in plants.
i. Each plant part takes care of its own gas exchange needs, very
little transport of gases from one plant part to another.
ii. Plants respire at rates for lower than animals do.
iii. In plants, most of the living cells located quite close to the surface
of the plants.
5. Glycolysis : Breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid.
i. Also called EMP pathway (E=Embden, M=Meyerhof, P=Parnas).
ii. Common pathway in both Aerobic and Anaerobic.
iii. Occurs in cytoplasm of all living organisms.
iv. Glucose undergoes partial oxidation to form two molecules of
pyruvic acid.
v. Neither use of O2 nor release of CO2.
vi. Total ATP gain = 8, and net ATP gain = 2 (By SLP)
[NEET-2022] [NCERT-229]
vii. Pyruvic acid is the key product of Glycolysisl.
Steps of Glycolysis– [NEET 2018, 2019][NCERT-229]
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6. Fermentation takes place under anaerobic conditions in many

prokaryotes, unicellular eukaryotes and in germinating seeds.
7. In fermentation, incomplete oxidation of respiratory substrate.
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8. Alcoholic fermentation : In yeast, enzyme – pyruvate decarboxylase

and alcohol dehydrogenase.
Pyruvic acid Ethanol + CO2 (With CO2)
9. Lactic acid fermentation :
In some bacteria and in muscles enzyme – Lactate dehydrogenase.

[NEET 2014] [NCERT-230]
Pyruvic acid Lactic acid (without CO2)
10. In both lactic acid and alcohol fermentation not much energy is released
less than 7% of the energy is released. [NEET-2022] [NCERT-230]
11. Yeast poison themselves to death when the concentration of alcohol
reaches about 13 per cent.
12. Net or Total or Direct gain of ATP = 2 ATP
13. Conversion of pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA (Link reaction) is an oxidative
decarboxylation catalysed by Pyruvate dehydrogenase enzyme.
14. The complete oxidation of pyruvate by the stepwise removal of all the
hydrogen atoms, leaving three molecules of CO2. (takes place in
matrix of mitochondria).
15. The passing on of the electrons removed as part of the hydrogen atoms
to molecular O2 with simultaneous synthesis of ATP. (takes place in
innermembrane of mitochondria).
16. Kreb’s Cycle
i. Also called TCA cycle (Tri-Carboxylic acid cycle)
[NEET-2022] NCERT-232]
ii. Occurs in matrix of mitochondria.
iii. Start with the condensationof acetyl group with OAA and water to
yield citric acid. [NEET 2017] [NCERT-232]
iv. During conversio of succinyl Co-A to succinic acid, A molecule
of GTP is synthesised (via SLP). [NEET 2020] [NCERT-232]
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v. Three points in the cycle where,
and one point where, 2
vi. It involve two decarboxylations (Removal of CO2) steps.

vii. It involves 4C, 5C (single) and 6C containing compound.
17. ETS (Electron Transport System) [NEET 2018, 2013][NCERT-233]
i. Present in Inner mitochondrial membrane. [NEET 2019][NCERT-233]
ii. Five complex involve – [NEET-2022]
• NADH dehydrogenase • FADH2
• Cytochrome bc1 • Cytochrome a, a3 and 2 Copper

• ATP synthase centre[NEET 2021] [NCERT-233]
iii. Oxygen acts as the final hydrogen acceptor and it get reduce
to water.
vi. Oxidation of one molecule of NADH give 3 molecules of ATP and
oxidation of one molecule of FADH give 2 molecule of ATP.
[NEET 2021][NCERT-233]
v. Energy of oxidation – Reduction utilised in production of proton

gradient to synthesise ATP (Oxidative phosphorylation).
[NEET 2018, 2016] [NCERT-234]
vi. Mobile electron carrier – Cytochrome “C” and Ubiquinone (UQ) /

Co-Q [NEET 2022][NCERT-234]
vii. Net gain of 36 ATP molecules during aerobic respiration of one

molecule of glucose.
18. Interrelationship among metabolic pathways showing respiration
mediated breakdown of different organic molecules to CO2 and H2O.
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19. Because respiratory pathway is involved in both Anabolic and

