Cell Physiology

Movement across membranes

The cell plasma membrane is a cell organelle. It is the boundary

between the outside of the cell and the cytoplasm. It is very active in
the regulation of the transport of molecules inside and outside the
cell.

All living cells are surrounded by water (plant or animal or unicellular

organisms).
E.g. flowering plant cells are contained within a cellulose cell wall.
There are spaces within the cell wall (approx. 50% of the wall volume)
are filled with a dilute solution of ions and other substances (tissue
fluid).

1. Living cells are therefore bathed in tissue fluid.

2. All transport of substances into and out of cells occurs in
solution.
3. Once in solution, substances may enter cells by various
mechanisms.
1. Diffusion
The atoms, molecules and ions of liquids and gases are in continuous
random motion. There is always a tendency to spread out and become
evenly dispersed. This kind of transport and mixing of particles is
called diffusion. The energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic
energy of the particles.

E.g. diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli.

E.g. some digested food molecules diffuse across the gut wall into the
blood.

Diffusion is the movement of molecules (or ions) from a region of

high concentration to a region of lower concentration until they
are spread out evenly.

Diffusion in a liquid can be demonstrated by adding a crystal of

potassium permanganate to distilled water. Without stirring, the ions
become evenly distributed throughout the water.

Diffusion in a liquid demonstrated

 What affects the rate of diffusion?

 The greater the difference in the concentration of a substance in

two areas, the faster the rate of diffusion. This difference in
concentration is known as the concentration gradient.

 Small particles tend to diffuse faster than larger particles.

 Diffusion takes place more quickly through thin membranes

because there is only a short diffusion pathway. Think about the
alveoli in the lungs.

 Diffusion is quicker if the membrane has a large surface area. E.g.

the spongy mesophyll cells of a leaf provide a large surface area
over which diffusion can take place.

 The shorter the distance between two regions, the faster the rate.

 An increase in temperature increases the rate of diffusion because

the particles will have greater kinetic energy.

The Concentration Gradient

 Diffusion in Cells

 Ions and small polar, water soluble molecules e.g. glucose, amino
acids, as well as water diffuse across the cell membrane through
channels or pores in the membrane (these channels/pores are
protein lined). They are known as hydrophillic protein channels.

 Non polar substances ( hydrophobic, fat soluble substances) e.g.

steroids, glycerol and also gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide in
solution can diffuse between spaces between phospholipid
molecules in the phospholipid bilayer. Water can also diffuse
between spaces between the phosholipid molecules because its
molecules are small. (see dia. Diffusion across a cell membrane)

Facilitated Diffusion

In facilitated diffusion, substances that would otherwise not pass

through the membrane are allowed to do so by a specific protein
molecule present in the membrane.

There are two main types of protein involved:

 Channel proteins
 Carrier proteins
 1. Channel proteins

 This molecule may have a specific channel that admits only one
type of substance.
 Channel proteins open up spaces or pores across the membrane
and so allow the entry or exit of a particular substance.
 They allow charged ions such as Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Cl- because they
are lined with polar groups. Charged ions cannot diffuse easily
across the non-polar centre of the phospholipid bilayer.
 The channel proteins can open and close their 'gates' depending on
the cell's needs.

2. Carrier Proteins

Carrier proteins are more sophisticated than channel proteins. They

allow larger polar molecules to diffuse across the membrane e.g.
sugars, amino acids.
 A particular molecule attaches to the carrier protein. The
membrane protein has a particular binding site.
 This causes the carrier protein to change its shape.
 Changing shape enables the carrier protein to 'deliver' the molecule
through the membrane.

 Carrier proteins and channel proteins both increase the rate of

diffusion along a concentration gradient, therefore energy is
NOT required from respiration. Each is a PASSIVE PROCESS.
 Diffusion across a Cell Membrane

Facilitated Diffusion e.g. 1

Facilitated diffusion - Channel Proteins

Facilitated Diffusion - Carrier Proteins

 Diffusion Summary

Simple Diffusion
◉ Because all substances have kinetic energy molecules and ions
are continually moving about.
◉ The random mixing of ions and molecules in a solution due to
their kinetic energy is called simple diffusion.

Simple diffusion can occur through:-

1 phospholipid bilayer
2 pores of channels that are formed by integral proteins.

