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Movement of Molecules
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https://lms.latrobe.edu.au/course/view.php?
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id=72921&section=7

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SECOND Cell Structure & Function

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TOP Biology

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Movement of Molecules 1
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Created time @December 7, 2020 5:21 PM

Last Edited @December 30, 2020 4:51 PM

Next Revision Date @January 21, 2021

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Learning Objective 1 (LO1): Describe the

major fluid compartments of the human
body
Chapter 27, Section 27.1 - pages 1516-1517

Two-thirds of body fluid is intracellular fluid, ICF or cytosol, and other third is
extracellular fluid, ECF

80% of ECF is interstitial fluid occupying microscopic spaces between tissue

cells, 20% is plasma, liquid portion of blood

Other ECF fluids include lymph in lymphatic vessels, cerebrospinal fluid,

synovial fluid, aqueous humour and vitreous body, endolymph and perilymph in
ears, and pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal fluids between serous membranes

Two general barriers separate IF, interstitial fluid and blood plasma:

Plasma membrane of individual cells

Blood vessel walls divide interstitial fluids from blood plasma - only in capillaries
are walls thin and leaky enough to permit exchange of water and solutes

Fluid balance - when required amounts of water and solutes present and correctly
proportions amount various compartments

Filtration, reabsorption, diffusion and osmosis allow continual exchange of water

and solutes among body fluids

Concentrations of solutes determines direction of water movement

Movement of Molecules 2
 Learning Objective 2 (LO2): Define and
describe Osmosis and Diffusion
Chapter 3, Section 3.3 - pages 102-110

Passive Processes
Diffusion
Random mixing of particles in solution occurs due to particles' kinetic energy -
solutes and solvents undergo diffusion

Move down concentration gradient - reach equilibrium when particles become

evenly distributed throughout solution

Steepness of concentration gradient - greater difference in concentration across

membrane, higher the rate of diffusion

Steepness of electrochemical gradient determines diffusion rate

Mass of diffusing substance - larger mass, slower rate of diffusion

Surface area - larger the surface area of membrane available for diffusion, the
longer it takes

Diffusion distance - greater the distance, the longer it takes

Across plasma membrane takes fraction of a second - in pneumonia, additional

fluid increases diffusion distance

Simple Diffusion
Passive - process where substances move freely across plasma membrane without
help of transport proteins

O2, CO2, N, fatty acids, steroids, fat-soluble vitamins - also small polar
molecules: H20, urea, small alcohols

Facilitated Diffusion
Channel-Mediated Diffusion

Movement of Molecules 3
 Solute moves down concentration gradient through membrane channel - most
membrane channels are ion channels, integral transmembrane proteins allowing
passage of small, inorganic ions too hydrophilic to penetrate nonpolar interior

In typical PM, most numerous ion channels - K+, Cl-, fewer for Na+ and Ca2+

Generally slower than free diffusion because channels occupy smaller fraction
of total membrane surface area

Gated when part of channel protein changes shape in one way to open pore and in
another to close - some randomly alternate between positions, some regulated by
extracellular chemical/electrical changes

Carrier-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion

Carrier/transporter moves solute down concentration gradient - solute binds to
carrier on one side of membrane and released to ICS after carrier changes shape

Passive process

Solute binds more often to side with higher concentration, when concentration
same on both sides solute molecules bind to carrier on cytosolic side

Rate determined by steepness of concentration gradient

Number of carriers in membrane determines transport maximum, upper limit on rate

of diffusion

Exhibits saturation

Substances include glucose, fructose, galactose and some vitamins - for glucose:

1. Glucose binds to carrier protein - glucose transporter (GluT) on membrane

surface

2. Transporter undergoes shape change, glucose passes through membrane

3. Transporter releases glucose into cytosolic space

Insulin - via action of insulin receptor, promotes insertion of many copies of glucose
transporters into plasma membrane of certain cells, effect is to elevate transport
maximum for facilitated diffusion of glucose into cells

Inability to produce/utilise insulin is diabetes mellitus

Movement of Molecules 4
 Osmosis
Net movement of solvent through selectively permeable membrane - moves from
higher to lower water concentration

