1-The cell membrane.

Passive and active cell transport types and

mechanisms.The ion channels (sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride), their
physiological role. The mechanisms of activation of ion channels

are composed primarily of phospholipids and proteins.

Cell Structure and Function
1. Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of the body.
2. Most cells contain a nucleus, surrounded by cytoplasm.
3. The cytoplasm contains cytosol, within which sit various types of
organelles.
4. The cytoplasm is enveloped by a cell membrane (plasma membrane).
B. The cell membrane
1. Structure

environment
from the extracellular fluid.
ed of phospholipids, arranged as a hydrophilic
glycerol
backbone and two hydrophobic fatty acid tails.
a. Fat-soluble (hydrophobic) substances such as steroid hormones can
dissolve in
the hydrophobic bilayer and therefore can freely cross the membrane.
b. In contrast, water-soluble (hydrophilic) substances such as Na and
glucose
cannot dissolve in this bilayer and must pass through pores or use carrier
proteins.
-1), carbohydrates, and
cholesterol.
cells.
 A major role of the plasma membrane is transporting substances into
and out of the cell. There are two major types of cell transport:
passive transport and active transport.
Passive transport requires no energy. It occurs when substances
move from areas of higher to lower concentration. Types of passive
transport include simple diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
Active transport requires energy from the cell. It occurs when
substances move from areas of lower to higher concentration or when
very large molecules are transported. Types of active transport
include ion pumps, such as the sodium-potassium pump, and vesicle
transport, which includes endocytosis and exocytosis.
Passive Transport
 Passive transport occurs when substances cross the plasma
membrane without any input of energy from the cell. No energy is
needed because the substances are moving from an area where they
have a higher concentration to an area where they have a lower
concentration. Concentration refers to the number of particles of a
substance per unit of volume. The more particles of a substance in a
given volume, the higher the concentration. A substance always
moves from an area where it is more concentrated to an area where it
ike a ball rolling down a hill. It goes
by itself without any input of extra energy.
There are several different types of passive transport, including
simple diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion. Each type is
described below.

Simple diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of a substance across a membrane, due to a

difference in concentration, without any help from other molecules. The
substance simply moves from the side of the membrane where it is more
concentrated to the side where it is less concentrated. shows how diffusion
works. Substances that can squeeze between the lipid molecules in the
plasma membrane by simple diffusion are generally very small,
hydrophobic molecules, such as molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Osmosis

Osmosis is a special type of diffusion the diffusion of water molecules

across a membrane. Like other molecules, water moves from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Water moves in or
out of a cell until its concentration is the same on both sides of the plasma
membrane.

Facilitated Diffusion

Water and many other substances cannot simply diffuse across a membrane.
Hydrophilic molecules, charged ions, and relatively large molecules such as
glucose all need help with diffusion. The help comes from special proteins
in the membrane known as transport proteins. Diffusion with the help of
transport proteins is called facilitated diffusion. There are several types of
transport proteins, including channel proteins and carrier proteins.

Channel proteins form pores, or tiny holes, in the membrane. This

allows water molecules and small ions to pass through the membrane
without coming into contact with the hydrophobic tails of the lipid
molecules in the interior of the membrane.
Carrier proteins bind with specific ions or molecules, and in doing so,
they change shape. As carrier proteins change shape, they carry the
ions or molecules across the membrane.
Active Transport
Active transport occurs when energy is needed for a substance to move
across a plasma membrane. Energy is needed because the substance is
moving from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher

without adding energy. The energy for active transport comes from the
energy-carrying molecule called ATP. Like passive transport, active
transport may also involve transport proteins.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

An example of active transport is the sodium-potassium pump. When this

pump is in operation, sodium ions are pumped out of the cell, and potassium
ions are pumped into the cell. Both ions move from areas of lower to higher
Ion channels are membrane proteins, which play a principal role in
regulating cellular excitability. They are found in virtually all cells, and are
of crucial physiological importance. Based on the stimulus to which they
respond, ion channels are divided into three superfamilies: voltage -gated,
ligand-gated and mechano-sensitive ion channels..
2-Ion pumps. The principle of operation of ion pumps and their
functions. Primarily and secondarily active transport

Sodium-Potassium Pump
Among the substances that are transported by primary active transport are
sodium, potassium, calcium, hydrogen, chloride, and a few other ions. the
sodium-potassium (Na+-K+) pump, a transport process that pumps sodium
ions outward through the cell membrane of all cells and at the same time
pumps potassium ions from the outside to the inside. This pump is
responsible for maintaining the sodium and potassium concentration
differences across the cell membrane, as well as for establishing a negative
electrical voltage inside the cells. this pump is also the basis of nerve
function, transmitting nerve signals throughout the nervous system. When
two potassium ions bind on the outside of the carrier protein and three
sodium ions bind on the inside, the ATPase function of the protein becomes
activated. This then cleaves one molecule of ATP, splitting it to adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) and liberating a high-energy phosphate bond of energy.
This liberated energy is then believed to cause a chemical and
conformational change in the protein carrier molecule, extruding the three
sodium ions to the outside and the two potassium ions to the inside.
Coupled transport
-uses the energy released when a molecule moves by diffusion to supply
energy to active transport of a different molecule
-a symporter is used
-glucose-Na+ symporter captures the energy from Na+ diffusion to move
glucose against a concentration gradient

One of the most important functions of the Na+-K+ pump is to control

the volume of each cell .

Active transport : Needs energy in form of ATP to pump molecules

AGAINST their concentration gradient ( from lower concentration to higher
concentration of molecules ) by protein pumps , such as Na/K pump , or
calcium pump or Na/ H pump...etc. These proteins are called transporters.
Active transport is very specific , which means that it allows cell to select
substances taken up.
As we mentioned , this type of transport needs energy in form of ATP
.Knowing that we use more than one third of our metabolic energy for active
transport , we can understand the importance of this transport for our
homeostasis.
One of the properties of active transport is that it reach a transport maximum
when all its transporters are occupied ( saturated) by the molecules. This is a
very important physiologic property. Active transport has two forms
1-Primary active transport utilizes energy in form of ATP to transport
molecules across a membrane against their concentration gradient.
Therefore, all groups of ATP-powered pumps contain one or more binding
sites for ATP, which are always present on the cytosolic face of the
membrane.
2- Secondary active transport, is transport of molecules across the cell
membrane utilizing energy in other forms than ATP. This energy comes
from the electrochemical gradient created by pumping ions out of the cell.
This Co-Transport can be either via antiport or symport.

The formation of the electrochemical gradient, which enables the co-

transport, is made by the primary active transport of Na+. Na+ is actively
transported out of the cell, creating a much higher concentration
extracellularly than intracellularly. This gradient becomes energy as the
excess Sodium is constantly trying to diffuse to the interior. This mechanism
provides the energy needed for the co-transport of other ions and substances.
This is evident in co-transporters such as the Sodium-glucose co-transporter.
The Na+ gradient created by the Na+/K+ ATPase is used by the
Na+/Glucose co-transporter to transport glucose and Na+ back into the cell.

3-A concept of the membrane potential and resting potential. Methods

of registration of resting potential, and its physical characteristics. The
ionic basis of the resting membrane potential .

Membrane potential is a potential gradient that forces ions to passively

move in one direction: positive ions are attracted by the 'negative' side of
the membrane and negative ions by the 'positive' one.
Resting membrane potential :
-
- is the result of the high resting conductance to K+, which drives the
membrane potential
toward the K+ equilibrium potential.
- At rest, the Na+ channels are closed and Na+ conductance is low.

Not only excitable cells , but most of cells have resting membrane potential
that enable them to fulfill their functions , for example the epithelial cells of
the bronchi has membrane potential that enable them to move their cilia, the
same is true for the epithelial cells of the Fallopian tube.
One important factor that contributes to formation of resting membrane
potential is the potassium-selective leak channels that allows potassium to
diffuse against its concentration gradient
The concentration of sodium out of the cell will be larger its concentration
inside the cell , so the sodium tends to move down its concentration gradient
inside the cell but it can not do that because of the electrical gradient across
the cell membrane.

On the other hand : concentration of potassium will be higher inside the cell
than its concentration outside the cell , so the potassium will tend to move
down its concentration gradient outside the cell , but it can not do that
because of the voltage gradient across the membrane.

4-Action potential: the structure, physical and physiological characteristics.

The ionic basis of action potential phases. Excitability changes during the
development of the action potential. The absolute and relative refractory
periods

Action potentials
Action potential size, shape, and timing may vary widely between the
different cell types, but there are several common characteristics, including
the existence of a threshold for action potential formation, all-or-nothing
behavior, overshoots, and afterpotentials , focuses on a nerve action
potential whose upstroke is mediated by voltage-dependent Na channels,
but voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels can support action potentials .
 Changes in sodium and potassium conductance during the course of the
action potential. Sodium conductance increases several thousand-fold during
the early stages of the action potential, whereas potassium conductance
increases only about 30-fold during the latter stages of the action potential
and for a short period thereafter.

1. Stimulus starts the rapid change in voltage or action potential. sufficient

current must be administered to the cell in order to raise the voltage above
the threshold voltage to start membrane depolarization.
2. Depolarization is caused by a rapid rise in membrane potential opening of
sodium channels in the cellular membrane, resulting in a large influx of
sodium ions.
3. Membrane Repolarization results from rapid sodium channel inactivation as
well as a large efflux of potassium ions resulting from activated potassium
channels.
4. Hyperpolarization is a lowered membrane potential caused by the efflux of
potassium ions and closing of the potassium channels.
5. Resting state is when membrane potential returns to the resting voltage that
occurred before the stimulus occurred.

1. Threshold potential: Threshold is the membrane potential at which the

action potential is inevitable. At threshold potential, net inward current
becomes larger than net outward current. The resulting depolarization
becomes self-sustaining and gives rise to the upstroke of the action
potential. If net inward current is less than net outward current, no action
potential will occur (i.e., all-or-none response).
2. All or nothing: Voltage-dependent Na+ channels that mediate action
potentials are typically present in the membrane in high numbers. When Vm
crosses threshold, they open to allow a massive inward current, and the
membrane depolarizes in a self-perpetuating (regenerative) fashion toward
-or-
dam wall. Once depolarization begins, it does not stop until the ionic flood
is complete.
3. Overshoot: The action-potential peak typically does not reach ENa, but it
zero-potential line, and the inside of the cell becomes
positively charged with respect to the ECF.
4. Afterpotentials: Action potentials are transient events. The down-stroke
is caused in part by voltage-dependent K+ channels that open to allow K+
efflux, causing Vm to repolarize. In some cells, the action potential may be
followed by an afterpotential of varying size and polarity. A hyperpolarizing
afterpotential takes the membrane negative to Vm for a period before
eventually settling at the normal resting potential.
Refractory periods
a. Absolute refractory period
is the period during which another action potential cannot be elicited,
no matter
how large the stimulus.
coincides with almost the entire duration of the action potential.
Explanation: Recall that the inactivation gates of the Na+ channels are
closed when
the membrane potential is depolarized. They remain closed until
repolarization
occurs. No action potential can occur until the inactivation gates open.
b. Relative refractory period
begins at the end of the absolute refractory period and continues until
the membrane
potential returns to the resting level.
An action potential can be elicited during this period only if a larger
than usual
inward current is provided.
Explanation: The K+ conductance is higher than at rest, and the
membrane potential
is closer to the K+ equilibrium potential and, therefore, farther from
threshold; more
inward current is required to bring the membrane to threshold.

5- Differences in impulse transmission through myelinated and

unmyelinated nerve fibers. Classification of nerve fibers at the speed of the
conduction. Laws of conduction of excitation along the nerve fibers

The conduction of nerve impulse is faster in this neuron than non-

myelinated neuron due to presence of myelin sheath over the axon.
... Myelinated nerve fibre has nodes of Ranvier which is always constant in
number whereas non-myelinated nerve fibre do not have node of Ranvier.
Neurons, like other cells, have a cell body (called the soma). The nucleus of
the neuron is found in the soma. Neurons need to produce a lot of proteins,
and most neuronal proteins are synthesized in the soma as well.

Various processes (appendages or protrusions) extend from the cell body.

These include many short, branching processes, known as dendrites, and a
separate process that is typically longer than the dendrites, known as
the axon.
 action

Types of neurons

potential propagation depends on the activation of voltage-gated sodium

channels. We point out that unmyelinated axons have voltage-gated sodium
channels along the entire length of the membrane. In contrast, myelinated
axons have voltage-gated sodium channels only in the nodal spaces. Nodal
spaces (nodes of Ranvier) are unmyelinated spaces .
6- Chemical and electric synapses: the structural and functional
organization.

Synapses are essential to the transmission of nervous impulses from one

neuron to another.
Most synapses are chemical; these synapses communicate using chemical
messengers. Other synapses are electrical; in these synapses, ions flow
directly between cells.
Chemical transmission involves release of chemical messengers known
as neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters carry information from the pre-
synaptic sending neuron to the post-synaptic receiving cell.

A single axon can have multiple branches, allowing it to make synapses on

various postsynaptic cells. Similarly, a single neuron can receive thousands
of synaptic inputs from many different presynaptic sending neurons.

Inside the axon terminal of a sending cell are many synaptic vesicles. These
are membrane-bound spheres filled with neurotransmitter molecules. There
is a small gap between the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron and the
membrane of the postsynaptic cell, and this gap is called the synaptic cleft.

The molecules of neurotransmitter diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind
to receptor proteins on the postsynaptic cell. Activation of postsynaptic
receptors leads to the opening or closing of ion channels in the cell
membrane. This may be depolarizing make the inside of the cell more
positive or hyperpolarizing make the inside of the cell more negative
depending on the ions involved.

electrical synapses, unlike chemical synapses, there is a direct physical

connection between the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic neuron.
This connection takes the form of a channel called a gap junction, which
allows current ions to flow directly from one cell into another.

Electrical synapse showing presynaptic cell, gap junction, post-synaptic cell,

and movement of positive ions from pre-synaptic cell to post-synaptic cell.

