The Structure and Function of the Cell Surface Membrane

The cell surface membrane is the plasma membrane that surrounds cells. It is the boundary
between the cell cytoplasm and the cell’s environment. It is therefore responsible for
controlling the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
Several molecules make up the cell surface membrane. These include:
1. Phospholipids
2. Proteins
3. Cholesterol
4. Glycolipids
5. Glycoproteins

Let us examine the structure of the cell surface membrane below to see the arrangement of
the molecules mentioned above.

The way in which all these molecules are combined into the structure of the cell surface
membrane is known as the fluid-mosaic model.
The term fluid- mosaic was given due to the following reasons:
Plasma membranes are describes as fluid because the individual phospholipid molecules
can move relative to one another, giving the membrane a flexible structure that is
constantly changing in shape.
Plasma membranes are described as mosaic because the proteins embedded in the
phospholipid bilayer vary in shape, size and pattern in the same way as the stones or tiles in
a mosaic.
We will now look at the function of each component separately.
Phospholipids
Remember phospholipids have a hydrophilic head which is attracted to water and not fat.
The hydrophobic tails repel water but mixes readily with fat. These phospholipids arrange
themselves in a bilayer where the hydrophobic tails of both layers point into the center of
the membrane protected from the water on both sides by the hydrophilic heads. The more
unsaturated these tails, the more fluid the membrane is. Lipid-soluble materials move
through the membrane via the phospholipid portion.
Proteins
The proteins of the cell surface membrane are arranged more randomly, than the regular
pattern of the phospholipids. They are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer in two main
ways as follows:
1. Extrinsic or peripheral proteins occur on the surface of the bilayer or only partially
embedded in it but never extend completely across it. They act either to give
mechanical support to the membrane or, in conjunction with glycolipids, as cell
receptors.
2. Intrinsic or integral proteins completely span the phospholipid bilayer from one side
to the next. Some act as carriers to transport water-soluble material across the
membrane while some are enzymes.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol molecules occur throughout the cell surface membrane of animal cells. Here
they are almost as numerous as the phospholipid molecules. They add strength to animal
cell surface membranes since there is no cell wall present. Cholesterol molecules are very
hydrophobic and therefore have an important role in preventing water and dissolved ions
from leaking out the cell. In addition, they pull together the fatty acid tails of the
phospholipid molecules to limit their movement making the membrane slightly less fluid.
Glycolipids
Glycolipids are lipids with a carbohydrate component. In the cell surface membrane,
glycolipids occur where a carbohydrate chain is associated with phospholipids. This
carbohydrate portion extends from the phospholipid bilayer into the watery environment
outside the cell. It acts as a recognition site for specific chemicals. The ABO blood system
that we are familiar with is based on the presence or absence of specific glycolipids on the
cell surface membrane.