Passive process

Either move through membrane by moving between neighbouring phospholipid

molecules in bilayers via simple diffusion or by moving through aquaporins -
integral membrane proteins that function as water channels

Only when membrane permeable to water but not to certain solutes

Experiment - U shaped tube, selectively permeable membrane separates left and

right arm - pure water in left, same volume with solute that cant pass through
membrane in right

Osmosis occurs left to right - water concentration higher in left, moves down
concentration gradient, volume of left decreases as right increases

Higher column of solution in right arm becomes, more pressure exerted on that
side of membrane - hydrostatic pressure, forces water molecules to move back
into left arm

Solution with impermeable solute experts osmotic force - proportional to

concentration of solute particles that cannot cross membrane

Higher solute concentration = higher osmotic pressure

Amount of pressure needed to restore starting conditions = osmotic pressure

Movement of Molecules 5
 Learning Objective 3 (LO3): Describe what
would happen to a cell in a hypertonic,
isotonic and hypotonic solution
Chapter 3

Cytosol osmotic pressure normally = interstitial osmotic pressure, cell volume

remains essentially constant - solution's tonicity is measure of solution's ability to
change volume of cells by altering water content

Any solution in cell that maintains normal shape and cell is isotonic solution

0.9% NaCl solution, normal physiological saline solution, is isotonic for red
blood cells - RBS plasma membrane permits water to move in and out,
behaves as though impermeable to Na+ and Cl- - when RBCs bathed in
0.9% NaCl, water enters and exits at same rate allowing maintenance of
normal cell shape and volume

Hypotonic solution - solution that has lower concentration of solutes than

cytosol inside RBCs - water molecules enter faster than leave, RBCs swell and
eventually burst - rupture called haemolysis, rupture of other cells in this way is
lysis - pure water very hypotonic and causes rapid haemolysis

Movement of Molecules 6
 Hypertonic solution - higher concentration of solutes that does RBC cytosol,
causes cell shrinkage - crenation

Hypertonic infusion used to treat patients that have cerebral oedema (excess
interstitial fluid in brain), relives fluid overload by causing osmosis of water from
interstitial fluid into blood, kidneys excrete excess water from blood - hypotonic
infusion/oral ingestion used for dehydration, moves from blood into interstitial
fluid and into body cells

Learning Objective 4 (LO4): Describe the

different methods of transport across cell
plasma membranes
Chapter 3, pages 110-117

Active Transport
Some polar/charged solutes need to move against concentration gradient - two
sources of cellular energy:

Energy from hydrolysis of ATP - primary active transport

Energy stored in ionic concentration gradient - secondary active transport

Primary Active Transport

Energy from hydrolysis of ATP changes shape of carrier protein - chemical that shut
down ATP production lethal because they terminate active transport in cells
throughout body

Sodium-potassium pump - part of pump acts as an ATPase, maintain low cytosolic

concentration of Na+ by pumping ions into ECF against concentration gradient,
moves K+ into cells against concentration gradient

K+ and Na+ leak back across plasma membrane down electrochemical

gradient through passive/secondary active transport, pump work nonstop

Movement of Molecules 7
 1 - three Na+ bind to cytosolic side of pump protein

2 - binding triggers hydrolysis of ATP to ADP, which attached phosphate group to

pump protein - causes shape change, expelling three Na+ into ECF - shape that
favours binding of two K+ in ECF

3 - Binding of K+ triggers release of phosphate group, causes shape change

4 - reverts to original shape, K+ released into cytosol - ready to begin cycle again

Different concentrations of K+ and Na+ in cytosol and ECF crucial in maintaining

cell volume and ability to generate electrical signals

Tonicity proportional to concentration of solute particles that can't penetrate

membrane - because Na+ diffused into cell or that enter through secondary
active transport are immediately removed via pump, acts as if they cannot pass
through membrane, important contributor to tonicity on each side of PM

Secondary Active Transport

Energy stored in a Na+ or H+ concentration gradient used to drive other substances
across PM against own concentration gradients - indirectly sees energy obtained
from hydrolysis of ATP

Movement of Molecules 8
 Na-K pump maintains steep concentration gradient of Na+ across membrane - Na
ions have potential energy, if route for Na+ to leak back in, some stored energy
converted to kinetic energy used to transport substances against their own
concentration gradient