Electrical synapses transmit signals more rapidly than chemical synapses do.
Some synapses are both electrical and chemical. At these synapses, the
electrical response occurs earlier than the chemical response.
7- Conduction of excitation in the neuromuscular junction. End-plate
potentials and the generation of the action potential in the muscle fiber. The
role of acetylcholinesterase.

Transmission of Impulses from Nerve Endings to Skeletal Muscle Fibers

by The Neuromuscular Junction
The synapse between the axons of motor neurons and skeletal muscle
fibers are called .The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) was the first
vertebrate synapse to be well characterized.
NMJ serves as a model chemical synapse that provides a basis for
understanding more complex synaptic interactions among neurons in
the central nervous system.
The skeletal muscle fibers are innervated by myelinated nerve fibers .
Each motor nerve fiber branches, after entering the muscle and
stimulates 3 to few hundred muscle fibers.
Mechanics of Skeletal Muscle Contraction
Motor Unit. Each motoneuron that leaves the spinal cord innervates
multiple muscle fibers, the number depending on the type of muscle.
All the muscle fibers innervated by a single nerve fiber are called a
motor unit.
The initiation and execution of muscle contraction occur in the following
sequential steps.
1. An action potential travels along a motor nerve to its endings on muscle
fibers.
2. At each ending, the nerve secretes a small amount of the neurotransmitter
substance acetylcholine.
3. The acetylcholine acts on a local area of the muscle fiber membrane to

floating in the membrane.

4. Opening of the acetylcholine-gated channels allows large quantities of
sodium ions to diffuse to the interior of the muscle fiber membrane. This
initiates an action potential at the membrane.
5. The action potential travels along the muscle fiber membrane in the same
way that action potentials travel along nerve fiber membranes.
6. The action potential depolarizes the muscle membrane, and much of the
action potential electricity flows through the center of the muscle fiber. Here
it causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release large quantities of calcium
ions that have been stored within this reticulum.
7. The calcium ions initiate attractive forces between the actin and myosin
filaments, causing them to slide alongside each other, which is the
contractile process.

8. After a fraction of a second, the calcium ions are pumped back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum by a Ca++ membrane pump, and they remain stored
in the reticulum until a new muscle action potential comes along.
Motor End-Plate and Innervation: At the NMJ, the axon terminal releases
Acetylcholine . The motor end-plate is the location of the ACh-receptors in
the muscle fiber sarcolemma. When ACh molecules are released, they
diffuse across a minute space called the synaptic cleft and bind to the
receptors

Acetylcholine is a small molecule that acts as a chemical messenger to

propagate nerve impulses across the neuromuscular junction between a
nerve and a muscle.

8. Types of muscle fibers. The innervation of skeletal muscle. Neuromotor

(motor) unit.

a. Extrafusal fibers
make up the bulk of muscle.
are innervated by a-motoneurons.
provide the force for muscle contraction.
b. Intrafusal fibers
are smaller than extrafusal muscle fibers.
are innervated by g-motoneurons.
are encapsulated in sheaths to form muscle spindles.
run in parallel with extrafusal fibers, but not for the entire length of the
muscle.
are too small to generate significant force.
Innervation
1-Alpha motor neurons (also called lower motor neurons) innervate
skeletal muscle and cause the muscle contractions that generate movement.
Motor neurons release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at a synapse called
the neuromuscular junction. When the acetylcholine binds to acetylcholine
receptors on the muscle fiber, an action potential is propagated along the
muscle fiber in both directions .
2-Gamma motor neurons: lesser in number and smaller in diameter. They
are projected to intrafusal muscle fibers, which helps in controlling muscle
tone.
3- Interneuron: 30 times more numerous than other neurons, very small in
size, and very excitable (1500 firing times per second). They are mostly
inhibitory neurons.

motor unit consists of the motor neuron and the grouping of muscle fibers
innervated by the neuron. The number of muscle fibers within a motor unit

motion.

9-The structure of myofibril as a functional unit of the muscle fiber. Stages

of skeletal muscle contraction. Sliding filament theory of skeletal muscle

All skeletal muscles are composed of numerous fibers ranging from 10 to 80

micrometers in diameter. Each of these fibers is made up of successively
smaller subunits, In most skeletal muscles, each fiber extends the entire
length of the muscle. Except for about 2 per cent of the fibers, each fiber is
usually innervated by only one nerve ending, located near the middle of the
fiber.
Each myofibril is composed of about 1500 adjacent myosin filaments and
3000 actin filaments, which are large polymerized protein molecules that are
responsible for the actual muscle contraction. the myosin and actin filaments
partially interdigitate and thus cause the myofibrils to have alternate light
and dark bands.

The light bands contain only actin filaments and are called I bands because
they are isotropic to polarized light. The dark bands contain myosin
filaments, as well as the ends of the actin filaments where they overlap the
myosin, and are called A bands because they are anisotropic to polarized
light. Note also the small projections from the sides of the myosin filaments
in.These are cross-bridges. It is the interaction between these cross-bridges
and the actin filaments that causes contraction. that the ends of the actin
filaments are attached to a so-called Z disc. From this disc, these filaments
extend in both directions to interdigitate with the myosin filaments. The Z
disc, which itself is composed of filamentous proteins different from the
actin and myosin filaments, passes crosswise across the myofibril and also
crosswise from myofibril to myofibril, attaching the myofibrils to one
another all the way across the muscle fiber.Therefore, the entire muscle fiber
has light and dark bands, as do the individual myofibrils.These bands give
skeletal and cardiac muscle their striated appearance.
The initiation and execution of muscle contraction occur in the
following sequential steps.
1. An action potential travels along a motor nerve to its endings on muscle
fibers.
2. At each ending, the nerve secretes a small amount of the neurotransmitter
substance acetylcholine.
3. The acetylcholine acts on a local area of the muscle fiber membrane to

floating in the membrane.

4. Opening of the acetylcholine-gated channels allows large quantities of
sodium ions to diffuse to the interior of the muscle fiber membrane. This
initiates an action potential at the membrane.
5. The action potential travels along the muscle fiber membrane in the same
way that action potentials travel along nerve fiber membranes.
6. The action potential depolarizes the muscle membrane, and much of the
action potential electricity flows through the center of the muscle fiber. Here
it causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release large quantities of calcium
ions that have been stored within this reticulum.
7. The calcium ions initiate attractive forces between the actin and myosin
filaments, causing them to slide alongside each other, which is the
contractile process.

8. After a fraction of a second, the calcium ions are pumped back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum by a Ca++ membrane pump, and they remain stored
in the reticulum until a new muscle action potential comes along.

Sliding Filament Mechanism of Muscle Contraction.

demonstrates the basic mechanism of muscle contraction. It shows the
relaxed state of a sarcomere (top) and the contracted state (bottom). In the
relaxed state, the ends of the actin filaments extending from two successive
Z discs barely begin to overlap one another. Conversely, in the contracted
state, these actin filaments have been pulled inward among the myosin
filaments, so that their ends overlap one another to their maximum extent.
Also, the Z discs have been pulled by the actin filaments up to the ends of
the myosin filaments.Thus, muscle contraction occurs by a sliding filament
mechanism.

10- The role of calcium ions in the process of muscle contraction. Sources
of calcium in the skeletal muscle. Electromechanical coupling.

the role of the calcium ions play an important role in muscle

contraction by creating interactions between the proteins, myosin and actin.
The calcium ions bind to the C component of the actin filament, which
exposes the binding site for the myosin head to bind to in order to stimulate
a muscle contraction .

Sources of calcium in the skeletal muscle from sarcoplasmic reticulum

(SR) is a membrane-bound structure found within muscle cells that is
similar to the endoplasmic reticulum in other cells. The main function of the
SR is to store calcium ions (Ca2+).

Electromechanical coupling between cardiomyocytes is a basic

requirement for coordinated mechanical activity in myocardium. In contrast
to heart muscle cells, skeletal muscle fibers are electrically isolated from
one another, a prerequisite for fine motor control.
11- The role of ATP for muscle activity. The process of muscle relaxation

ATP molecule bind to the myosin head at the end of swivel , breaking the
bond between the actin and myosin and the myosin swivel backward .This
would break the ATP into ADP and organic phosphate Pi, which causes the
myosin to bind to a new actin molecule and swivel forward again. The end
result of this series of processes is shortening of the sarcomere.
When the nervous impulse stops , the muscle relaxes . Because in the
absence of nerve impulse , there is no release of calcium.
Relaxation: Relaxation occurs when stimulation of the nerve stops.
Calcium is then pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum breaking the
link between actin and myosin. Actin and myosin return to their unbound
state causing the muscle to relax.

12-Simple twitch, twitch summation and tetanus. Tonic muscle contraction.

Phasic and tonic muscle fibers. Features of functioning and metabolism of
oxidative and glycolytic fibers.

tetanus: When the frequency of muscle contraction is such that the

maximal force is tension is generated without any relaxation of the
muscle.
summation: The occurrence of additional twitch contractions before
the previous twitch has completely relaxed.
twitch: The period of contraction and relaxation of a muscle after a
single stimulation.
tonic contraction
the sustained contraction of different groups of fibers within a muscle to
maintain continual muscular tension (tonus).

Tonic - means that muscle contains mostly slow-contraction, long-

duralibity fibers. These mucles have tendency to over-tension and to shorten
(for example in spasticity).
Phasic - means that muscle contains mostly quick-contraction, hi-power,
short-duralibity fibers. These muscles have tendency to under-tension
(getting weak), and loose. They also lose their mass very quickly while
hypokinesia.

there are three main types of skeletal muscle fibers recognized (Table
1). Slow oxidative (SO) fibers contract relatively slowly and use aerobic
respiration (oxygen and glucose) to produce ATP. Fast oxidative
(FO) fibers have relatively fast contractions and primarily use aerobic
respiration to generate ATP. Lastly, fast glycolytic (FG) fibers have
relatively fast contractions and primarily use anaerobic glycolysis. Most
skeletal muscles in a human body contain all three types, although in
varying proportions.

13- Conduction and excitability properties of smooth muscle. Smooth

muscle contraction

Conduction system is the autonomic nerve fibers that innervate smooth

muscle generally branch diffusely on top of a sheet of muscle fibers, as
shown in Figure 8 3. In most instances, these fibers do notmmake direct
contact with the smooth muscle fiber cellmmembranes but instead form so-
called diffuse junctions that secrete their transmitter substance into
themmatrix coating of the smooth muscle often a few nanometers to a few
micrometers away from the muscle cells; the transmitter substance then
diffuses to the cells. Furthermore, where there are many layers of muscle
cells, the nerve fibers often innervate only the outer layer, and muscle
excitation travels from this outer layer to the inner layers by action potential
conduction in the muscle mass or by additional diffusion of the transmitter
substance.
Excitatory and Inhibitory Transmitter Substances Secreted at the
Smooth Muscle Neuromuscular Junction. The most important transmitter
substances secreted by the autonomic nerves innervating smooth muscle are
acetylcholine and norepinephrine, but they are never secreted by the same
nerve fibers. Acetylcholine is an excitatory transmitter substance for smooth
muscle fibers in some organs but an inhibitory transmitter for smooth
muscle in other organs. When acetylcholine excites a muscle fiber,
norepinephrine ordinarily inhibits it. Conversely, when acetylcholine
inhibits a fiber, norepinephrine usually excites it. both acetylcholine and
norepinephrine excite or inhibit smooth muscle by first binding with a
receptor protein on the surface of the muscle cell membrane. Some of the
receptor proteins are excitatory receptors, whereas others are inhibitory
receptors. Thus, the type of receptor determines whether the smooth muscle
is inhibited or excited and also determines which of the two transmitters,
acetylcholine or norepinephrine, is effective in causing the excitation or
inhibition.
Mechanisms of Smooth Muscle Excitation or Inhibition by Hormones
or Local Tissue Factors. Some hormone receptors in the smooth muscle
membrane open sodium or calcium ion channels and depolarize the
membrane, the same as after nerve stimulation. Sometimes action potentials
result, or action potentials that are already occurring may be enhanced. In
other cases, depolarization occurs without action potentials, and this
depolarization allows calcium ion entry into the cell, which promotes the
contraction. Inhibition, in contrast, occurs when the hormone (or other tissue
factor) closes the sodium and calcium channels to prevent entry of these
positive ions; inhibition also occurs if the normally closed potassium
channels are opened, allowing positive potassium ions to diffuse out of the
cell. Both of these actions increase the degree of negativity inside the
muscle cell, a state called hyperpolarization, which strongly inhibits
muscle contraction. Sometimes smooth muscle contraction or inhibition is
initiated by hormones without directly causing any change in the membrane
potential. In these instances, the hormone may activate a membrane receptor
that does not open any ion channels but instead causes an internal change in
the muscle fiber, such as release of calcium ions from the intracellular
sarcoplasmic reticulum; the calcium then induces contraction. To inhibit
contraction, other receptor mechanisms are known to activate the enzyme
adenylate cyclase or guanylate cyclase in the cell membrane; the portions of
the receptors that protrude to the interior of the cells are coupled to these
enzymes, causing the formation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate
(cAMP) or cyclic
guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), so-called second messengers.The
cAMP or cGMP has many effects, one of which is to change the degree of
phosphorylation of several enzymes that indirectly inhibit contraction. The
pump that moves calcium ions from the sarcoplasm into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum is activated, as well as the cell membrane pump that moves
calcium ions out of the cell itself; these effects reduce the calcium ion
concentration in the sarcoplasm, thereby inhibiting contraction.

14-The Spinal Cord. Spinal Reflexes. Spinal shock. Reflex. The reflex arc
and its components. Classification of reflexes. Mono- and polysynaptic
reflexes.