1. Phospholipid bilayer - diffusion of lipid soluble molecules e.g.

steroids, fat soluble vitamins (A, E, D, K), glycerol. Water also
diffuses easily as well as oxygen and carbon dioxide in solution.
2. Pores of channels formed by integral (intrinsic) proteins - This is
the diffusion of substances e.g. ions and larger molecules that are
not lipid soluble. They are polar, hydrophillic substances
e.g.Water, ions (Na , K+ )
+
(Sometimes this form of diffusion is
considered to be a type of facilitated diffusion).

Diffusion of substances through channels is slower than

diffusion through the phospholipid bilayer

Facilitated Diffusion

Transport of many ions and larger molecules e.g. glucose, fructose.

This involves the help of a specific integral (intrinsic) protein. These
proteins can either be:-

1. Channels (diffusion of ions)

2. Carriers (diffusion of larger molecules)
 Active Transport

 Active transport requires ENERGY.

 It is the transport of ions or molecules across a membrane AGAINST
A CONCENTRATION GRADIENT.
 Ions have a natural tendency to diffuse from a high concentration
to a low concentration. In active transport the substance has to be
moved against its natural tendency i.e. from a low concentration to
a high concentration.
 Active transport is usually in one direction only, unlike diffusion
which is reversible.

When the movement of ions is considered, two factors will

influence the direction in which they diffuse:-

1. Concentration- usually from a region of high concentration to a region

of low concentration.

2. Electrical charge- ions will generally be attracted to a region of

opposite charge and move away from an area of similar charge (opposites
attract, like repel). Therefore ions move down an electrochemical
gradient.

Active transport is therefore the movement of ions against

an electrochemical gradient.

E.g. The cytosol of the cell usually holds reserves of the molecules that
are valuable to the cell's metabolism. E.g-
 Nitrate ions in plant cells
 Calcium ions in muscle fibres

The reserves of these ions do not escape; the cell membrane retains
them inside the cell and yet when more of these ions become available
for uptake, they are ACTIVELY ABSORBED INTO THE CELL. (against the
concentration gradient)
Potential difference in cells

 Cells maintain a potential difference i.e. there is a charge across

their plasma membranes.
 The inside of the cell (cytosol) is negative (-ve) in comparison to the
outside of the cell (+ve).
 Therefore cations (positively charged ions) are attracted into cells
and anions repulsed.
 The concentrations of ions inside and outside the cell will also help
to determine which direction they actually move.
____________________________________________________________________
Active uptake is highly selective

E.g. When potassium chloride (K+ and Cl- ions) is available to an animal
cell, K+ ions are more likely to be absorbed, since they are needed by
the cell.

E.g. When sodium nitrate (Na + and NO3- ions ) is available to a plant
cell, more of the NO3- ions are absorbed than the Na+. This also
reflects the needs of the cell.

Active transport involves special molecules in the membrane

called 'pumps'

 The 'pump' molecule (carrier molecule) in the cell membrane picks

up particular molecules and transports them to the other side of
the membrane. They are then released on the other side of the
membrane.

 Pumps (carriers) are globular proteins situated across the

phospholipid bilayer.

 Energy is required to move the 'pump' molecules ie a reaction with

ATP releases energy.

 Most membrane pumps are specific to particular molecules i.e.

selective transport of molecules.

 If the pump for a particular substance is not present in the

membrane then the substance will not be transported.

(see Dia - Active transport of a single substance)

Due to the energy needed for active transport, cells involved
in the process:

 tend to contain many mitochondria

 have a high rate of respiration

Their ability to take up molecules or ions against a

concentration gradient is affected by:-

 temperature
 oxygen concentration
 presence of poisons such as cyanide

All of the above factors affect the rate of respiration. These

factors in turn will affect the rate of active transport. WHY?

Processes that involve active transport

 nerve impulse transmission
 muscle contraction
 absorption of amino acids in the gut
 absorption of mineral salts by plant roots
 protein synthesis
 excretion of urea by the kidney
 Active transport showing membrane carrier protein

molecule

cell membrane

carrier protein

energy used - ATP converted

to ADP

Carrier protein changes shape (flips over) and transports the

molecule from one side of the cell membrane to the other.
Active transport of a single substance
 Sodium/Potassium Ion Pump

 The sodium/potassium pump is another type of pump. It can

transport two substances (Na+ and K+) in opposite directions.
 More than a third of the ATP consumed by a resting animal is used
to pump sodium (3 ions out of cell) and potassium (2 ions into cell).
 It is essential in osmoregulation and maintaining electrical activity
in nerve and muscle cells
 Cell membranes are usually much more permeable to potassium
ions than sodium ions (sodium ions can diffuse back into the cell
although this is relatively slow compared to potassium ions.
Endocytosis - importing substances into cells

During endocytosis, the cell wraps the cell surface membrane around
the material and brings it into the cytoplasm inside a vesicle (tiny
membrane sacs of matter, either solid or liquid).

