2.

Solutes - the minor component in a solution,

dissolved in the solvent.
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY 3. Solvent - is a substance that dissolves a solute,
REVIEWER resulting in a solution.
(CABUG, RICARDO JR. A. BSMT 133) 4. Diffusion - is the net movement of molecules or
atoms from a region of high concentration to a
CHAPTER 3: Cell Structure and their Functions region of low concentration as a result of
3.1 CELL STRUCTURE random motion of the molecules or atoms.
1. Cell – is the basic living unit of all organism. 5. Concentration gradient - is the difference in the
2. Organelles – small organs that specialized concentration of a solute in a solvent between
structures within a cell. two points divided by the distance between the
3. Cytoplasm – the living material surrounding two points. Is said to be steeper when the
the nucleus. concentration difference is large and/or the
distance is small.
3.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL 6. Leak Channels - allow Na+ and K+ to move
Four important functions performed by our across the cell membrane down their gradients
body cell: (from a high concentration toward a lower
1. Cell metabolism and energy use concentration). With the combined ion pumping
2. Synthesis of molecules and leakage of ions, the cell can maintain a
3. Communication stable resting membrane potential.
4. Reproduction and Inheritance 7. Gate channels - limit the movement of ions
across the membrane by opening and closing.
3.3 CELL MEMBRANE
1. Cell membrane (plasma membrane) – is the Osmosis:
outermost component of a cell, it encloses the 8. Osmosis – is the diffusion of water (a solvent)
cytoplasm and forms the boundary between across a selectively permeable membrane,
material inside the cell and material outside it. such as the cell membrane, from a region of
Cell membrane is made of; Two major types of higher water concentration to one of lower
molecule: water concentration.
1. Extracellular – substances outside the cell. 9. Osmotic pressure - is the force required to
2. Intracellular – substances inside the cell. prevent the movement of water across a
• Fluid-mosaic model - explains various selectively permeable membrane. Thus,
observations regarding the structure of osmotic pressure is a measure of the tendency
functional cell membranes. According to of water to move by osmosis across a
this model, there is a lipid bilayer in which selectively permeable membrane.
the protein molecules are embedded. 10. Hydrostatic pressure - increases in proportion
• Membrane channels - a family of biological to depth measured from the surface because of
membrane proteins which allow the the increasing weight of fluid exerting
passive movement of ions, water or other downward force from above.
solutes to passively pass through the 11. Hypotonic - solution usually has a lower
membrane down their electrochemical concentration of solutes and a higher
gradient. concentration of water relative to the
• Receptor molecules - are part of an cytoplasm of the cell. Thus, the solution has
intercellular communication system that less tone, or osmotic pressure, than the cell.
enables cell recognition and coordination Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing
of the activities of cells. it to swell.
12. Lysis - refers to the breaking down of the
3.4 MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL membrane of a cell, often by viral, enzymic, or
MEMBRANE osmotic mechanisms that compromise its
(Note: cell membrane is selectively permeable) integrity. A fluid containing the contents of
1. Solution - is generally composed of one or lysed cells is called a lysate.
more substances, called solutes, dissolved 13. Isotonic - it has the same concentration of
in the predominant liquid or gas, which is solutes as another solution across a
called the solvent. semipermeable membrane.
14. Hypertonic - usually has a higher extends around a particle and fuses so that
concentration of solutes and a lower the particle is surrounded by the membrane.
concentration of water relative to the 24. Pinocytosis (cell-drinking) - is distinguished
cytoplasm of the cell. Water moves by from phagocytosis in that much smaller
osmosis from the cell into the hypertonic vesicles are formed, and they contain liquid
solution, resulting in cell shrinkage rather than particles.
15. Crenation - is the contraction of a cell after 25. Exocytosis - is a form of active transport and
exposure to a hypertonic solution, due to bulk transport in which a cell transports
the loss of water through osmosis. molecules out of the cell by expelling them
through an energy-dependent process.
Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanism:
16. Carrier molecules - are usually proteins 3.5 ORGANELLES
bound to a nonprotein group; they can 1. Nucleus - contains genetic material of cell
undergo oxidation and reduction (DNA) and nucleoli; site of RNA synthesis and
relatively easily, thus allowing electrons to ribosomal subunit assembly, located near the
flow through the system. There are four center of the cell.
types of carrier: flavoproteins (e.g. FAD), • Nuclear envelope - also known as the
cytochromes, iron–sulphur proteins (e.g. nuclear membrane, is made up of two lipid
ferredoxin), and ubiquinone. bilayer membranes which surrounds the
17. Facilitated diffusion - is a carrier-mediated nucleus, and in eukaryotic cells it encases
transport process that moves substances the genetic material.
across the cell membrane from an area of • Nuclear pores - complexes allow the
higher concentration to an area of lower transport of molecules across the nuclear
concentration of that substance. envelope.