1. S tretch (myotatic) reflex knee jerk

is monosynaptic.
a. M uscle is stretched, and the stretching stimulates group Ia afferent
fibers.
b. Group Ia afferents synapse directly on a-motoneurons in the spinal cord.
The pool of
-motoneurons that is activated innervates the homonymous muscle.
c. -motoneurons causes contraction in the muscle that was
stretched. As
the muscle contracts, it shortens, decreasing the stretch on the muscle
spindle and
returning it to its original length.
d. At the same time, synergistic muscles are activated and antagonistic
muscles are
inhibited.
e. E xample of the knee-jerk reflex. Tapping on the patellar tendon causes
the quadriceps
to stretch. Stretch of the quadriceps stimulates group Ia afferent fibers,
which activate
-motoneurons that make the quadriceps contract. Contraction of the
quadriceps
forces the lower leg to extend.
Increases in g-motoneuron activity increase the sensitivity of the
muscle spindle and
therefore exaggerate the knee-jerk reflex.
2. Golgi tendon reflex (inverse myotatic)
is disynaptic.
is the opposite, or inverse, of the stretch reflex.
a. Active muscle contraction stimulates the Golgi tendon organs and group
lb afferent fibers.
b. The group Ib afferents stimulate inhibitory interneurons in the spinal
cord. These interneurons inhibit a-motoneurons and cause relaxation of the
muscle that was originally
contracted.
c. At the same time, antagonistic muscles are excited.
d. Clasp-knife reflex, an exaggerated form of the Golgi tendon reflex, can
occur with
disease of the corticospinal tracts (hypertonicity or spasticity).
For example, if the arm is hypertonic, the increased sensitivity of the
muscle spindles
in the extensor muscles (triceps) causes resistance to flexion of the arm.
Eventually,
tension in the triceps increases to the point at which it activates the Golgi
tendon
reflex, causing the triceps to relax and the arm to flex closed like a
jackknife.
3. Flexor withdrawal reflex
is polysynaptic.
results in flexion on the ipsilateral side and extension on the
contralateral side.
Somatosensory and pain afferent fibers elicit withdrawal of the stimulated
body part
from the noxious stimulus.
a. Pain (e.g., touching a hot stove) stimulates the flexor reflex afferents of
groups II, III,
and IV.
b. The afferent fibers synapse polysynaptically (via interneurons) onto
motoneurons in
the spinal cord.
c. On the ipsilateral side of the pain stimulus, flexors are stimulated (they
contract) and
extensors are inhibited (they relax), and the arm is jerked away from the
stove. On the
contralateral side, flexors are inhibited and extensors are stimulated
(crossed extension
reflex) to maintain balance.
d. As a result of persistent neural activity in the polysynaptic circuits, an
afterdischarge
occurs. The afterdischarge prevents the muscle from relaxing for some time.

Spinal shock refers to a clinical syndrome characterized by the loss of

reflex, motor and sensory function below the level of a spinal cord injury
(SCI). In some instances (possibly when lesion is T6 or higher), this
syndrome is associated with loss of autonomic tone leading to hypotension,
hypothermia and illeus

Reflex arc ; A complete or entire pathway followed by the sensory and

motor impulses during a reflex action .
The major components and pathway of a reflex arc are as follows:
Receptor (sensory organ): It receives a stimulus which then
produces an electrical signal called nerve impulse.
Sensory nerve (afferent nerve): It coveys or carries the impulse
from the receptor organs to the dorsal root ganglion of the
spinal nerve.
The ganglia fibers then carry the impulse to the posterior
horn of the spinal cord.
Relay neuron (inter-neuron): The impulse from posterior horn
of spinal cord is then transmitted to the anterior horn of the
spinal cord via inter-neuron or relay neuron. This impulse may
directly be passed without relay neuron as well.
Motor nerve (efferent nerve): The motor nerve now receives
the impulse from the anterior horn and transmits it to the effector
organs or motor organs.
Effector (motor organs): These are the organs that carry out the
final action like voluntary muscle contraction and glandular
secretion.
Types of Reflex Arcs

There are two types of reflex arcs:

1-Monosynaptic ; autonomic reflex arc, affecting inner organs, and the

somatic reflex arc, affecting muscles. When a reflex arc consists of only two
neurons, one sensory neuron, and one motor neuron. Monosynaptic refers
to the presence of a single chemical synapse. In the case of peripheral
muscle reflexes (patellar reflex, achilles reflex), brief stimulation to the
muscle spindle results in the contraction of the agonist or effector muscle.

2- polysynaptic reflex arcs; one or more interneurons connect afferent

(sensory) and efferent (motor) signals.
For example, the withdrawal reflex (nociceptive or flexor withdrawal reflex)
is a spinal reflex intended to protect the body from damaging stimuli. It
causes the stimulation of sensory, association, and motor neurons.

15-The Excitatory Synapse and the EPSP. The phenomenon of summation -

temporal and spatial summation
When a neurotransmitter binds to its receptor on a receiving cell, it causes
ion channels to open or close. This can produce a localized change in the
membrane potential voltage across the membrane of the receiving cell.

In some cases, the change makes the target cell more likely to fire its own
action potential. In this case, the shift in membrane potential is called
an excitatory postsynaptic potential, or EPSP.

An EPSP is depolarizing: it makes the inside of the cell more positive,

bringing the membrane potential closer to its threshold for firing an action
potential. Sometimes, a single EPSP isn't large enough bring the neuron to
threshold, but it can sum together with other EPSPs to trigger an action
potential.

Spatial and temporal summation

How do EPSPs and IPSPs interact? Basically, a postsynaptic neuron adds

together, or integrates, all of the excitatory and inhibitory inputs it receives

The integration of postsynaptic potentials that occur in different locations

but at about the same time is known as spatial summation.

The integration of postsynaptic potentials that occur in the same place but
at slightly different times is called temporal summation.

different dendrites of the same postsynaptic neuron. Neither synapse can

produce an EPSP quite large enough to bring the membrane potential to
threshold at the axon hillock the place where the action potential is
triggered, boxed below. If both subthreshold EPSPs occurred at the same
time, however, they could sum, or add up, to bring the membrane potential
to threshold.

On the other hand, if an IPSP occurred together with the two EPSPs, it
might prevent the membrane potential from reaching threshold and keep the
neuron from firing an action potential. These are examples of spatial
summation.

t instantaneous: instead, they last for a little

while before they dissipate. If a presynaptic neuron fires quickly twice in
row, causing two EPSPs, the second EPSP may arrive before the first one
has dissipated, bumping the membrane potential above threshold. This is an
example of temporal summation.

16-The Inhibitory Synapse and the IPSP. Pre- and postsynaptic inhibition
When a neurotransmitter binds to its receptor on a receiving cell, it causes
ion channels to open or close. This can produce a localized change in the
membrane potential voltage across the membrane of the receiving cell.
In other cases, the change makes the target cell less likely to fire an action
potential and is called an inhibitory post-synaptic potential, or IPSP.

IPSPs have the opposite effect. That is, they tend to keep the
membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron below threshold for
firing an action potential. IPSPs are important because they can
counteract, or cancel out, the excitatory effect of EPSPs.

Presynaptic inhibition is an inhibitory input to a neuron to make it less

likely to fire an action potential and communicate with downstream neurons.
Inhibition can be provided both at the postsynapse and the presynapse.
Presynaptic inhibition occurs when an inhibitory neurotransmitter,
like GABA, acts on GABA receptors on the axon terminal.

synapse can only function effectively if there is some way to "turn off" the
signal once it's been sent. Termination of the signal lets the postsynaptic cell
return to its normal resting potential, ready for new signals to arrive.

For the signal to end, the synaptic cleft must be cleared of neurotransmitter.
There are a few different ways to get this done. The neurotransmitter may be
broken down by an enzyme, it may be sucked back up into the presynaptic
neuron, or it may simply diffuse away. In some cases, neurotransmitter can
also be "mopped up" by nearby glial cells .

Anything that interferes with the processes that terminate the synaptic signal
can have significant physiological effects. For instance, some insecticides
kill insects by inhibiting an enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine.

17- The brain stem, neural organization. Functions. Reflexes of the brain
stem. Static and statokinetic reflexes .

The brain stem consists of the medulla, pons, and mesencephalon. In one
sense, it is an extension of the spinal cord upward into the cranial cavity
because it contains motor and sensory nuclei that perform motor and sensory
functions for the face and head regions in the same way that the spinal cord
performs these functions from the neck down. But in another sense, the
brain stem is its own master because it provides many special control
functions, such as the following:
1. Control of respiration
2. Control of the cardiovascular system
3. Partial control of gastrointestinal function
4. Control of many stereotyped movements of the
body
5. Control of equilibrium
6. Control of eye movements
They also provide adjustments necessary to maintain a stable posture during
voluntary activity Postural reflexes help to maintain the body in upright
and balanced position.
Postural reflexes are of two types- (A) Static Reflexes (B) Statokinetic
Reflexes Types Of Postural Reflexes

(A) Static Reflexes

It is of three types- (1) Local static reflexes (2) Segmental static
reflexes (3) General static reflexes Static reflexes are involved in
adjustments to displacements produced by gravity (A) Static
Reflexes Some important local static reflexes include: i) Stretch
reflex ii) Positive supporting reaction iii) Negative supporting
reaction The centre of local static reflex are located in spinal cord
They exert their effect on the same limb from which the stimulus was
initiated
(1) Local static reflexes
It plays an important role of steadying the ankle joint in standing
position It is characterized by simultaneous reflex contraction of
both extensors and flexors of a limb This is the most important
local static reflex which controls the tone in those extensor muscles
which keep the body upright (antigravity muscles) ii) Positive
supporting reaction
(2) Segmental static reflexes
The centre of this reflex is in spinal cord The best example of
segmental static reflex is crossed extensor reflex response component
of withdrawal reflex It is characterized by a bilateral reflex response
when stimulus is applied to one limb
(3) General static reflexes can be divided into three groups: a)
Attitudinal reflexes b) Long loop stretch reflexes c) Righting
reflexes It is characterized by a generalized effect from many
muscle groups in the body in response to a stimulus that arises at one
side of the body (3) General static reflexes

(B)Statokinetic Reflexes Center- These include: 1. Vestibular placing

reaction ; Stimulus- linear acceleration -- Receptors- in utricle and
saccule -- cerebral cortex
Response- as soon as foot comes in contact of any firm surface , it is
reflexly placed on surface in position to support the body.
 2. Visual placing reaction ; Stimulus- visual cues Receptors-
eyes Center- cerebral cortex ---- Response

18-Midbrain: structure and functions

The midbrain or mesencephalon is a portion of the central

nervous system (CNS) associated with vision, hearing, motor
control, sleep and wake cycles, arousal (alertness), and
temperature regulation. Anatomically, it comprises the tectum (or
corpora quadrigemina), tegmentum, ventricular mesocoelia (or

fasciculi. Caudally (posteriorly) the mesencephalon adjoins the pons

(metencephalon), and rostrally it adjoins the diencephalon (eg.,
thalamus, hypothalamus). The midbrain is located below the cerebral
cortex and above the hindbrain placing it near the center of the brain.

The midbrain or mesencephalon is a portion of the central nervous system (CNS)

associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep and wake cycles, arousal (alertness),
and temperature regulation.
Anatomically, the midbrain comprises the tectum ,tegmentum, ventricular mesocoelia , and
cerebral peduncles, as well as several nuclei and fasciculi.
During embryonic development, the midbrain arises from the second vesicle,
.
(mesencephalon) of the neural tube.
The mesencephalon is considered part of the brainstem

Primary Midbrain Components

Brainstem Anatomy: Brainstem anatomy showing the location of the
midbrain in relation to the midbrain, pons, medulla, basilar artery, and
vertebral arteries.

The tectum is formed by the superior and inferior colliculi and comprises
the rear portion of the midbrain. The superior colliculus regulates
preliminary visual processing and eye movement, while the inferior
colliculus is involved in auditory processing. Collectively, the colliculi is
referred to as the corpora quadrigemina.

The tegmentum is involved in many unconscious homeostatic and reflexive

pathways, and is the motor center that relays inhibitory signals to the
thalamus and basal nuclei to prevent unwanted body movement. It extends
from the substantia nigra to the cerebral aqueduct (also called the ventricular
mesocoeli). The nuclei of cranial nerves III and IV are located in the
tegmentum portion of the midbrain.

The substantia nigra is closely associated with motor system pathways of the
basal ganglia. The human mesencephalon is archipallian in origin, sharing
its general architecture with the most ancient of vertebrates. Dopamine
produced in the substantia nigra plays a role in motivation and habituation
of species from humans to the most elementary animals such as insects. The
midbrain is the smallest region in the brain and helps to relay information
for vision and hearing.
The cerebral peduncles are located on either side of the midbrain and are its
most anterior part, acting as the connectors between the rest of the midbrain
and the thalamic nuclei. The cerebral peduncles assist in motor movement
refinement, motor skill learning, and converting proprioceptive information
into balance and posture maintenance.

19. The structure of the cerebellum. Connection of the cerebellum with other
departments of the central nervous system

Structure
The cerebellum can be separated into three lobes: the flocculonodular lobe,
anterior lobe, and posterior lobe.
The medial zone of the anterior and posterior lobes constitutes the
spinocerebellum, or paleocerebellum.
There are about 3.6 times as many neurons in the cerebellum as in the neocortex.
Based on surface appearance, three lobes can be distinguished in the
cerebellum: the flocculonodular lobe, anterior lobe (above the primary
fissure), and the posterior lobe (below the primary fissure).

The cerebellum has the appearance of a separate structure attached to the

bottom of the brain, tucked underneath the cerebral hemispheres. The
surface of the cerebellum is covered with finely spaced parallel grooves, in
striking contrast to the broad irregular convolutions of the cerebral cortex.
the cerebellum is divided into two hemispheres. It also contains a narrow
midline zone called the vermis. A set of large folds is, by convention, used
to divide the overall structure into 10 smaller lobules. Due to its large
number of tiny granule cells, the cerebellum contains more neurons than the
rest of the brain put together, but comprises only 10% of total brain volume.
 Function
1. The cerebellum is important in coordinating speed, trajectory, and force of movements as they
occur.
2. It is also important in the maintenance of posture and equilibrium.
3. To perform these functions, the cerebellum must process in real time an enormous amount of
limbs.
4. In functional terms, the cerebellum is divided into the pontocerebellum, spinocerebellum, and
vestibulocerebellum , Pontocerebellum (neocerebellum, cerebrocerebellum)
a. Consists of the lateral zones of the cerebellar hemispheres, is highly developed, and is crucial
to the planning and timing of sequential motor movements
b. Receives large input from motor cortex
c. Efferent output from dentate nucleus to red nucleus and thalamus
d. Lesions of the pontocerebellum result in incoordination of the limbs.