Catabolic, hence be better to consider the respiratory pathway as an
amphibolic pathway rather than as a catabolic one.
20. Respiratory Quotient or Respiratory ratio (RQ)
During aerobic respiration O2 is consumed and CO2 is released.
21. The respiratory quotient depends upon the type of respiratory substrate
used during respiration.
Substrate RQ
• Carbohydrates 1
• Protein 0.9
• Tripalmitin (Fattyacid) 0.7 [NEET 2019][NCERT 236]
• Organic acid More than one
22. Pure proteins and fats are never used as respiratory substrates.
************×************×************×************
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248, 250, 252 = 3 Pages
55 % QUESTIONS
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PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

1. All cells of a plant are descendents of zygote.
2. Development is the sum of two process – Growth and
Differentiation.
3. Growth can be defined as an irreversible permanent increase in
size of an organ or its parts or even of an individual cell.
4. Generally, growth is accompained by metabolic processes (both
catabolic and anabolic), with expense of energy.
5. Plant growth generally is indeterminate.
6. Plant show open form of growth – new cells are always being added
to the plant body.
7. Growth, at a cellular level is principally a consequence of increase in
the amount of protoplasm.
8. Growth is measured by a variety of parameters shuch as –
Increase in fresh weight, dry weight, length, area, volume and cell
number.
9. Growth of a pollen tube is measured in terms of its length.
10. Phases of growth : three phases – Meristematic, Elongation,
Maturation
11. Cells in meristematic phase of growth rich in protoplasm, posses
large conspicous nuclei, cell wall are primary in nature, thin and
cellulosic with abundant plasmodesmatal connection.
12. Elongation phase : Increase vacuolation, cell enlargement and new
cell wall deposition.
13. Maturation phase : Cells attain their maximum size in terms of wall
thickening, protoplasmic modification.
14. Increased growth per unit time is termed as growth rate.
15. The growth rate shows an increase that may be arithmetic or
geometrical.
16. In arithmetic growth only one daughter cell continuous to divide while
other differentiate and matures.
17. Rooth elongation at constant rate is the expression of arithmetic growth.
18. Linear gorwth curve can be expressed as Lt = Lo + rt
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19. In Geometrical growth both daughter cell continuosly divide.

It has three phases –
i. Lag phase
ii. Log (Exponential) phase (max-growth occurs) [NEET 2020][NCERT 243]
iii. Stationary phase
20. Sigmoid or S-curve is obtained if we plot the parameter of growth
against time. [NEET 2015][NCERT 243]
21. Exponential growth can be expressed as W1 = Woert
Here “r” is relative growth rate and also measured the ability of plant to
produce new plant material refered, Efficiency index.
22. Quantitative comparisons between growth of living system can also
be made in two ways –
i. Absolute growth rate : Measurement and comparision of total
growth per unit time.
ii. Relative growth rate : Growth per unit time with respect to initial
parameter.
23. Essential elements for growth – Water, Oxygen, Nutrients.
24. Plant growth and furthers development is intimately linked to the water
status of plant.
25. Oxygen – Help in releasing metabolic energy.
26. Water – Provide medium for enzymatic activities needed for growth.
27. Nutrients – for synthesis of protoplasm and act as source of energy
Undifferentiate cells. (shoot and root apical meristem)
 [NEET 2022][NCERT 243]
Defferentiated cells (Parenchyma, collenchyma, Sclerenchyma,
(Division ability loss) Primary xylem and phloem)

Dedifferentiated cells (Interfascicular cambium cork cambium)
(Division ability regain)