Carrier protein simultaneously binds to Na+ and another substance then

changes shape so both are moved across membrane at same time - if they
move in same direction, transporters called symporters, or antiporters if
substances move in contrast

PMs contain several anti/symporters

Concentration of Ca2+ low in cytosol because Na+-Ca2+ antiporters eject Ca

ions

Na+-H+ antiporters regulate cytosolic pH by expelling excess H+

Dietary glucose and amino acids absorbed into epithelial cells of small intestine
by Na+-glucose and Na+-amino supporters - Na ions move down concentration
gradient and other substances move against

Movement of Molecules 9
 Clinical connection - digitalis given to patients with heart failure, slows down action
of Na-K pumps letting Na+ accumulate inside heart muscle cells - results in
decreased Na+ concentration gradient across PM, causes Na+-Ca2+ antiporters to
slow, more Ca2+ remains inside heart muscle cells, increases force of heart
contractions

Transport in Vesicles
Endocytosis
Materials move into cell in vesicle formed from PM

Receptor-mediated endocytosis - highly selective, cells take up specific ligands,

vesicle forms after receptor protein in PM recognises and binds to particle in ECF

e.g. Cells take-up cholesterol-containing low-density lipoproteins (LDLs),

transferrin (Fe transporting protein in blood), some vitamins, antibodies, certain
hormones

1 - binding - on ECF side of PM, LDL particle containing cholesterol binds to

specific receptor in PM to form receptor-LDL complex. Receptors, integral
proteins concentrated in regions of PM - clathrin-coated pits - clathrin attaches
to membrane on cytoplasmic side, many clathrin molecules come together
forming structure around receptor-LDL completed that cause membrane to
invaginate

2 - vesicle formation - invaginated edges around clathrin-coated pit fuse, small

piece of membrane pinches off, resulting vesicle - clathrin-coated vesicle -
contains receptor-LDL complexes

3 - uncoating - clathrin-coated vesicle loses clathrin coat to become uncoated

vesicle, clathrin molecules return to inner surface of PM or help form coast on
other vesicles inside cell

4 - fusion with endosome - uncoated vesicle fuses with endosome vesicle -

within it, LSL particles separate from receptors

5 - recycling of receptors to PM - most receptors accumulate in elongated

protrusions of endosome, which pinch off, forming transport vesicles that return
receptors to PM

Movement of Molecules 10
 6 - degradation in lysosomes - other transport vesicles containing LDL particles
bud off endosome and fuse with a lysosome - certain enzymes within break
down large protein and lipid molecules into amino acids, fatty acids, and
cholesterol - smaller molecules leave lysosome, cell uses cholesterol for
rebuilding membranes and synthesis of steroids (e.g. Oestrogen), fatty and
amino acids used for ATP production or to build other molecules

Movement of Molecules 11
Movement of Molecules 12
 Clinical connection - some viruses able to use receptor-mediated endocytosis -
body cells,

HIV can attach to CD4 receptor - present in PM of white BCs, helper T cells -
then enter the helper T cell

Phagocytosis
Form of endocytosis, cell engulfs large particles (e.g. Worn-out cells, whole
bacteria, viruses) e.g. Phagocytes, able to carry out phagocytosis, two main types:

Macrophages - main body tissues

Neutrophils - type of WBC

Begins when particle binds to PM receptor on phagocyte, causing extension of

pseudopods (projections of PM and cytoplasm) which surround particle, membrane
fuse to form phagosome vesicle - fuses with one or more lysosomes which break
down ingested material, any undigested materials tend to train in phagosome
indefinitely in residual body vesicle, then secreted via exocytosis or remain stored in
cell as lipofuscin granules

Movement of Molecules 13
 Most body cells carry out bulk-phase endocytosis, pinocytosis, form of endocytosis
where tiny droplets of ECF are taken up - no receptor proteins involved, solutes
dissolved in ECF brought into cell

PM folds inward and forms vesicle, detaches from PM and enters cytosol, fuses
with lysosome where materials are digested

Common in absorptive cells of liver and kidneys

Exocytosis
Releases material from cell - especially important in following cell types:

Secretory cells that liberate digestive enzymes, hormones, mucous, other

secretions

Nerves cells that release neurotransmitters

Movement of Molecules 14
 Water can also be released this way

Membrane-enclosed vesicles, secretory vesicles, form inside cell, fuse with PM and
release contents into ECF

Segments of PM lost through endocytosis are recovered or recycled through

exocytosis - balance between keeps cell surface area relatively constant

Transcytosis
Used to successively move substance into, across, and out of cell - active process,
vesicles undergo endocytosis on one side of cell, move across cell, and undergo
exocytosis on opposite side

Most often in endothelial cells that line blood vessels and a means for materials
to move between blood plasma and interstitial fluid

e.g. During pregnancy, some antibodies cross placenta into foetal circulation via
transcytosis

Transport Substances
Description
process transported
Movement of substances down a concentration
PASSIVE
gradient until equilibrium is reached; do not require
PROCESSES
cellular energy in the form of ATP.

Movement of molecules or ions down a concentration

Diffusion gradient due to their kinetic energy until they reach
equilibrium.

Nonpolar, hydrophobic
solutes: oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and nitrogen
Passive movement of a substance down its
gases; fatty acids;
Simple concentration gradient through the lipid bilayer of the
steroids; and fat-soluble
diffusion plasma membrane without the help of membrane
vitamins. Polar
transport proteins.
molecules such as
water, urea, and small
alcohols.

Movement of Molecules 15
 Transport Substances
Description
process transported

Polar or charged
Passive movement of a substance down its solutes: glucose;
Facilitated concentration gradient through the lipid bilayer by fructose; galactose;
diffusion transmembrane proteins that function as channels or some vitamins; and ions
carriers. such as K+, Cl−, Na+,
and Ca2+.
Passive movement of water molecules across a
selectively permeable membrane from an area of Solvent: water in living
Osmosis
higher to lower water concentration until equilibrium is systems.
reached.

ACTIVE Movement of substances against a concentration

PROCESSES gradient; requires cellular energy in the form of ATP.

Active process in which a cell expends energy to

Active move a substance across the membrane against its Polar or charged
transport concentration gradient by transmembrane proteins solutes.
that function as carriers.
Active process in which a substance moves across
Primary
the membrane against its concentration gradient by Na+, K+, Ca2+, H+, I−,
active
pumps (carriers) that use energy supplied by Cl−, and other ions.
transport
hydrolysis of ATP.
Coupled active transport of two substances across
the membrane using energy supplied by a Na+ or
H+ concentration gradient maintained by primary
Secondary Antiport: Ca2+, H+ out of
active transport pumps.Antiporters move Na+ (or H+)
active cells. Symport: glucose,
and another substance in opposite directions across
transport amino acids into cells.
the membrane; symporters move Na+ (or H+) and
another substance in the same direction across the
membrane.
Active process in which substances move into or out
Transport in
of cells in vesicles that bud from plasma membrane;
vesicles
requires energy supplied by ATP.
Endocytosis Movement of substances into a cell in vesicles.

Movement of Molecules 16
 Transport Substances
Description
process transported

Ligands: transferrin, low-

Receptor- Ligand–receptor complexes trigger infolding of a density lipoproteins
mediated clathrin-coated pit that forms a vesicle containing (LDLs), some vitamins,
endocytosis ligands. certain hormones, and
antibodies.

‘Cell eating’; movement of a solid particle into a cell Bacteria, viruses, and
Phagocytosis
after pseudopods engulf it to form a phagosome. aged or dead cells.

‘Cell drinking’; movement of extracellular fluid into a

Bulk-phase Solutes in extracellular
cell by infolding of plasma membrane to form a
endocytosis fluid.
vesicle.

Movement of substances out of a cell in secretory Neurotransmitters,

Exocytosis vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane and hormones, and digestive
release their contents into the extracellular fluid. enzymes.
Substances, such as
antibodies, across
Movement of a substance through a cell as a result of endothelial cells. This is
Transcytosis endocytosis on one side and exocytosis on the a common route for
opposite side. substances to pass
between blood plasma
and interstitial fluid

From <https://jigsaw.vitalsource.com/books/9780730354987/epub/OPS/c03.xhtml?
create=true#cfi=/6/20%5B;vnd.vst.idref=c03%5D!>

Movement of Molecules 17