20. Diencephalon. Thalamus and Hypothalamus functions. Characteristics

of neurons and nuclei

Function
The diencephalon is made up of four main components: the thalamus, the subthalamus, the
hypothalamus, and the epithalamus.
The hypothalamus is an integral part of the endocrine system, with the key function of linking
the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
The thalamus is critically involved in a number of functions including relaying sensory and
motor signals to the cerebral cortex and regulating consciousness, sleep, and alertness.
The diencephalon ; is the region of the vertebrate neural tube that gives rise
to posterior forebrain structures. In development, the forebrain develops
from the prosencephalon, the most anterior vesicle of the neural tube that
later forms both the diencephalon and the telencephalon. In adults, the
diencephalon appears at the upper end of the brain stem, situated between
the cerebrum and the brain stem. It is made up of four distinct components:
the thalamus, the subthalamus, the hypothalamus, and the epithalamus

Other structures that are part of the diencephalon are:

Anterior and posterior paraventricular nuclei

Medial and lateral habenular nuclei
Stria medullaris thalami
Posterior commissure
Pineal gland
1- The thalamus is the largest structure derived from the embryonic
diencephalon.
Together, the two halves of the thalamus are a prominent bulb-shaped
mass, about 5.7 cm in length, located obliquely and symmetrically on
each side of the third ventricle.
The thalamus has a system of myelinated fibers that separate the
different thalamic subparts. These areas are defined by distinct
clusters of neurons.
Every sensory system (with the exception of the olfactory system) has
a thalamic nucleus that receives sensory signals and sends them to the
associated primary cortical area.

to the cerebral cortex and the regulation of consciousness, sleep, and

alertness.

2- The hypothalamus produces and secretes a wide variety of

neurohormones that lead to the release or inhibition of pituitary gland
hormone.
 The posterior pituitary is composed of tissue derived from the
hypothalamus, whereas the anterior pituitary is derived from epithelial
tissue.
The hypothalamus can pass signals back and forth between the anterior
and posterior pituitary by the neurohypophysis and median eminence.
The hypothalamus can sample the blood composition at two sites, the
subfornical organ and the organum vasculosum of the lamina
terminalis. This is important for the uptake of circulating hormones
and to determine concentration of substances in the blood.

The outputs of the hypothalamus can be divided into neural projections

and endocrine hormones. The neural projections tend to run
bidirectionally.
3- The epithalamus is a dorsal posterior segment of the diencephalon,
which includes the habenula and their interconnecting fibers, the
habenular commissure, the stria medullaris, and the pineal body.
A main function of the epithalamus is the secretion of melatonin by
the pineal gland.
The epithalamus is connected with both the limbic system and the
basal ganglia

21. The basal ganglia, its structure and functions

Function ; The basal ganglia and related nuclei consist of a variety of

subcortical cell groups engaged primarily in motor control, together with a
wider variety of roles such as motor learning, executive functions and
behavior, and emotions.

The term basal ganglia in the strictest sense refers to nuclei embedded deep
in the brain hemispheres. (caudate, putamen), and globus pallidus in the
cerebrum, the substantia nigra in the midbrain, and the subthalamic nucleus
in the diencephalon.
The separate nuclei of the basal ganglia all have extensive roles of their own
in the brain, but they also are interconnected with one another to form a
network that is thought to be involved in a variety of cognitive, emotional,
and movement-related functions. The basal ganglia are best-known,
however, for their role in movement.
there are different pathways in the basal ganglia that promote and inhibit
movement, respectively.
The direct/indirect model is centered around connections the basal ganglia
(specifically the globus pallidus and substantia nigra) form with neurons in
the thalamus. These thalamic neurons in turn project to the motor cortex (an
area of the brain where many voluntary movements originate) and can
stimulate movement via these connections. The basal ganglia, continuously
inhibit the thalamic neurons, which stops them from communicating with
the motor cortex inhibiting movement in the process.
1-direct pathway ;when a signal to initiate the movement is sent from the
cortex to the basal ganglia, typically arriving at the caudate or putamen
(which are referred to collectively as the striatum). Then, the signal follows
a circuit in the basal ganglia , which leads to the silencing of neurons in the
globus pallidus and substantia nigra. This frees the thalamus from the
inhibitory effects of the basal ganglia and allows movement to occur.
2-the indirect pathway; which involves the subthalamic nucleus and leads
to the increased suppression of unwanted movements. It is thought that a
balance between activity in these two pathways may facilitate smooth
movement.

22. The limbic system, its structure and functions

The limbic system is a set of structures of the brain. These structures

cover both sides of the thalamus, right under the cerebrum. It is not a
separate system, but a collection of structures from the cerebrum,
diencephalon, and midbrain. It supports many different functions,
including emotion, behaviour, motivation, long-term memory,
and olfaction. It is the part of the brain involved when it comes to
behaviours we need for survival: feeding, reproduction and caring for our
young, and fight or flight responses.
 It combines higher mental functions and primitive emotion into a
single system often referred to as the emotional nervous system. It is
not only responsible for our emotional lives but also our higher
mental functions, such as learning and formation of memories. The
limbic system is the reason that some physical things eg eating, seem
so pleasurable to us, and the reason why some medical conditions,
such as hypertension, are caused by mental stress.
There are several important structures within the limbic system:
the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia,
and cingulate gyrus.
The limbic system is among the oldest parts of the brain in
evolutionary terms: it can be found in fish, amphibians, reptiles and
mammals.
The pleasure center is located in the limbic system. It is involved in
sexual arousal and in the "high" derived from certain recreational
drugs.
Image: Components of the Limbic System.

Important Limbic Structures

The Amygdala
 Small almond-shaped structure; there is one located in each of the left
and right temporal lobes. Known as the emotional center of the brain,
the amygdala is involved in evaluating the emotional valence of
situations (e.g., happy, sad, scary). It helps the brain recognize
potential threats and helps prepare the body for fight-or-flight
reactions by increasing heart and breathing rate. The amygdala is also
responsible for learning on the basis of reward or punishment.

Due to its close proximity to the hippocampus, the amygdala is

involved in the modulation of memory consolidation.
The Hippocampus

Found deep in the temporal lobe, and is shaped like a seahorse. It

consists of two horns curving back from the amygdala. Psychologists
and neuroscientists dispute the precise role of the hippocampus, but
generally agree that it plays an essential role in the formation of new
memories about past experiences.
The Thalamus and Hypothalamus

Both associated with changes in emotional reactivity. The thalamus

-
due to its connections with other limbic-system structures. The
hypothalamus is a small part of the brain located just below the
thalamus on both sides of the third ventricle. Lesions of the
hypothalamus interfere with several unconscious functions (such as
respiration and metabolism) and some so-called motivated behaviors
like sexuality, combativeness, and hunger. The lateral parts of the
hypothalamus seem to be involved with pleasure and rage, while the
medial part is linked to aversion, displeasure, and a tendency for
uncontrollable and loud laughter.
The Cingulate Gyrus

Located in the medial side of the brain next to the corpus callosum.
Its frontal part links smells and sights with pleasant memories of
previous emotions. This region also participates in our emotional
reaction to pain and in the regulation of aggressive behavior.
The Basal Ganglia
 A group of nuclei lying deep in the subcortical white matter of the
frontal lobes that organizes motor behavior.

23. Cerebral cortex. Its functions. Research methods. Sensory, motor,

associative areas of the cerebral cortex

The cerebral cortex, the largest part of the mammalian brain, is the wrinkly

it is here that all sensation, perception, memory, association, thought, and

voluntary physical actions occur. The cerebral cortex is considered the
ultimate control and information-processing center in the brain.

Right hemisphere left hemisphere

The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the right and left hemispheres (Fig.
2) They are joined by a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum that
transmits messages from one side to the other. Each hemisphere controls the
opposite side of the body. If a stroke occurs on the right side of the brain,
your left arm or leg may be weak or paralyzed.

Not all functions of the hemispheres are shared. In general, the left
hemisphere controls speech, comprehension, arithmetic, and writing. The
right hemisphere controls creativity, spatial ability, artistic, and musical
skills. The left hemisphere is dominant in hand use and language in about
92% of people.

Lobes of the brain

The cerebral hemispheres have distinct fissures, which divide the brain into
lobes. Each hemisphere has 4 lobes: frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital
. Each lobe may be divided, once again, into areas that serve very specific

function alone. There are very complex relationships between the lobes of
the brain and between the right and left hemispheres.
Frontal lobe

Personality, behavior, emotions

Judgment, planning, problem solving

Body movement (motor strip)

Intelligence, concentration, self awareness

Parietal lobe

Interprets language, words

Sense of touch, pain, temperature (sensory strip)
Interprets signals from vision, hearing, motor, sensory and memory
Spatial and visual perception

Occipital lobe

Interprets vision (color, light, movement)

Temporal lobe

Memory
Hearing
Sequencing and organization
Deep structures
Pathways called white matter tracts connect areas of the cortex to each
other. Messages can travel from one gyrus to another, from one lobe to
another, from one side of the brain to the other, and to structures deep in the
brain

The cortex can be divided into three functionally distinct areas: sensory, motor, and
associative.
The main sensory areas of the brain include the primary auditory cortex, primary
somatosensory cortex, and primary visual cortex.
In general, the two hemispheres receive information from the opposite side of the body.
For example, the right primary somatosensory cortex receives information from the left
limbs, and the right visual cortex receives information from the left eye.
Sensory areas are often represented in a manner that makes topographical sense.

sensory areas - Specific areas of the cerebral cortex which receive and
interpret somatic sensory impulses, e.g., olfaction in the frontal lobe,
cutaneous sensations in the parietal lobe, visual sensations in the occipital
lobe, taste, hearing, and equilibrium in the temporal lobe; visceral sensory
impulses are received and interpreted in the diencephalon, cerebellum, and
brain stem.
primary sensory cortex (postcentral gyrus of parietal lobe) - The
location, just posterior to the central sulcus in the parietal lobe of the
cerebral cortex, of the somatic sensory neurons which receive impulses
routed through the thalamus, medulla and spinal cord which respond with
the first conscious perceptions/awareness of cutaneous sensations arriving
from stimulated receptors in the skin and subcutaneous tissues; it is highly
organized with specific regions representing each part of the body.

primary motor cortex: A brain region located in the posterior portion of the frontal lobe of
humans. It plans and executes movements in association with other motor areas including the
premotor cortex, supplementary motor area, posterior parietal cortex, and several subcortical
brain regions.
cognitive flexibility: Ability to switch between thinking about two different concepts and to
think about multiple concepts simultaneously.
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: The highest cortical area responsible for motor planning,
organization, and regulation. It plays an important role in the integration of sensory and
mnemonic information and the regulation of intellectual function and action.
posterior parietal cortex: Plays an important role in producing planned movements by
receiving input from the three sensory systems that help localize the body and external objects
motor areas - Specific areas of the cerebral cortex, diencephalon,
cerebellum, brain stem and spinal cord which generate impulses which
innervate all effectors in the body, e.g., voluntary skeletal muscles,
involuntary muscles, and glands, both endocrine and exocrine.
primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus of frontal lobe) - The location,
just anterior to the central sulcus in the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex, of
the gray matter motor neurons which initiate impulses routed through the
medulla and spinal cord which represent the conscious voluntary commands
to the prime movers of skeletal muscle groups for specific actions; it is
highly organized with specific regions representing each part of the body.

association areas - Specific areas of the cerebral cortex which integrate

sensory information with emotional states, memories, learning and rational
thought processes.
24. Methods of investigation of the central nervous system.
Electromyography. Electrical phenomena in the cerebral cortex
is the recording of bioelectrical activity from muscle. However used
correctly the term applies to electromyographic recordings from striated
muscles, often the urethral rhabdosphincter. EMG recorded to indicate the
timing of a particular muscle activity, typically correlated to other
urodynamic parameters such as bladder pressure and uroflow, has also been
called kinesiological EMG to distinguish it from other types of diagnostic
EMG procedures . Kinesiological EMG signal can be recorded by various
types of surface or intramuscular needle or wire electrodes. EMG may also
help in differentiating between normal, denervated, denervated and
reinnervated and myopathic muscle and such EMG has also been called
motor unit .

EMG which distinguishes it from kinesiological. In the pelvic floor

muscles, only neurogenic changes are well recognised and looked for in a
routine evaluation.
EMG testing has a variety of clinical and biomedical applications. EMG is
used as a diagnostics tool for identifying neuromuscular diseases, or as a
research tool for studying kinesiology, and disorders of motor control. EMG
signals are sometimes used to guide botulinum toxin or phenol injections
into muscles. EMG signals are also used as a control signal
for prosthetic devices such as prosthetic hands, arms and lower limbs.
The EMG signal may be further used to indicate that muscle has been
activated through its motor nerve either by stimulation applied to motor
pathways (M wave, MEP) or to sensory pathways (reflex response).

25. Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, their characteristics.

The mechanism of action of mediators of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems on various receptors.