Redifferentiated cells (Secondary xylem and phloem, cork,
(Division ability permanently lost) secondary cortex)
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28. Development includes all changes that an organism goes through
during its life cycle from germination of seed to senescence.
29. Plasticity – Plants follow different pathways in response to environment
or phases of life to form different kinds of structures. [NEET 2021, 22]
e.g., Heterophylly in cotton, coriender and larkspur [NCERT 246]
30. Different in shapes of leaves produced in air and those produced in
water. e.g., Buttercup.
31. Development in plants is under the control of intrinsic and extrinsic
factors.
Intrinsic (Intracellular) : Genetic – PGR
Extrinsic (Intercellular) : Light, Temperature, Water, Oxygen, Nutrients
32. Plant growth regulators (PGRs) :
– Small, simple molecules of diverse chemical composition.
– Auxins – indole compound
– Cytokinins – Adenine derivatives
– Gibberellins – Terpenes
– Abscisic acid – Carotenoids
– Ethylene – Gases
33. Growth promoting activities: Cell division, cell enlargement, pattern
formation tropic growth, flowering, fruiting, seed.
34. Growth Promoter Harmones : Auxins, Gibberelins, cytokins
formation.
35. Growth Inhibiting activities: Dormancy, Abscission & Responses
to wound & stresses.
36. Growth Inhibitor Harmones : Abscisic acid.
37. Ethylene is both promoter & Inhibitor but largely inhibitor of growth.
38. Auxin: Isolated by F.W. went from tip of coleoptite of oat seedling
(NEET-2016)[NCERT 246]
39. Bakane (Foolish seedling) disease of rice seedling caused by pathogen
(NEET 2014) [NCERT 248]
Gibberella fujikuroi E. Kurosawa identified & discovered Gibberline.
40. Skoog & Miller, identified & crystallised the cytokinins promoting
active substance fermed as Kinetin.
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41. Three different kinds of Inhibitors, Inhibitor-B, Abscission II & Dormin
are chemically identical & named ABA (During mid-1960).
42. Cousins : Release of a volatile substence from ripened orange &
identified as Ethylene.
Auxins:
43. 1st isolated from Human urine
44. Produced by growing apices of stems & roots.
45. Natural – IAA & IBA (NEET-2013)[NCERT 248]
46. Synthetic – 2,4-D & NAA
47. Functions
 Initiate rooting in stem cutting
 Promote flowering eg: In Pineapples (NEET-2019)[NCERT 248]
 Prevent fruit & leaf drop at early stages (NEET-2017)[NCERT 248]
 Promote the Abscission of older mature leaves and fruits.
48. Apical dominance : Growing apical bud inhibit the growth of lateral
buds. [NEET-2022][NCERT 246]
49. Decapitation : Removal of shoot tips (Result in growth of lateral buds)
used in Tea plantation, Hedge making.
50. Auxine also induce parthanocarpy in Tomatoes.
51. Used as Herbicides, 2,4-D kill docot weeds(NEET-2021)[NCERT 249]
52. Used to prepare weed free lawns, also controls xylem differentiation &
help in cell division.
Gibberellins
53. More than 100 gibberellins reported from fungi & higher plants.
54. GA3 was the first gibberellins to be discovered.
55. All GAs are acidic.
56. They increase the length of grapes stalks, causes fruits like apple to
elongate & improve its shape.
57. Delay senescence, the fruits can left on the free longer.
58. Speed up the malting process in brewing industry.
59. Gibbereline caused increase the yield by as much as 20 tonnes per
acre . (NEET-2020)[NCERT 249]
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60. Promotes bolting (Internodal elongation just prior to flowering) in beet,
cabbages & many plants with rosette habbit.
Cytokinins
61. Kinetin : A modified form of adenine (purine) from the autoclaved herring
sperm DNA. Not occurs naturally in plants.
62. Zeatin (From corn-kernels & coconut milk) natural substances with
cytokinin like activities.
63. Natural cytokinins are synthesised in regions where rapid cell division
occurs like root apices, developing shoot buds, young fruits.
64. Promotes new leaves, chloroplast in leaves, lateral shoot growth &
adventitious shoot formation.
65. Overcome the apical dominance.
66. Promote nutrient mobilisation which helps in the delay of leaf
senescence.
Ethylene
67. Synthesed in large amount by tissues undergoing senescence &
ripening fruits.
68. Ethylene leads to :
–– Horizontal growth of dicot seedling.
–– Swelling of axis
–– Apical hook formation
69. Promotes senescence & abscission of plant organ specially of leaves
& flowers.
70. Highly effective in fruit ripening by enhances respiration rate
(Respiratory climatic)
71. Rapid Internode & petiole elongation in deep water rice plants.
[NEET 2022]
72. Promotes root growth & root hair formation, helping the plants to
increase their absorption surface.
73. Initiate flowering & synchronisation of fruit setting in pineapple
74. Induce flowering in mango.
75. Most widely used PGR in Agriculature.
76. Most widely used form of Ethylene compound is Ethaphon.
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77. Hastens fruit ripening in Tomatoes & Apples.
78. Accelerates Abscission in flowers & fruits (thining of cotton, cherry,
walnut).
79. Promote female flowers in cucumbers. [NCERT 2022]
Abscisic Acid (ABA) : Stress Hormones (NEET-2013)[NCERT 250]
80. General plant growth inhibitor & inhibitor of plant metabolism.
81. Inhibits seed germination, stimulate closure of stomata.[NEET 2022]
82. Increases the tolerance of plants to various kinds of stresses
83. Play important role in : Seed development, malturation, dormancy.
84. ABA helps seeds to withstand desiccation & other factors unfavourable
for growth.
85. ABA acts as an antogonist of GAs (NEET-2012)[NCERT 251]
86. Role of PGR could be complimentary or antaganistic.
87. Role of PGR could also be individualistic or synergistic
88. Events where more than one PGR interacts to attect :
 Dormancy of Seed/Buds
 Abscission
 Senescence
 Apical dominance
89. Photoperiodism:
1. Plants requires a periodic exposure to light to induce floweringd.
2. SDP: Needs light exposure less than critical light period.
3. LDP: Needs light exposure more than critical light period
4. DNP: No correlation between exposure of light duration & induction
of flowering.
5. Duration of light & Dark duration are equally important (Relative
duration)
6. Site of perception of light/dark duration are the leaves
(NEET-2021, 2019)[NCERT 251]
7. Hypothetically, there are hormonal substance which migrates from
leaves to shoot apices to induce flowering.
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Vernalisation:
90. Plants for which flowering is either quantitatively or qualitatively
dependent on exposure to low temperature.
91. It prevents precocious reproductive development late in the growing
season.
92. It enables the plants to have sufficient time to reach maturity.
93. Some important plants produce two kinds of variety at which
vernalisation applicable are wheat, Barley, Rye.
94. Vernalisation also seen in bienial plants (monocarpic) eg: sugarbeet,
cabbages, carrots. (NEET-2012)[NCERT 252]
95. Seed dormancy:
1. Certain seeds which fail to germinate even when external conditions
are favourable.
2. Impermeable & Hard seed coate, presence of chemical inhibitors
such as Abscissic acid, phenolic acid & paraoscorbic acid &
immature embryo which causes seed dormancy.
3. Dormancy can be overcome by:
• Natural means & various man-made measures.
• By mechanical abrasion using knives, sandpaper, vigrous shaking.
• Chilling condition or applicable of certain chemicals like Gibberelic
acid & Nitrates.
• Changing the environmental condition such as light & temperature.
*****×*****×*****×*****
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:: IMPORTANT NOTES ::
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TEST FRANCHISES
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Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 1