There are two main types of endocytosis:-

1. Phagocytosis - solid material is taken into the cell in a vesicle.

Lysosomes fuse with the vesicle, emptying their enzymes into it.
The enzymes digest the material and the products are absorbed
into the cytoplasm.

 White blood cells called phagocytes, remove bacteria and cell debris
by phagocytosis.
 Amoeba engulfs its food by phagocytosis. The food is taken into
the cytoplasm inside a food vacuole. Lysosomes release digestive
enzymes into the vacuole and the soluble products are absorbed.

2. Pinocytosis - sometimes called 'cell drinking', is similar to

phagocytosis but in this case liquid material is taken into the cell.
The vesicles formed during pinocytosis can be extremely small.

 A human egg cell can take up nutrients from surrounding cells by

pinocytosis.
 Movement of lipids between cells and the surrounding tissue may
occur in this way - after digestion of food.
Exocytosis

Exocytosis is the reverse of endocytosis. It is the passage of materials

out of the cell. Often this material is a useful secretion, as in the case
of digestive enzymes, hormones or mucus.

Secretory vesicles carry their contents to the cell surface membrane.

The vesicle merges with the membrane and the secretion is released.

Exocytosis
Osmosis

Osmosis - Osmosis is a special type of diffusion. It is the net

movement of water molecules from a region of their high
concentration to a region of their low concentration through a partially
permeable membrane.

Theory - (see dia.)

 Water molecules in pure water are all free to move about at random
and therefore diffuse into the bag.

 In the concentrated sucrose solution most water molecules are

associated with/attracted to the dissolved sucrose. The dissolved
substance therefore has a 'cloud' of polar water molecules around
its molecules, held by weak chemical bonds and hydrogen bonds.
These water molecules cannot move freely.

 Examples of other substances these water molecules have an effect

on are :-

Organic substance Organic substance (ions)

Sugars Na+
Amino acids K+
Polypeptides Cl-
proteins NO3-

 The stronger the solution (the more solute it contains), the larger is
the number of water molecules that are slowed up and held.
Therefore in a very concentrated solution, water molecules are
restricted in movement compared to pure water where they are free
to move randomly.
Osmosis
Water Potential ()

Water potential  is a measurement of the ability of water

molecules to move.

 In a solution, water molecules will be moving around at

random, they have kinetic energy.
 Inside a cell they will exert a pressure on the membrane
that surrounds them because they collide with it.
 The greater this concentration of water molecules, the
greater the pressure and the higher the water potential.
 The value of water potential in pure water is 0. This
means that all other solutions will have a value lower than
this. They will therefore be negative.

Water potential = solute potential + pressure potential

cell = s + p
Theoretically, the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane is
impermeable to water molecules because they are polar. Yet, water
does enter and leave cells by osmosis. Water molecules can pass
through the cell membrane in the following ways:-

- through tiny spaces that open between the phospholipids in the

bilayer.

- through membrane proteins (channels) that form pores that are

permanently open.

How polar molecules (water) cross the lipid bilayer

 Solute potential s

Solute potential:- the effect of the amount of dissolved solute

present in a solution is known as the solute potential.
It is the concentration of dissolved substances inside the cell.

This value is always negative (-ve) because the forces of attraction

between the solute molecules and the water molecules reduce the
movement of water molecules.

 The more solute molecules present, the lower the water potential.
 The fewer solute molecules present, the higher the water potential

The solute potential (s) is a measure of the reduction in

water potential due to the presence of solute molecules.

Pressure potential (p)

In the cytoplasm, water molecules will be moving around at random.

Some will collide with the membrane that surrounds them. They will
exert a pressure on the membrane (water potential ).

The pressure produced by these randomly moving water molecules

pushes against the membrane from the inside, while the pressure
potential, p is pushing against the membrane from the outside.

- The two pressures are acting in opposite directions.