The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition

to each other, with one division exciting, triggering, or activating a response
that is countered by the alternate system, which serves to relax, decrease, or
negatively modulate a process.
The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick
responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not
require immediate reaction. The sympathetic division initiates the fight-or-flight
response and the parasympathetic initiates the rest-and-digest or feed-and-breed
responses.
The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are important for
modulating many vital functions, including respiration and cardiac contractility.
For example, the activities of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic
systems maintains adequate blood pressure, vagal tone, and heart rate.

sympathetic nervous system (SNS): One of the three parts of the

autonomic nervous system, along with the enteric and parasympathetic
-
or-flight response; it is also constantly active at a basal level to maintain
homeostasis.
sympatho-adrenal response: Also called the fight-or-flight response, this
activates the secretion of adrenaline (epinephrine) and, to a lesser extent,
noradrenaline (norepinephrine).
stress response: This halts or slows down various processes, such as sexual
responses and digestive systems, to focus on the stressor situation; this
usually causes negative effects like constipation, anorexia, difficulty
urinating, and difficulty maintaining sexual arousal.

Sympathetic Nervous System Physiology

Alongside the other two components of the autonomic nervous system, the
internal organs. Stress as in the hyperarousal of the flight-or-fight
response is thought to counteract the parasympathetic system, which
generally works to promote maintenance of the body at rest.

The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for regulating many

homeostatic mechanisms in living organisms. Fibers from the SNS innervate
tissues in almost every organ system and provide physiological regulation
over diverse body processes including pupil diameter, gut motility
(movement), and urinary output.

The SNS is perhaps best known for mediating the neuronal and hormonal
stress response commonly known as the fight-or-flight response, also known
as sympatho-adrenal response of the body. This occurs as the preganglionic
sympathetic fibers that end in the adrenal medulla secrete acetylcholine,
which activates the secretion of adrenaline (epinephrine), and to a lesser
extent noradrenaline (norepinephrine).

Therefore, this response is mediated directly via impulses transmitted

through the sympathetic nervous system, and also indirectly via
catecholamines that are secreted from the adrenal medulla, and acts
primarily on the cardiovascular system.

Messages travel through the SNS in a bidirectional flow. Efferent messages

can trigger simultaneous changes in different parts of the body.

For example, the sympathetic nervous system can accelerate heart rate,
widen bronchial passages, decrease motility of the large intestine, constrict
blood vessels, increase peristalsis in the esophagus, cause pupillary dilation,
piloerection (goose bumps) and perspiration (sweating), and raise blood
pressure.

Afferent messages carry sensations such as heat, cold, or pain. Some

evolutionary theorists suggest that the sympathetic nervous system operated
in early organisms to maintain survival since the sympathetic nervous
system is responsible for priming the body for action. One example of this
priming is in the moments before waking, in which sympathetic outflow
spontaneously increases in preparation for activity.
The Fight-or-Flight Response

The fight-or-flight response was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon.

His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the
sympathetic nervous system, priming the animal for fighting or fleeing. This
response was later recognized as the first stage of a general adaptation
syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other
organisms.

The Parasympathetic Nervous System

acetylcholine: An organic, polyatomic cation (often abbreviated ACh) that acts as a
neurotransmitter in both the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous
system (CNS) in many organisms, including humans.
parasympathetic nervous system: One of the divisions of the autonomic nervous
system, based between the brain and the spinal cord, that slows the heart and relaxes
muscles.
lacrimation: Shedding tears; crying.
Nerve innervation of the autonomic nervous system: The
parasympathetic nervous system, shown in blue, is a division of the
autonomic nervous system.

The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS, or occasionally PNS) is one of

the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The
autonomic nervous system (ANS, or visceral nervous system, or involuntary
nervous system) is the part of the peripheral nervous system that acts as a
control system, functioning largely below the level of consciousness and
controlling visceral functions.

The ANS is responsible for regulating the internal organs and glands, which
occurs unconsciously. Its roles include stimulation of rest-and-digest
activities that occur when the body is at rest, including sexual arousal,
salivation, lacrimation (tears), urination, digestion, and defecation.

Its action is described as being complementary to that of one of the other

main branches of the ANS, the sympathetic nervous system, which is
responsible for stimulating activities associated with the fight-or-flight
response.

The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in

opposition to each other. This natural opposition is better understood as
complementary in nature rather than antagonistic.

The sympathetic nervous system can be considered a quick response,

mobilizing system; and the parasympathetic system is a more slowly
activated, dampening system.

Parasympathetic Nervous System Functions

A useful acronym to summarize the functions of the parasympathetic

nervous system is SLUDD (salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion, and
defecation). The parasympathetic nervous system may also be known as the
parasympathetic division.

The parasympathetic nervous system uses chiefly acetylcholine (ACh) as its

neurotransmitter, although peptides (such as cholecystokinin) may act on the
PSNS as neurotransmitters. The ACh acts on two types of receptors, the
muscarinic and nicotinic cholinergic receptors.

26. Classification of receptors and their function. Primarily and secondary-

sensory receptor cells. The mechanism of excitation in receptors. The
receptor potential. Features of coding in analyzers

Classification of Receptors by Stimulus

1-Chemoreceptors detect the presence of chemicals.

2-Thermoreceptors detect changes in temperature.
3-Mechanoreceptors detect mechanical forces (Pressure).
4-Photoreceptors detect light during vision.
5-More specific examples of sensory receptors are baroreceptors,
propioceptors, hygroreceptors, and osmoreceptors.
6-Sensory receptors perform countless functions in our bodies mediating
vision, hearing, taste, touch, and more.
Receptors may be external exteroceptors or internal interoceptors.
Sensory receptors that share a common location often share a related
function.
Sensory receptors code four aspects of a stimulus: modality (or type),
intensity, location, and duration.
Cutaneous touch receptors and muscle spindle receptors are both
mechanoreceptors, but they differ in location.
Function Receptors are present over all parts of the body, for example,
in skin, eye, nose, tongue etc. They detect the signals and then send them to
the brain in the form of electrical signals. If receptors are damaged, they will
not detect the input, leading to harm for our body in a dangerous situation
Mechanisms of excitation

its ultimate
target
2. Sensory transduction typically occurs through changes in membrane
potential.
3. All sensory receptors have one feature in common: once stimulated, the
immediate
effect is to change the membrane potential of the receptor.
4. This change is called a receptor potential.
5. The receptor potential is achieved by opening ion channels, allowing
current to flow.
6. In most cases, the flow is inward, and the receptor is depolarized.

7. If the receptor potential is large enough, the membrane potential reaches

or exceeds
threshold, and action potentials are generated (Fig. 2-13).
8. The signal intensity (e.g., intensity of pain) can be conveyed by recruiting
increased
numbers of parallel fibers or by increasing the frequency of action potential
generation.

progressively
greater numbers of fibers.
summation: Increased signal strength is transmitted by
increasing the
frequency of action potentials in each fiber.

The receptor potential. Features of coding in analyzers

Any stimulus contains within it certain features that are of interest to the
organism. Stimuli have

intensities or strengths
locations or sites of application
frequencies of application
 rates of application
modalities

27-The optical system of the eye. Mechanism of refraction and

accommodation. The pupil and the pupillary reflex. Refractive errors of the
eye.

Human eye, Sense organ that receives visual images and transmits them to
the brain. The human eye is roughly spherical. Light passes through its
transparent front and stimulates receptor cells on the retina (cones for colour
vision, rods for black-and-white vision in faint light), which in turn send
impulses through the optic nerve to the brain. Vision disorders include near-
and farsightedness and astigmatism (correctable with eyeglasses or contact
lenses), colour blindness, and night blindness. Other eye disorders
(including detached retina and glaucoma) can cause visual-field defects or
blindness. See also ophthalmology; photoreception.

Accommodation reflex
a. Reflex that brings nearby objects into proper focus on the retina
b. When a distant object is brought close to the eyes, the focal point is
initially
behind the retina, resulting in a blurred image.

c. In the accommodation reflex, parasympathetic outflow from the Edinger-

Westphal nuclei causes contraction of the ciliary muscle, resulting in less

tension
in the suspensory ligaments.
d. This causes the lens to take on a more convex shape, increasing its
refractive
power so that the image is accurately focused on the retina.
e. Parasympathetic outflow also contracts the radial fibers of the iris
(sphincter
pupillae), decreasing the amount of light that enters the pupil; this results in
better focusing of the light and less scattering.
f. There is simultaneous contraction of the medial recti, which results in
convergence of the eyes onto the near object.
The major function of the iris is to increase the amount of light that enters
the eye during darkness and to decrease the amount of light that enters the
eye in daylight. The reflexes for controlling this mechanism.

Pupillary Light Reflex.

When light is shone into the eyes, the pupils constrict, a reaction called the
pupillary
light reflex. The neuronal pathway for this reflex is demonstrated by the
upper two black arrows ,When light impinges on the retina, a few of the
resulting impulses pass from the optic nerves to the pretectal
nuclei. From here, secondary impulses pass to the Edinger-Westphal nucleus
and, finally, back through parasympathetic nerves to constrict the sphincter
of the iris. Conversely, in darkness, the reflex becomes inhibited, which
results in dilation of the pupil.
The function of the light reflex is to help the eye adapt extremely rapidly to
changing light conditions. The limits of pupillary diameter are about 1.5
millimeters on the small side and 8 millimeters on the large side. Therefore,
because light brightness on the retina increases with the square of papillary
diameter, the range of light and dark adaptation that can be brought about by
the pupillary reflex is about 30 to 1 that is, up to as much as 30 times
change in the amount of light entering the eye.

Errors of Refraction
1-Emmetropia (Normal Vision). the eye is considered to be normal, or
light rays from distant objects are in sharp focus
on the retina when the ciliary muscle is completely relaxed
2-Hyperopia (Farsightedness). Hyperopia, which is also known as
that is too short or,
occasionally, a lens system that is too weak.
3-Myopia (Nearsightedness when the
ciliary muscle is completely relaxed, the light rays coming from distant
objects are focused in front of the retina,
4-Astigmatism. Astigmatism is a refractive error of the eye that causes the
visual image in one plane to focus at a different distance from that of the
plane at right angles. This most often results from too great a curvature of
the cornea in one plane of the eye.

28. The structure of the retina. Photoreceptors. Photochemical reactions in

the receptors of the retina. Retinal ganglion cells with "on-center" and "off-
center".
Layers of the Retina. Functional components of the retina, which are
arranged in layers from the outside to the inside as follows: (1) pigmented
layer, (2) layer of rods and cones projecting to the pigment, (3) outer nuclear
layer containing the cell bodies of the rods and cones, (4) outer plexiform
layer, (5) inner nuclear layer, (6) inner plexiform layer, (7) ganglionic layer,
(8) layer of optic nerve fibers, and (9) inner limiting membrane.

Neural Function of the Retina

circuit in the peripheral retina and at the right the circuit in the foveal retina.

After light passes through the lens system of the eye and then through the
vitreous humor, it enters the retina from the inside of the eye, that is, it
passes first through the ganglion cells and then through the plexiform and
nuclear layers before it finally reaches the layer of rods and cones located all
the way on the outer edge of the retina. This distance is a thickness of
several hundred micrometers; visual acuity is decreased by this passage
through such nonhomogeneous tissue. However, in the central foveal region
of the retina, as discussed subsequently, the inside layers are pulled aside to
decrease this loss of acuity.

The fovea is a minute area in the center of the retina The central fovea, only
0.3 millimeter in diameter, is composed almost entirely of cones; these
cones have a special structure that aids their detection of detail in the visual
image.

photoreceptors (Rods and Cones). The major functional segments of

either a rod or cone are shown in Figure 50-3: (1) the outer segment, (2) the
inner segment, (3) the nucleus, and (4) the synaptic body. The lightsensitive
photochemical is found in the outer segment. In the case of the rods, this is
 photochemicals, usually
called simply color pigments,

Photochemistry of Vision

Both rods and cones contain chemicals that decompose on exposure to light
and, in the process, excite the nerve fibers leading from the eye. The light-
sensitive chemical in the rods is called rhodopsin; the light-sensitive
chemicals in the cones, called cone pigments or color pigments, have
compositions only slightly different from that of rhodopsin.
There are three distinct types of ganglion cells, designated
W, X, and Y cells. Each of these serves a different
function.

Transmission of Rod Vision by the W Cells. are small, having a diameter

less than 10 micrometers, and they transmit signals in their optic nerve
fibers at the slow velocity of only 8 m/sec. These ganglion cells receive
most of their excitation from rods,
Transmission of the Visual Image and Color by the X Cells. The most
numerous of the ganglion cells are the X cells, representing 55 percent of
the total. They are
of medium diameter, between 10 and 15 micrometers, and transmit signals
in their optic nerve fibers at about 14 m/sec.
Function of the Y Cells to Transmit Instantaneous Changes in the
Visual Image. The Y cells are the largest of all, up to 35 micrometers in
diameter, and they transmit
their signals to the brain at 50 m/sec or faster

The different neuronal cell types are as follows:

1. The photoreceptors themselves the rods and cones which transmit
signals to the outer plexiform layer, where they synapse with bipolar cells
and horizontal cells
2. The horizontal cells, which transmit signals horizontally in the outer
plexiform layer from the rods and cones to bipolar cells
3. The bipolar cells, which transmit signals vertically from the rods, cones,
and horizontal cells to the inner plexiform layer, where they synapse with
ganglion cells and amacrine cells
4. The amacrine cells, which transmit signals in two directions, either
directly from bipolar cells to ganglion cells or horizontally within the inner
plexiform layer from axons of the bipolar cells to dendrites of the ganglion
cells or to other amacrine cells
5. The ganglion cells, which transmit output signals from the retina through
the optic nerve into the brain.

29. The dark and light adaptation. Color vision. Theory of color perception.
Color blindness.
Light and Dark Adaptation. If a person has been in bright light for hours,
large portions of the photochemicals in both the rods and the cones will have
been reduced to retinal and opsins. Furthermore, much of the retinal of both
the rods and the cones will have been converted into vitamin A. Because of
these two effects, the concentrations of the photosensitive chemicals
remaining in the rods and cones are considerably reduced, and the
sensitivity of the eye to light is correspondingly reduced. This is called light
adaptation.
if a person remains in darkness for a long time, the retinal and opsins in the
rods and cones are converted back into the light-sensitive pigments.
Furthermore, vitamin A is converted back into retinal to increase light
sensitive pigments, the final limit being determined by the amount of opsins
in the rods and cones to combine with the retinal. This is called dark
adaptation.