Glycoproteins
Glycoproteins are proteins with a carbohydrate component. Carbohydrates are attached to
many extrinsic or peripheral proteins on the outer surface of the cell membrane. These
glycoproteins also act as recognition sites for specific chemicals particularly hormones and
neurotransmitters.
Below is a table that summarizes the functions of each component of the cell surface
membrane.
 Transport across the Membrane
The movement of material into and out of cells occurs in a number of ways as follows:
1. Passive transport including diffusion and osmosis
2. Active transport
3. Bulk transport
Passive transport is the movement of ions or molecules across cell membranes without the
need for a cellular energy input. Diffusion and osmosis are examples of passive transport.
During these processes, ions or molecules move due to kinetic energy which is the natural
inbuilt motion of particles.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or ions from a region where they are in higher
concentration to an area where they are in lower concentration.
A number of factors affect the rate at which molecules or ions diffuse. These include:
1. The concentration gradient - this is the difference in concentration of molecules or
ions between two regions. The greater the concentration gradient, the faster the
rate of diffusion.
2. The area over which diffusion takes place- the larger the area, the faster the rate of
diffusion.
3. The distance over which diffusion occurs – the shorter the distance, the faster the
rate of diffusion.
Specific to diffusion across a cell membrane, the rate of diffusion is also affected by:
1. The nature of the plasma membrane i.e. its composition and number of pores
2. The size and nature of the ion or molecule being diffused
- Small molecules diffuse faster than larger ones
- Fat-soluble molecules like glycerol diffuse faster than water-soluble molecules
- Non-polar molecules diffuse faster that polar molecules
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion is a type of diffusion that takes place at specific points on the
membrane where there are specific intrinsic or integral proteins. These proteins form
water-filled channels (protein channels) across the membrane and therefore allow water-
soluble ions and molecules like amino acids and glucose to pass through. These molecules
will diffuse very slowly through the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane. These protein
channels are selective and so open only in the presence of specific molecules or ions. When
the particular molecule or ion is not present, the channel remains closed. This allows
control over the entry and exit of substances. Carrier proteins also aid facilitated diffusion.
When a particular molecule, specific to the protein is present, it binds with the protein,
causing it to change shape in such a way that the molecule is released to the inside of the
membrane. Like in diffusion, there is no energy input and the molecules move from a
region where they are highly concentrated to one of lower concentration using only the
kinetic energy of the molecules themselves.
Osmosis
Osmosis is a special form of diffusion involving only water molecules. It is defined as the
passage of water from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water
potential across a partially permeable membrane. The cell surface membrane and the
plasma membranes surrounding organelles are partially permeable because they are
permeable to water molecules and certain solute molecules but not to many other
molecules.
Water potential is the pressure created by water molecules. It is represented by the Greek
letter psi (ψ) and is measured in units of pressure, usually kilopascals (kPa). You must take
note that pure water has a water potential of zero. The addition of a solute to pure water
will lower its water potential giving it a negative value. The more solute that is added to the
water, the more negative the water potential becomes. Water will therefore move from a
region of higher or less negative water potential to a region of lower or more negative water
potential.
Example if plant cell A has a water potential of -35 kPa and cell B has a water potential of
-12 kPa then water will move by osmosis from cell B to cell A.
Solute potential is the change in water potential as a consequence of the presence of solute
molecules. It is represented by the symbol (ψs). As the solute molecules always lower the
water potential, the value of the solute potential is always negative.
Pressure potential is a component of water potential due to hydrostatic pressure that is
exerted on water in a cell. It is represented by the symbol (ψp). It may have a positive or a
negative value. In turgid plant cells, it usually has a positive value as the entry of water
causes the protoplast to push against the cell wall.
Ψ= ψs + ψp
Terms used to describe the difference in concentrations of two solutions
Hypotonic – a solution with a lower concentration of solutes or a higher water potential
Hypertonic – a solution with a higher concentration of solutes or a lower water potential
Isotonic – two solutions with the same concentration of solutes
Osmosis and Cells
Let us use the diagrams below to determine what will happen to a plant cell placed in
different solutions
Let us use the following diagram to examine what happens to animal cells placed in the
same solutions.

Active Transport
Active transport is the movement of molecules or ions into or out of a cell from a region of
lower concentration to a region of higher concentration using energy and carrier
molecules.
It differs from passive transport in that:
1. Metabolic energy in the form of ATP is needed
2. Materials are moved against a concentration gradient
3. Carrier protein molecules which act as pumps are involved
 4. The process is very selective with only specific substances being transported.
Active transport uses ATP in two ways as follows:
1. Direct active transport where ATP is used directly to move molecules.
2. Co-transport where a concentration gradient is set up by direct active transport of
one molecule and it is then used to transport another molecule across.
Direct active transport

These events are illustrated in Figure 1 below.

Sodium – Potassium Pump
A very important example of active transport involves the sodium-potassium (Na+- K +) pump
which is a carrier protein found in the cell surface membranes of all animal cells. In most
cells, they run all the time and it is estimated that on average they use 30% of the cell’s
energy. In nerve cells, these pumps are especially important and account for 70% of the
energy used. The role of the Na+- K + pump is to pump out three sodium ions from the cell at
the same time as allowing two potassium ions into the cell for each ATP molecule used.
Since the ions are both positively charged, the net result is that the inside of the cell
becomes more negative than the outside. This is describes as a potential difference across
the membrane. This potential difference is important to allowing an animal cell to function
like a battery providing power to operate a variety of molecular devices embedded in the
membrane. It is also used by nerve cells to help transmit nervous impulses.
Cotransport
This is a type of secondary active transport across a cell membrane where a transport
protein couples the movement of an ion usually Na+ or H+ down its electrochemical
gradient, to the movement of another ion or molecule against a concentration or
electrochemical gradient. The ion moving down its electrochemical gradient is referred to
as the driving ion. The ion/molecule being transported against a concentration or
electrochemical gradient is referred to as the driven ion/molecule. In cotransport, the
direction of transport is the same for both the driving ion and the driven ion. An example is
the Na+/glucose cotransporter protein that couples the movement of Na+ into the cell down
its electrochemical gradient to the movement of glucose into the cell against its
concentration gradient.
Bulk Transport
So far we have looked at the transport of individual molecules or ions across the membrane.
Bulk transport involves the transport of large quantities of materials into or out of cells. This
is a form of active transport because energy is required. There are two types of bulk
transport depending on the direction that the material is being transported, namely:
Endocytosis – movement into the cell
Exocytosis – movement out of the cell
Activity
Figure 2 shows a diagram of a plasma membrane.
a) State the names and functions of the structures labelled K, L, M and N.
b) Explain why glucose cannot pass across membranes by simple diffusion.