- Since all values of water potential are negative values then values
of pressure potential will always be positive.

Pressure potential = water potential - solute potential

p = cell - s
Demonstration of solute potential using an osmometer

Pressure potential at work

 Plasmolysis

 Plasmolysis is the shrinkage of the cytoplasm away from the cell

wall of a plant cell as a result of water being lost from the cell.
 If a plant cell is immersed in a concentrated sugar solution, the
concentration of water molecules inside the cell will be higher than
that outside.
 Water will therefore move by osmosis from the higher water
potential inside the cell to the lower water potential outside.
 The contents will shrink away from the cell wall and it will be
plasmolysed.
 At the point where the water potential outside is exactly the same
as that inside, the cytoplasm will be just coming away from the cell
wall. At this point the cell is said to be in a state of incipient
plasmolysis.
 Although this would appear to be a good way of measuring the
water potential of a cell, there is a practical problem. It is not
possible to see the point at which the cytoplasm is just losing
contact with the cell wall.

We therefore assume that when 50% of cells in the tissue are plasmolysed,
the water potential of the solution inside the cell will be the same as the
water potential of the solution outside the cell.

At incipient plasmolysis, the cell wall will not be pressing on the cytoplasm
so the pressure potential will = 0

If this is the case:

Water potential = solute potential + 0
cell = s + p
OR cell = s

Finding the water potential by this method also enables us to find the
solute potential of the cell
Plasmolysis

Q. What happens when you put a plant cell into a strong solution
(hypertonic solution))?
A. the external solution has the lower water potential, so water passes
out of the cell by osmosis.

As water leaves the cell, the cell surface membrane starts to shrink
away from the rigid cell wall. The pressure potential is now = 0. The
cell is now flaccid.

As more water leaves the cell, the cell contents continue to shrink.
The cell membrane peels away from the cell wall. A cell in this
condition is plasmolysed.

Turgidity

Q. What happens if you put a plant cell into distilled water or a weak
solution (hypotonic solution)?
A. The water potential inside the cell will be lower than the water
potential of the external solution. Water will enter the cell be osmosis.

 The influx of water causes the cell to swell.

 The cytoplasm will press against the cell wall, producing a pressure
potential.
 As more water enters, the pressure potential rises until it is equal
(and opposite) to the solute potential.
 The water potential is now = 0
 No more water can enter the cell.
 A cell in this state is said to be turgid.
Isotonic solutions

If a plant were to be placed in isotonic solution (solution with the same

water potential as that of the cells), there would be no net movement
of water in either direction. The cells would be in equalibrium.
Water Potential - A plant in changing external solutions
 Plasmolysed plant cells

An external solution that causes plasmolysis in 50% of the

cells (incipient plasmolysis) has the same water potential as
that of the cells.

cell wall

cell membrane

Plasmolysis is most easily observed in cells that have a

coloured solution in their vacuoles. It can be seen in
beetroot tissue or the epidermis of rhubarb leaf stalks. In
the plasmolysed cell the wall exerts no pressure at all
(pressure potential = 0). As a plasmolysed cell starts to take
up water the contents enlarge. At the point where the
cytoplasm starts to push against the wall, a slight pressure
potential is produced. As water uptake continues, the
pressure potential eventually becomes large enough to
reduce the cell's water potential to 0. Water uptake stops.
 Osmosis in Animal Cells

Animal cells a easily damaged by changes in the external solution

because they do not have a cell wall. If a typical animal cell is placed
in pure water e.g. red blood cell, it will quickly disintegrate from the
pressure potential generated. See diagram 'A red cell in changing
external solutions'

In most animals these problems are avoided because the osmotic

concentrations of body fluids (blood plasma and tissue fluid) are very
precisely regulated. The same water potential is maintained both
inside and outside the body cells. This process is a part of
osmoregulation.
When the external water
potential is less negative than A red blood cell in changing external solutions
the water potential of the cell
Aquatic unicellular animals e.g. Amoeba

Many unicellular animals live in water and survive even though their
surroundings normally have a water potential that is much less
negative than the cell solution. All the time, water is flowing into
these animals by osmosis. They are in constant danger that their
plasma membrane will burst because of the rising pressure inside it.

Amoeba contain a tiny water pump, known as a contractile vacuole.

This works continuously to pump out the excess water.

Amoeba - The role of the contractile vacuole

Differences between cells placed in external solutions of
different water potential