Tricolor Mechanism of Color Detection

All theories of color vision are based on the well-known observation that the
human eye can detect almost all gradations of colors when only red, green,
and blue monochromatic lights are appropriately mixed in different
combinations.

Perception of White Light. About equal stimulation of all the red, green, and
blue cones gives one the sensation of seeing white. Yet there is no single
wavelength of light corresponding to white; instead, white is a combination
of all the wavelengths of the spectrum. Furthermore, the perception
of white can be achieved by stimulating the retina with a proper
combination of only three chosen colors that stimulate the respective types
of cones about equally.

Color Blindness
Red-Green Color Blindness. When a single group of colorreceptive cones is
missing from the eye, the person is unable to distinguish some colors from
others. For instance, that green, yellow, orange, and red colors, which are
the colors between the wavelengths of 525 and 675 nanometers, are
normally distinguished from one another by the red and green cones. If
either of these two cones is missing, the person cannot use this mechanism
for distinguishing these four colors; the person is especially unable to
distinguish red from green and is therefore said to have red-green color
blindness.
30. The motor apparatus of the eye. The temporal characteristics of eye
movements (saccades, fixation periods and smooth motion)

The eye movements are controlled by three pairs of muscles, (1) the medial
and lateral recti, (2) the superior and inferior recti, and (3) the superior and
inferior obliques. The medial and lateral recti contract to move the eyes
from side to side. The superior and inferior recti contract to move the eyes
upward or downward. The oblique muscles function mainly to rotate the
eyeballs to keep the visual fields in the upright position ,brain stem nuclei
for the third, fourth, and sixth cranial nerves and their connections with the
peripheral nerves to the ocular muscles

The temporal characteristics of eye movements

1-Fixation Movements of the Eyes the most important movements of the

of vision. Fixation movements are controlled by two neuronal mechanisms.

The first of these allows a person to move the eyes voluntarily to find the
object on which he or she wants to fix the vision; this is called the
voluntary fixation mechanism. The second is an involuntary mechanism
that holds the eyes firmly on the object once it has been found; this is called
the involuntary fixation mechanism.
The voluntary fixation movements are controlled by a cortical field located
bilaterally in the premotor cortical regions of the frontal lobes . the fixation
found is controlled by secondary visual areas in the occipital cortex located
mainly anterior to the primary visual cortex.

2-Saccades ; when a visual scene is moving continually before the eyes,

such as when a person is riding in a car, the eyes fix on one highlight after
another in the visual field, jumping from one to the next at a rate of two to
three jumps per second. The jumps are called saccades, and the movements
are called opticokinetic movements.

3-Smooth movements are much slower tracking movements of the eyes

designed to keep a moving stimulus on the fovea. Such movements are
under voluntary control in the sense that the observer can choose whether or
not to track a moving stimulus.

31. Processing of visual information in the thalamus and visual cortex.

the principal visual pathways from the two retinas to the visual cortex.
The visual nerve signals leave the retinas through the optic nerves. At the
optic chiasm, the optic nerve fibers from the nasal halves of the retinas cross
to the opposite sides, where they join the fibers from the opposite temporal
retinas to form the optic tracts. The fibers of each optic tract then synapse in
the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, and from there,
geniculocalcarine fibers pass by way of the optic radiation (also called the
geniculocalcarine tract) to the Primary visual cortex in the calcarine fissure
area of the medial occipital lobe. Visual fibers also pass to several older
areas of the brain:
(1) from the optic tracts to the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the
hypothalamus, presumably to control circadian rhythms that synchronize
various physiologic changes of the body with night and day; (2) into the
pretectal nuclei in the midbrain, to elicit reflex movements of the eyes to
focus on objects of importance and to activate the papillary light reflex; (3)
into the superior colliculus, to control rapid directional movements of the
two eyes; and (4) into
the ventral lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus and surrounding basal

behavioral functions.
the visual cortex located primarily on the medial aspect of the occipital
lobes. Like the
cortical representations of the other sensory systems, the visual cortex is
divided into a primary visual cortex and secondary visual areas
Primary Visual Cortex. The primary visual cortex lies in the calcarine
fissure area, extending forward from the occipital pole on the medial aspect
of each occipital cortex.
Secondary Visual Areas of the Cortex. The secondary visual areas, also
called visual association areas, lie lateral, anterior, superior, and inferior to
the primary visual cortex. Most of these areas also fold outward over the
lateral surfaces of the occipital and parietal cortex.

32. Hearing analyzer. Structure and function of the outer, middle and inner
ear.

. Structure of the ear

The outer ear consists of the pinna and the external auditory canal.
comprises the tympanic membrane and three small bones
(ossicles): malleus, incus, and stapes.
The inner ear is fluid filled and consists of
a. The bony labyrinth: semicircular canals, cochlea, and vestibule
b. A series of ducts called the membranous labyrinth
(perilymph).

tympani, both of which contain perilymph (high Na), and the scala media,
which contains endolymph (high K).

The cochlea is bordered by the basilar membrane, which houses the organ
of Corti.
(1) The organ of Corti contains the receptor cells necessary for audition: the
inner and outer hair cells, which have cilia embedded in the tectorial
membrane of the organ of Corti.
(2) Inner hair cells are the primary sensory elements; they are arranged in
single rows and are few in number. They synapse with myelinated
neurons, axons of which comprise 90% of the cochlear nerve.
(3) Outer hair cells serve to reduce the threshold of the inner hair cells.
They are arranged in parallel rows and are greater in number than the
inner cells. They synapse with dendrites of unmyelinated neurons, axons
of which comprise 10% of the cochlear nerve.

Function
sound waves are collected by the external, cartilaginous outer part of the ear
called the pinna. They then travel through the auditory canal, causing
vibration of the thin diaphragm called the tympanum, or ear drum, the
innermost part of the outer ear. Interior to the tympanum is the middle ear,

transfer energy from the moving tympanum to the inner ear. The three
ossicles are the malleus (also known as the hammer), the incus (the anvil),
and stapes (the stirrup). The three ossicles are unique to mammals; each
plays a role in hearing. The malleus attaches at three points to the interior
surface of the tympanic membrane. The incus attaches the malleus to the
stapes. In humans, the stapes is not long enough to reach the tympanum. If
we did not have the malleus and the incus, then the vibrations of the
tympanum would never reach the inner ear. These bones also function to
collect force and amplify sounds. The ear ossicles are homologous to bones
in a fish mouth; the bones that support gills in fish are thought to be adapted
for use in the vertebrate ear over evolutionary time. Many animals (frogs,
reptiles, and birds, for example) use the stapes of the middle ear to transmit
vibrations to it.

33-The organ of Corti, its structure and mechanism of excitation. The

perception of sounds of different frequencies

Function of the Organ of Corti

The organ of Corti,, is the receptor organ that generates nerve impulses in
response to vibration of the basilar membrane. Note that the organ of Corti
lies on the surface of the basilar fibers and basilar membrane. The actual
sensory receptors in the organ of Corti are two specialized types of nerve
cells called hair cells a single row of internal hair cells,
numbering about 3500 and measuring about 12 micrometers in diameter,
and three or four rows of external hair cells, numbering about
12,000 and having diameters of only about 8 micrometers. The bases and
sides of the hair cells synapse with a network of cochlea nerve endings.
Between 90 and 95 percent of these endings terminate on the inner hair
cells, which emphasizes their special importance for the detection of sound.
The nerve fibers stimulated by the hair cells lead to the spiral ganglion of
Corti, which lies in the modiolus (center) of the cochlea. The spiral ganglion
neuronal cells send axons a total of about 30,000 into the cochlear nerve
and then into the central nervous system at the level of the upper medulla.

the mechanism by which vibration of the basilar membrane excites the hair
endings. The outer ends of the hair cells are fixed tightly in a rigid structure
composed of a flat plate, called the reticular lamina, supported by triangular
rods of Corti, which are attached tightly to the basilar fibers. The basilar
fibers, the rods of Corti, and the reticular lamina move as a rigid unit.
Upward movement of the basilar fiber rocks the reticular lamina upward and
inward toward the modiolus. Then, when the basilar membrane moves
downward, the reticular lamina rocks downward and outward. The inward
and outward motion causes the hairs on the hair cells to shear back and forth
against the tectorial membrane. Thus, the hair cells are excited whenever the
basilar membrane vibrates.

the different patterns of transmission for sound waves of different

frequencies. Each wave is relatively weak at the outset but becomes strong
when it reaches that portion of the basilar membrane that has a natural
resonant frequency equal to the respective sound frequency. At this point,
the basilar membrane can vibrate back and forth with such ease that the
energy in the wave is dissipated. Consequently, the wave dies at this point
and fails to travel the remaining distance along the basilar membrane.
Thus, a high-frequency sound wave travels only a short distance along the
basilar membrane before it reaches its resonant point and dies, a medium-
frequency sound wave travels about halfway and then dies, and a very low
frequency sound wave travels the entire distance along the membrane.

34- Conduction and analysis of sound in the CNS.

the major conducting (auditory) pathways. It shows that nerve fibers from
the spiral ganglion of Corti enter the dorsal and ventral cochlear nuclei
located in the upper part of the medulla. At this point, all the fibers synapse,
and second-order neurons pass mainly to the opposite side of the brain stem
to terminate in the superior olivary nucleus. From the superior olivary
nucleus, the auditory pathway passes upward through the lateral lemniscus.
Some of the fibers terminate in the nucleus of the lateral lemniscus, but
many bypass this nucleus and travel on to the inferior colliculus, where all
or almost all the auditory fibers synapse. From there, the pathway passes to
the medial geniculate nucleus, where all the fibers do synapse. Finally, the
pathway proceeds by way of the auditory radiation to the auditory cortex,
located mainly in the superior gyrus of the temporal lobe.
35. The vestibular analyzer. Native stimuli for the otolith apparatus and the
semicircular canals

The stimuli associated with the vestibular system are linear acceleration
(gravity) and angular acceleration/deceleration. Gravity, acceleration, and
deceleration are detected by evaluating the inertia on receptive cells in the
vestibular system. Gravity is detected through head position, while angular
acceleration and deceleration are expressed through turning or tilting of the
head.

There are five vestibular receptor organs in the inner ear, all of which help
to maintain balance: the utricle, the saccule, and three semicircular canals.
Together, they make up what is known as the vestibular labyrinth. The
utricle and saccule are most responsive to acceleration in a straight line,
such as gravity. The roughly 30,000 hair cells in the utricle and 16,000 hair
cells in the saccule lie below a gelatinous layer, with their stereocilia
(singular: stereocilium) projecting into the gelatin. Embedded in this gelatin
are calcium carbonate crystals, similar to tiny rocks.
When the head is tilted, the crystals continue to be pulled straight down by
gravity, but the new angle of the head causes the gelatin to shift, thereby
bending the stereocilia. The bending of the stereocilia stimulates specific
neurons that signal to the brain that the head is tilted, allowing the
maintenance of balance. It is the vestibular branch of the vestibulocochlear
cranial nerve that deals with balance.

Native stimuli for the otolith apparatus and the semicircular canals

The fluid-filled semicircular canals are tubular loops set at oblique angles,
arranged in three spatial planes. The base of each canal has a swelling that
contains a cluster of hair cells. The hairs project into a gelatinous cap, the
cupula, where they monitor angular acceleration and deceleration from
rotation.
They would be stimulated by driving your car around a corner, turning your
head, or falling forward. One canal lies horizontally, while the other two lie
at about 45 degree angles to the horizontal axis. When the brain processes
input from all three canals together, it can detect angular acceleration or
deceleration in three dimensions. When the head turns, the fluid in the
canals shifts, thereby bending stereocilia and sending signals to the brain.
Upon cessation of acceleration or deceleration, the movement of the fluid
within the canals slows or stops.
Hair cells from the utricle, saccule, and semicircular canals also
communicate through bipolar neurons to the cochlear nucleus in the
medulla. Cochlear neurons send descending projections to the spinal cord
and ascending projections to the pons, thalamus, and cerebellum.
Connections to the cerebellum are important for coordinated movements.

36. The central part of the vestibular system, the maintenance of balance.

The vestibular system is a special proprioception system responsible for the

proper maintenance of posture, orientation and balance of the head and
trunk, and position of the eyes in relation to head position or movement. In
addition this system coordinates activity with portions of the cerebellum.
Neuroanatomically and functionally, the vestibular system can be divided
into peripheral and central components.
The central part of the vestibular system includes structures within the
brainstem and cerebellum. The vestibular portion of CN VIII connects to the
vestibular nuclei sited in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem, and to
neurons in the rostral portion of the cerebellum.
37. Olfactory and taste analyzers. Mechanism of Stimulation of Taste
receptors.

1. Structure of olfactory apparatus ; Smell is detected by olfactory

receptor cells, which are situated in mucus-coated olfactory epithelium that
lines the posterodorsal parts of the nasal cavities. Olfactory glands (Bowman
glands) secrete a fluid that bathes the cilia of the receptors and acts as a
solvent for odorant molecules.
-order neurons) are stimulated by the binding
of odor molecules to their cilia.

project through the cribriform plate at the base of the cranium to synapse
with the mitral cells of the olfactory bulb.
-order neurons.

olfactory stria, both of which project to the primary olfactory cortex and the
amygdala.

the only neurons in the adult human that are regularly replaced.
2. Olfactory transduction

activation of adenylate cyclase.

lar
cyclic
adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), which opens Na channels in the
olfactory
receptor membrane and results in depolarization of the receptor.

that Eventually

Taste
1. Functional anatomy

papillae of the taste buds and are stimulated by taste chemicals.

communicate with the taste center of the brain through different cranial
nerves

and primarily detect sweet and salty tastes. They send signals centrally
through the lingual nerve to the chorda tympani and finally into CN VII
(facial).

papillae and foliate papillae, which detect bitter and sour tastes
opharyngeal);
however, some located in the back of the throat and epiglottis send signals
centrally through CN X (vagus).
a. CN VII, IX, and X synapse with the tractus solitarius (solitary nucleus).
b. Second-order neurons leave the solitary nucleus and project ipsilaterally
to the ventral posterior medial nucleus of the thalamus.
c. Neurons from the thalamus project to the taste cortex located in the
primary
somatosensory cortex.
2. Taste transduction
causes a
depolarization of the receptor membrane.

until the taste sensation (sweet, sour, salty, or bitter) is perceived.