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UNIT IV : PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

1. Transport in Plants – 3-11

2. Mineral Nutrition – 12-17

3. Photosynthesis in Higher Plants – 18-22

4. Respiration in Plants – 23-28

5. Plant Growth and Development – 36-36

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• Which page has the maximum

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16. Water Potential [NEET-2022][NCERT-179]

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42. Apoplast pathway : [NEET-2022][NCERT-184]

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• Water in the adjacent xylem moves into the phloem by osmosis.

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• Which page has the maximum

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9. Role of Essential elements: Permeability of cell membrane, maintain

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2NH3+ 3O2  2NO2  2H  2H2 O..........(1) (NEET-2022)[NCERT-202]

2NO2  O 2  2NO3 ..........(2) (NEET-2021) [NCERT-201]

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Glutamate + H2O + NADP.

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• Which page has the maximum

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS

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15. One molecule of chlorophyll-a (reaction centre) + Antennae molecules

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• Which page has the maximum

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6. Fermentation takes place under anaerobic conditions in many

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8. Alcoholic fermentation : In yeast, enzyme – pyruvate decarboxylase

Pyruvic acid Ethanol + CO2 (With CO2)

9. Lactic acid fermentation :

In some bacteria and in muscles enzyme – Lactate dehydrogenase.

Pyruvic acid Lactic acid (without CO2)

v. Three points in the cycle where,

and one point where, 2

vi. It involve two decarboxylations (Removal of CO2) steps.

i. Present in Inner mitochondrial membrane. [NEET 2019][NCERT-233]

ii. Five complex involve – [NEET-2022]

• NADH dehydrogenase • FADH2

• Cytochrome bc1 • Cytochrome a, a3 and 2 Copper

v. Energy of oxidation – Reduction utilised in production of proton

[NEET 2018, 2016] [NCERT-234]

vi. Mobile electron carrier – Cytochrome “C” and Ubiquinone (UQ) /

vii. Net gain of 36 ATP molecules during aerobic respiration of one

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19. Because respiratory pathway is involved in both Anabolic and

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• Which page has the maximum