38. Central processing of gustatory and olfactory information.

Taste impulses from the anterior two thirds of the tongue pass first into
the lingual nerve, then through the chorda tympani into the facial nerve, and
finally into the tractus solitarius in the brain stem.
Taste sensations from the circumvallate papillae on the back of the tongue
and from other posterior regions of the mouth and throat are transmitted
through the glossopharyngeal nerve also into the tractus solitarius, but at a
slightly more posterior level. Finally, a few taste signals are transmitted into
the tractus solitaries from the base of the tongue and other parts of the
pharyngeal region by way of the vagus nerve.
All taste fibers synapse in the posterior brain stem in the nuclei of the
tractus solitarius. These nuclei send second- order neurons to a small area of
the ventral posterior medial nucleus of the thalamus, to the lower tip of the
postcentral gyrus in the parietal cerebral cortex

The olfactory bulb olfactory nerve fibers leading backward from

the bulb are called cranial nerve I, The olfactory tract enters the brain at the
anterior junction between the mesencephalon and cerebrum; there, the tract
divides into two pathways, as one passing medially into the medial olfactory
area of the brain stem, and the other passing laterally into the lateral
olfactory area.

39. Cutaneous mechanoreceptors, their classification, histology, functional

significance.

The somatosensory system consists of primary, secondary, and tertiary

neurons.
Sensory receptors housed in the dorsal root ganglia project to
secondary neurons of the spinal cord that decussate and project to the
thalamus or cerebellum.
Tertiary neurons project to the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe,
forming a sensory homunculus.
A sensory homunculus maps sub-regions of the cortical postcentral
gyrus to certain parts of the body.
The somatosensory system is distributed throughout all major parts of
our body. It is responsible for sensing touch, temperature, posture,
limb position, and more. It includes both sensory receptor neurons in
the periphery (eg., skin, muscle, and organs) and deeper neurons
within the central nervous system.
 tactile sensation
Our sense of touch, or tactile sensation, is mediated by cutaneous
mechanoreceptors located in our skin.
Cutaneous mechanoreceptors are categorized by morphology, by the
type of sensation they perceive, and by the rate of adaptation.
Furthermore, each has a different receptive field.

In the skin, there are four main types in glabrous (hairless) skin:

1. Ruffini endings.
2.
3. Pacinian corpuscles.
4.

Cutaneous Mechanoreceptors

Cutaneous mechanoreceptors are located in the skin, like other cutaneous

receptors. They provide the senses of touch, pressure, vibration,

Ruffini Ending

The Ruffini ending (Ruffini corpuscle or bulbous corpuscle) is a class of

slowly adapting mechanoreceptors thought to exist only in the glabrous
dermis and subcutaneous tissue of humans. allowing the modulation of grip
on an object.

nsible for sensitivity

to light touch. In particular, they have the highest sensitivity (lowest
threshold) when sensing vibrations lower than 50 hertz. They are rapidly
adaptive receptors.

Pacinian Corpuscles
Pacinian corpuscles (or lamellar corpuscles) are responsible for sensitivity to
vibration and pressure. The vibrational role may be used to detect surface
texture, e.g., rough versus smooth.

Merkel Nerve

Merkel nerve endings are mechanoreceptors found in the skin and mucosa
of vertebrates that provide touch information to the brain. The information
they provide are those regarding pressure and texture. Each ending consists
of a Merkel cell in close apposition with an enlarged nerve terminal.

40. Proprioception. Classification of proprioceptors, histology,

innervation.Central integration of proprioceptive stimuli.

Proprioception is the sense of the position of parts of our body and

force being generated during movement.
Proprioception relies on two, primary stretch receptors (Golgi tendon
organs and muscle spindles.
1-Muscle spindles are sensory receptors within the belly of a muscle
that primarily detect changes in the length of this muscle. They convey
length information to the central nervous system via sensory neurons.
This information can be processed by the brain to determine the
position of body parts.
2-The Golgi organ (also called Golgi tendon organ, tendon organ,
neurotendinous organ, or neurotendinous spindle) is a proprioceptive
sensory receptor organ that is located at the insertion of skeletal
muscle fibers into the tendons of skeletal muscle.

Proprioception is the sense of the relative position of neighboring parts of

the body and the strength of effort being employed in movement. It is
distinguished from exteroception, perception of the outside world, and
interoception, perception of pain, hunger, and the movement of internal
organs, etc.
Muscle spindles are sensory receptors within the belly of a muscle that
primarily detect changes in the length of a muscle. They convey length
information to the central nervous system via sensory neurons

The Golgi organ (also called Golgi tendon organ, tendon organ,
neurotendinous organ or neurotendinous spindle) is a proprioceptive sensory
receptor organ that is located at the insertion of skeletal muscle fibers onto
the tendons of skeletal muscle. It provides the sensory component of the
Golgi tendon reflex.

Structure and Motor Innervation of the Muscle Spindle. The organization of

the muscle spindle is 3 to 10 millimeters long. It is built around 3 to 12 tiny
intrafusal muscle fibers that are pointed at their ends and attached to the
glycocalyx of the surrounding large extrafusal skeletal muscle fibers. Each
intrafusal muscle fiber is a tiny skeletal muscle fiber.

The end portions that do contract are excited by small gamma motor nerve
fibers that originate from small type A gamma motor neurons in the anterior
horns of the spinal cord. These gamma motor nerve fibers are also called
gamma efferent fibers, in contradistinction to the large alpha efferent fibers
(type A alpha nerve fibers) that innervate the extrafusal skeletal muscle

Muscle Stretch Reflex

The simplest manifestation of muscle spindle function is the muscle stretch
reflex. Whenever a muscle is stretched suddenly, excitation of the spindles
causes reflex contraction of the large skeletal muscle fibers of the stretched
muscle and also of closely allied synergistic muscles.

Conscious proprioception is communicated by the posterior ( dorsal )

column medial lemniscus pathway to the cerebrum. Unconscious
proprioception is communicated primarily via the dorsal and ventral
spinocerebellar tracts to the cerebellum.

41. Thermoreception. Static and dynamic senses. The sensation of heat and
cold
Thermal gradations are discriminated by at least three types of sensory
receptors: cold receptors, warmth receptors, and pain receptors.

The pain receptors are stimulated only by extreme degrees of heat or cold
and, therefore, are responsible, along with the cold and warmth receptors,

The cold and warmth receptors are located immediately under the skin at
discrete separated spots. In most areas of the body, there are 3 to 10 times as
many cold spots as warmth spots, and the number in different areas of the
body varies from 15 to 25 cold spots per square centimeter in the lips to 3 to
5 cold spots per square centimeter in the finger to less than 1 cold spot per
square centimeter in some broad surface areas of the trunk A definitive cold
receptor, has been identified.
that branches several
times, the tips of which protrude into the bottom surfaces of basal epidermal

at velocities of about 20 m/sec. Some cold sensations are believed to be

transmitted in type C nerve fibers as well, which suggests that some free
nerve endings also might function as cold receptors.

Stimulation of Thermal Receptors Sensations of Cold, Cool, Indifferent,

Warm, and Hot. Figure 48-10 shows the effects of different temperatures on
the responses of four types of nerve fibers: (1) a pain fiber stimulated by
cold, (2) a cold fiber, (3) a warmth fiber, and (4) a pain fiber stimulated by
heat.
the signals enter long, ascending thermal fibers that cross to the opposite
anterolateral sensory tract and terminate in both (1) the reticular areas of the
brain stem and (2) the ventrobasal complex of the thalamus.
42. Neurophysiological basis of pain: the theory of perception of pain.
Painful stimuli, adaptation to pain.

Pain Is a Protective Mechanism. Pain occurs whenever tissues are being

damaged, and it causes the individual to react to remove the pain stimulus.
Even such simple activities as sitting for a long time on the ischia can cause
tissue destruction because of lack of blood flow to the skin .

Pain has been classified into two major types: fast pain and slow pain. Fast
pain is felt within about 0.1 second after a pain stimulus is applied, whereas
slow pain begins only after 1 second or more and then increases slowly over
many seconds.

Nociceptors
A nociceptor is a sensory receptor that responds to potentially damaging
stimuli by sending nerve signals to the spinal cord and brain.. There are
several types and functions of nociceptors:
Thermal nociceptors are activated by noxious heat or cold at various
temperatures.
Mechanical nociceptors respond to excess pressure or mechanical
deformation. They also respond to incisions that break the skin
surface..
 Chemical nociceptors respond to a wide variety of spices commonly
used in cooking. The one that sees the most response and is very
widely tested is capsaicin. Other chemical stimulants are
environmental irritants like acrolein

Types of Nociceptive Pain

Nociceptive pain can be divided into visceral, deep somatic and superficial
somatic pain.

1. Visceral structures are highly sensitive to stretch, ischemia, and

inflammation,. Visceral pain is diffuse, difficult to locate, and often
referred to a distant, usually superficial, structure
2. Deep somatic pain is initiated by stimulation of nociceptors in
ligaments, tendons, bones, blood vessels, fasciae and muscles, and is a
dull, aching, poorly localized pain. Examples include sprains and
broken bones.
3. Superficial pain is initiated by the activation of nociceptors in the skin
or other superficial tissue, and is sharp, well-defined, and clearly
located. wounds and minor (first degree) burns.

Adaption to the pian, excitation of pain fibers becomes progressively

greater, especially so for slow-aching-nauseous pain, as the pain stimulus
continues. This increase in sensitivity of the pain receptors is called
hyperalgesia. ,One can readily understand the importance of this failure of
pain receptors to adapt because it allows the pain to keep the person
apprised of a tissue-damaging stimulus as long as it persists.

43. Basic pri

characteristics of the conditioned reflex. Rules of formation of
conditioned reflexes. Classification of conditioned reflexes.

Russian physiologist known chiefly for his development of the concept of

the conditioned reflex. In a now-classic experiment, he trained a
hungry dog to salivate at the sound of a metronome or buzzer, which was
previously associated with the sight of food. He developed a
similar conceptual approach, emphasising the importance of conditioning, in
his pioneering studies relating human behaviour to the nervous system.

He used the salivary secretion as a quantitative measure of the psychical, or

subjective, activity of the animal, in order to emphasise the advantage of
objective, physiological measures of mental phenomena and higher nervous
activity. He sought analogies between the conditional (commonly though
spinal reflex.

conditioned reflex
an automatic response which has been trained or learnt. A reflex response is
anaturally occurring response to a stimulus, for example, salivation is the na
tural response to the stimulus of food,while the knee jerk is the natural respo
nse to a tap below the knee. However, Pavlov (1911) demonstrated that ifa n
eutral stimulus is associated with the natural stimulus, this neutral stimulus b
ecomes conditioned and willalone evoke the response. This response is then
called a tioned .
Reflexes are automatic, often involving emotional responses, not only of fea
r, but also of anger, pleasure or otheremotions. Many human emotional resp
onses can be seen to have developed as a result of conditioning throughprevi
ous experiences.

For a conditioned reflex to appear it is necessary that certain conditions are

fulfilled:
(1) coexistence in time, several times repeated, of the indifferent
agent and the unconditioned stimulus (in the previous example, the
sound of the bell presentation of the meat);
(2) the indifferent agent should somewhat precede the unconditioned
stimulus.
If we first give the meat and then ring the bell, the conditioned
response is not established;
(3) absence of other stimuli that could induce externally caused
inhibition. If we simultaneously whip the animal or splash it with
cold water, we provoke inhibition, setting loose defensive reactions;
 (4) in order to preserve the conditioned reflex, it is necessary to
reinforce it periodically. Once the reflex is formed, the mere sound of
the bell substitutes the presentation of the meat. But, if we repeatedly
ring the bell without showing the meat, after a certain time the animal
stops reacting with salivation and digestive secretion.

44. Neurophysiological features of the memory. Short-term memory

organisation. Memory consolidation. Long term memory organisation.
Cellular and molecular mechanisms of memory formation.

Memory is the faculty of the brain by which data or information is encoded,

stored, and retrieved when needed. It is the retention of information over
time for the purpose of influencing future action. If past events could not be
remembered, it would be impossible for language, relationships, or personal
identity to develop. Memory loss is usually described
as forgetfulness or amnesia.

Short-Term Memory
Short-
telephone number (or 7 to 10 other discrete facts) for a few seconds to a few
minutes at a time but last- ing only as long as the person continues to think
about the numbers or facts.
Many physiologists have suggested that this short-term memory is caused
by continual neural activity resulting from nerve signals that travel around
and around a temporary memory trace in a circuit of reverberating neurons.
It has not yet been possible to prove this theory. Another possible
explanation of short-term memory is presynaptic facilitation or inhibition.
This occurs at synapses that lie on terminal nerve fibrils immediately before
these fibrils synapse with a subsequent neuron. The neurotransmitter
chemicals secreted at such terminals frequently cause facilitation or
inhibition lasting for seconds up to several minutes. Circuits of this type
could lead to short-term memory.

Long-Term Memory

long-term memory is generally believed to result from actual structural

changes, instead of only chemical changes, at the synapses, and these
enhance or suppress signal conduction.
Development of true long-term memory depends on physically restructuring
the synapses themselves in a way that changes their sensitivity for
transmitting nervous signals.

The most important of the physical structural changes that occur are the
following:
Increase in vesicle release sites for secretion of transmitter
substance
Increase in number of transmitter vesicles released
Increase in number of presynaptic terminals
Changes in structures of the dendritic spines that permit
transmission of stronger signals

Consolidation of Memory

For short-term memory to be converted into long-term memory that can be

short-term memory if activated repeatedly will initiate chemical, physical,

and anatomical changes in the synapses that are responsible for the long-
term type of memory. This process requires 5 to 10 minutes for minimal
consolidation and 1 hour or more for strong consolidation. For instance, if a
strong sensory impression is made on the brain but is then followed within a
minute or so by an electrically induced brain convulsion, the sensory
experience will not be remembered. Likewise, brain concussion, sudden
application of deep general anaesthesia, or any other effect that temporarily
blocks the dynamic function of the brain can prevent consolidation.
Consolidation and the time required for it to occur can probably be
explained by the phenomenon of rehearsal of the short-term memory as
follows.
Rehearsal Enhances the Transference of Short- Term Memory into Long-
Term Memory. Studies have shown that rehearsal of the same information
again and again in the mind accelerates and potentiates the degree of
transfer of short-term memory into long-term memory and therefore
accelerates and enhances consolidation. The brain has a natural tendency to
rehearse newfound information, especially newfound information that

features of sensory experiences become progressively more and more fixed

in the memory stores. This explains why a person can remember small
amounts of information studied in depth far better than large amounts of
information studied only superficially. It also explains why a person who is
wide awake can consolidate memories far better than a person who is in a
state of mental fatigue

45. Dominant (by Uchtomsky) and conditioned reflex. The dynamics of

the existence of a dominant. Motivation. Biological motivation. General
properties of different types of motivation. Motivation as a dominant.

The interaction of two fundamental phenomena--the dominant focus and the

conditional reflex--discovered and introduced by A. A. Ukhtomsky and I. P.
Pavlov lay at the basis of behaviour. According to E. A. Asratyan, the
backward conditioned connection is a specialised dominant focus in the
functional structure of the consolidated conditional reflex. It makes the
behaviour goal-directed and active. The dominant focus and conditioned
reflex play the same role in the adaptive behaviour of the individual as does
variability and selection in the process of evolutional adaptation. That is
why it is impossible to agree with Popper and Eccles that hypothesis theory
has to replace Pavlov's theory of the conditional reflex. Imprinting and
psychonervous activity by images (I. S. Beritashvili) are two special
exemplars of conditional reflexes after one coincidence. The so-called
"elementary reasoning activity of animals" (according to L. V. Krushinsky)
is a kind of the instinctive inherited behaviour.
46. Speech and its functions. The development of speech in the child.
Speech function in different hemispheres.

speech is the most natural form of human intraspecies communication in the

real world, it is important to examine the progress and problems associated
with research and technology for speech recognition and synthesis by
computers for use in communicating with humans in a synthetic
environment (SE). Machine recognition and understanding of oral speech
has been and continues to be a particularly difficult problem because of the
enormous flexibility and variability in speech at both the intersubject and
intrasubject levels
the development of lip and jaw coordination during speech and to evaluate
the potential influence of speech motor development on phonologic
development. Productions of syllables containing bilabial consonants were
observed from speakers in four age groups (i.e., 1-year-olds, 2-year-olds, 6-
year-olds, and young adults). A video-based movement tracking system was
used to transduce movement of the upper lip, lower lip, and jaw. The
coordinative organization of these articulatory gestures was shown to
change dramatically during the first several years of life and to continue to
undergo refinement past age 6. The present results are consistent with three
primary phases in the development of lip and jaw coordination for speech:
integration, differentiation, and refinement. Each of these developmental
processes entails the existence of distinct coordinative constraints on early
articulatory movement.

the left hemisphere or side of the brain is responsible for language and
speech. Because of this, it has been called the "dominant" hemisphere. The
right hemisphere plays a large part in interpreting visual information and
spatial processing. In about one-third of individuals who are left-handed,
speech function may be located on the right side of the brain.

area. It is next to the region that controls the movement of facial muscles,
tongue, jaw and throat. If this area is destroyed, a person will have difficulty
producing the sounds of speech, because of the inability to move the tongue
or facial muscles to form words. A person with Broca's aphasia can still read
and understand spoken language, but has difficulty speaking and writing.

There is a region in the left temporal lobe called Wernicke's area. Damage to
this area causes Wernicke's aphasia. An individual can make speech sounds,
but they are meaningless (receptive aphasia) because they do not make any
sense.

47. Types of sleep, its importance. Slow and REM sleep. Sleep disorders.
Hypnosis, stages of hypnosis.

The brain is very active during sleep, and each stage of sleep is
characterized by the brain waves that accompany it.
Stage 1: In this stage, alpha waves are replaced by theta waves as one
transitions from relaxation to sleep. Sleep is light and easily
disturbed.
Stage 2: During this stage of sleep, brain waves become slower as
alpha activity stops completely and theta waves predominate.
Stages 3 and 4: These stages are very similar in that both are forms of
deep sleep. Brain activity slows down as delta waves occur. These are
the stages during which sleepwalking and nightmares occur.
Stage 5 (REM): During the rapid eye movement (REM) stage, the
muscles become temporarily paralyzed, and the eyes move quickly.
Dreaming also occurs during this stage. The pattern of brain waves is
similar to that in stages 1 and 2, although the sleeper is in a deeper
state of sleep.
The principal characteristics during slow-wave sleep that contrast
with REM sleep are moderate muscle tone, slow or absent eye
movement, and lack of genital activity.
Slow-wave sleep is considered important for memory consolidation.
This is sometimes referred to as "sleep-dependent memory
processing".

Types of sleep disorders

1-Insomnia, in which you have difficulty falling asleep or staying
asleep throughout the night.
2-Sleep apnea, in which you experience abnormal patterns in
breathing while you are asleep. There are several types of sleep
apnea.
3-Restless legs syndrome (RLS), a type of sleep movement disorder.
Restless legs syndrome, also called Willis-Ekbom disease, causes an
uncomfortable sensation and an urge to move the legs while you try
to fall asleep.
4-Narcolepsy, a condition characterized by extreme sleepiness during
the day and falling asleep suddenly during the day.

are patterns of electrical activity occurring in the brain. They are

crucial to all aspects of brain functioning: thoughts, emotions, and
behaviors. Because brain activity can be influenced and altered
through neurofeedback, desirable brain activity can be increased in
those who are experiencing symptoms of certain mental health
conditions.

Sleep disorders are conditions that result in changes in the way that
you sleep.
Some of the signs and symptoms of sleep disorders include excessive
daytime sleepiness, irregular breathing or increased movement during
sleep. Other signs and symptoms include an irregular sleep and wake
cycle and difficulty falling asleep.
Hypnosis
Hypnosis is a trance-like mental state in which people experience
increased attention, concentration, and suggestibility. While hypnosis
is often described as a sleep-like state, it is better expressed as a state
of focused attention, heightened suggestibility, and vivid fantasies.
Stage 1 Absorb Attention
In order to absorb attention, you simply want to capture the attention
and focus of your client.
Stage 2 Bypass the Critical Faculty
The Critical Faculty is the part of the mind that disbelieves and uses
ed a movie and been

your Critical Faculty.

 Stage 3 Activate an Unconscious Response
Activating unconscious responses is the best sign that a
Hypnotherapist has successfully led the client into a hypnotic state
Stage 4 Leading the Unconscious To Desired Outcome
Once a client is in a hypnotic state and the hypnotherapist has helped
the client successfully achieved all three previous stages, Hypnotic
Suggestions & Metaphors can be used.
The Outcome
When a hypnotherapist successfully combines all four stages, both
the client and the hypnotherapist are engaging in a hypnotic
interaction, that results in the client become more resourceful in
overcoming their problems/challenges.

48. General characteristics of emotions. The role and functions of emotions.

Vegetative reactions associated with emotional state.
Emotions are subjective and purely individual. The same situation may
evoke different emotions in different individuals. Emotion is accompanied
by a feeling of pleasantness and unpleasantness, following physiological
changes. Every emotion is followed by physiological change such as rapid
heartbeat, change in the pulse rate, change in blood pressure, and change in
the facial expression, voice and body movements.
1. Emotions have swings. One emotion may give rise to another
emotion and the two may get merged. Emotions rise suddenly. The
passing away of emotions is, however slow, leaving behind an
emotional state which lasts for some time. motions have wide range
and are not restricted to a particular age period. They occur to
children, adolescents and adults.
2. Children's emotions are not as natural and long-standing as those of
adults. Their emotions are characterized by sudden and intense
outburst, are more frequent and are easily expressed. An emotion
mostly raises when the organism faces a difficult situation or when
the basic need is challenged or is not satisfied. In fact, a situation, real
or imaginary, is always connected with an emotion.

Role of function
1-Emotions Help us Act Quickly with Minimal Conscious Awareness.
2-Emotions Prepare the Body for Immediate Action. ...
3-Emotions Influence Thoughts. ...
4-Emotions Motivate Future Behaviors. ...
5-Emotional Expressions Facilitate Specific Behaviors in Perceivers.
These results indicate that family members of patients in a vegetative state
experience a range of emotional reactions that include anxiety, depression,
guilt, irritability, aggressiveness, and impulsivity. Many factors may
contribute to these reactions, such as the loss of their loved one, social
circumstances, and the complex medical and ethical decisions in which they
become involved

49. Stress. The role of stress. Mechanisms of forming of the stress reaction.
The development of the stress response.

Stress is not a situation or a condition during an adverse condition, as

it is generally assumed.
In fact, it is a way by which the body overcomes a demanding or
undesirable situation. Whenever we are in some unfavourable
condition (whether it is physical or mental) our body tries to maintain
the homeostasis and protect itself from such events adopting some

Mechanism OF THE FORMING OF THE STRESS REACTION

Following a stressful event the body acts at different levels to cope
with the stressor. This is achieved through two major changes in the
body:
1. change in pattern/amount of the release of the energy and
2. change in the distribution of energy.
Stress is a multidimensional phenomenon which involves both
nervous and endocrine system.

The first step in stress response is the perception of the threat

(stressor).
 Whenever there is some stressor - real or imagined, it acts at the level
of brain.
In the brain, it is the hypothalamus which perceives the stressor.
When the hypothalamus encounters a threat it performs some specific
functions:
1. activates autonomic nervous system (ANS)
2. Stimulates Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) axis by
releasing Corticotrophin Releasing Hormone (CRH) and
3. Secrets arginine vasopressin (Antidiuretic Hormone ADH).

-The sympathetic system accounts for the flight-or-flight response.

-In response to a stressor catecholamines: epinephrine (adrenaline) and
norepinephrine (nor adrenaline) are released at various neural synapses.
-The release of these catecholamines causes several changes like increase in
the heart rate and force of myocardial contraction vasodilatation of arteries
throughout working muscles and vasoconstriction of arteries to nonworking
muscles; dilation of pupil and bronchi and reduction of digestive activities in
the body.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STRESS RESPONSE
Whenever the body is exposed to a stressor, which may be a real or
just imagined a response is elicited to overcome it. The response is
not uniform in all individuals.
Hans Selye developed General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), a
profile of how organisms respond to stress [1]. There are three stages
in stress response:
1. Alarm
2. Adaptation and
3. Exhaustion or recovery.
-or-
The body is prepared either to face the perceived threat, or to escape
from it.
This results in various types of physical (sleep problems, general
tiredness, muscular pains, indigestion, allergies, minor infections like
common colds etc.,), mental (lack of concentration), emotional
(impatience and irritability) and behavioural problems (smoking and
drinking).
50. . The structure of the behavioral act. A functional system by Anokhin
P.K. Stages of behavioral act.

Behavior is the actions and mannerisms made by

individuals, organisms, systems or artificial entities in conjunction with
themselves or their environment, which includes the other systems or
organisms around as well as the (inanimate) physical environment.
It is the computed response of the system or organism to various stimuli or
inputs, whether internal or
external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert,
and voluntary or involuntary

structure of the behavioral act

1- According to Anokhin, in the structure of the behavioral act afferent
feedback compared with the acceptor of the result gives a positive or
negative situational emotions affect the correction or termination of action.
2-Another type of emotion, leading emotions, are associated with
satisfaction or dissatisfaction needs in general, with the formation of the
target. In addition, the behavior affect the memories of positive and negative
emotions .

functional system by Anokhin P.K.

Functional systems were put forward by Anokhin as an alternative to
the predominant concept of reflexes. Contrary to reflexes, the
endpoints of functional systems are not actions themselves
but adaptive results of these actions.
In contrast to reflexes, which are based on linear spread of
information from receptors to executive organs through the central
nervous system, functional systems are self-organizing non-
linear systems composed of synchronized distributed elements.

Stages of behavioral act

1.Afferent synthesis
 Any excitement in the central nervous system there is in interaction with
other excitations: the brain analyzes these excitations. Synthesis determines
the following factors.
2-Motivation

Pad afferentation (excitation caused by conditioned and

unconditioned stimuli)
Situational afferentation (arousal from familiar surroundings, causing
a reflex, and dynamic stereotypes)
Memory (of species and individual)
3.Decision-making
The formation of action result acceptor (creating the ideal image and
its retention goals, presumably, at the physiological level is
circulating in the ring interneuron excitation)
Efferent synthesis (or the stage of the program, integration of somatic
and autonomic excitations in a single behavioral act. The action is
formed, but is not manifested externally)

4.Action (program execution behavior)

Evaluation result of the action
At this stage, comparison of the actual running of the ideal image created
during the formation of acceptor result of the action (the reverse occurs
afferentation) based on a comparison of the action, or adjusted, or
terminated

5.Meeting the needs (authorizing termination of stage)

Choice of targets and methods of achieving them are the key factors
that regulate behavior. According to Anokhin, in the structure of the
behavioral act afferent feedback compared with the acceptor of the
result gives a positive or negative situational emotions affect the
correction or termination of action (another type of
emotion, leading emotions, are associated with satisfaction or
dissatisfaction needs in general, with the formation of the target). In
addition, the behavior affect the memories of positive and negative
emotions.
In general, behavioral act is characterized by meaningful and active
role of the subject.