18. Active transport - is a carrier-mediated • Chromosomes - are thread-like structures
process that moves substances across the in which DNA is tightly packaged within the
cell membrane from regions of lower nucleus. DNA is coiled around proteins
concentration to those of higher called histones, which provide the
concentration against a concentration structural support.
gradient. (Includes: Diffusion, Osmosis, and • Chromatin - is a complex of DNA and
Facilitated diffusion.) proteins that forms chromosomes within
19. Passive transport - is a movement of ions the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
and other atomic or molecular substances • Nucleoli (sing. nucleolus, little nucleus) -
across cell membranes without need of are diffuse bodies with no surrounding
energy input. (Includes: Active transport, membrane that are found within the
Secondary active transport, Endocytosis, nucleus.
and Exocytosis.) • Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) -
20. Secondary active transport - involves the molecule in cells that forms part of the
active transport of one substance, such as protein-synthesizing organelle known as a
Na+, across the cell membrane, ribosome and that is exported to the
establishing a concentration gradient. cytoplasm to help translate the information
in messenger RNA (mRNA) into protein.
Endocytosis and Exocytosis: 2. Ribosome – it is where protein is
21. Endocytosis - is the uptake of material synthesizing.
through the cell membrane by the 3. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of
formation of a vesicle membranes forming sacs and tubules that
22. Receptor-mediated endocytosis - also extends from the outer nuclear membrane
called clathrin-mediated endocytosis, is a into the cytoplasm.
process by which cells absorb metabolites, • Rough endoplasmic reticulum - has many
hormones, proteins and in some cases ribosomes attached; site of protein
viruses by the inward budding of the synthesis (rough ER).
plasma membrane (invagination). • Smooth endoplasmic reticulum -
23. Phagocytosis (cell-eating) - is often used site of lipid synthesis; participates
for endocytosis when solid particles are in detoxification (smooth ER).
ingested. A part of the cell membrane
4. Golgi apparatus – modifies protein 3.6 WHOLE-CELL ACTIVITY
structure and packages proteins in Gene Expression & Transcription:
secretory vesicles. 1. Gene expression - is the process by which
5. Secretory vesicle - contains materials information from a gene is used in the synthesis
produced in the cell; formed by the Golgi of a functional gene product.
apparatus; secreted by exocytosis then 2. Gene - is a sequence of nucleotides (making a
transport it. word) that provides a chemical set of
6. Lysosome - are membrane-bound vesicles instructions for making a specific protein. Each
formed from the Golgi apparatus. They DNA molecule contains many different genes.
contain a variety of enzymes that function 3. Transcription - is the first step of gene
as intracellular digestive systems. expression, in which a particular segment of
• Peroxisomes - are small, membrane-bound DNA is copied into RNA by the enzyme RNA
vesicles containing enzymes that break polymerase. Both DNA and RNA are nucleic
down fatty acids, amino acids, and acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as a
hydrogen peroxide. complementary language.
7. Mitochondrion - site mosaic of aerobic • Codons - is a sequence of three DNA or RNA
respiration and the major site of ATP nucleotides that corresponds with a specific
synthesis. Widely known as the Power amino acid or stop signal during protein
house of the cell. synthesis. DNA and RNA molecules are written
• Cristae - is a fold in the inner membrane of in a language of four nucleotides; meanwhile,
a mitochondrion. The name is from the the language of proteins includes 20 amino
Latin for crest or plume, and it gives the acids.
inner membrane its characteristic 4. Translation - is the process in which ribosomes
wrinkled shape, providing a large amount in the cytoplasm or ER synthesize proteins
of surface area for chemical reactions to after the process of transcription of DNA to RNA
occur on. in the cell's nucleus.
8. Cytoskeleton - consists of proteins that • Anticodon - is a sequence of three bases that are
support the cell, hold organelles in place, complementary to a codon in the messenger
and enable the cell to change shape. RNA. During translation, the bases of the
• Microtubule - supports cytoplasm; assists anticodon form complementary base pairs
in cell division and forms components of witht the bases of the codon by forming the
cilia and flagella. appropriate hydrogen bonds.
• Intermediate filaments - are fibrils formed • Peptide bond - is an amide type of covalent
from protein sub- units that are smaller in chemical bond linking two consecutive alpha-
diameter than microtubules but larger in amino acids from C1 of one alpha-amino acid
diameter than microfilaments. and N2 of another along a peptide or protein
9. Centrioles - facilitate the movement of chain.
chromosomes during cell division. • Polypeptide chain - is a single linear chain of
• Centrosome - is a specialized zone of many amino acids, held together by amide
cytoplasm close to the nucleus, where bonds. A protein consists of one or more
microtubule formation occurs. It contains polypeptides (more than about 50 amino acids
two centrioles, which are normally long). An oligopeptide consists of only a few
oriented perpendicular to each other. amino acids (between two and twenty).
10. Cilia - move substances over surfaces of 5. Messenger RNA - is the single-stranded
certain cells and project from the surface of intermediate molecule that transfers the
cells. genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to
11. Flagella - have a structure similar to that of the cytoplasm, where it serves as a template in
cilia but are much longer, and they usually the formation of polypeptides.
occur only one per cell. It propel sperm 6. Transfer RNAs - is a type of RNA molecule that
cells. helps decode a messenger RNA (mRNA)
12. Microvilli - are specialized extensions of the sequence into a protein. tRNAs function at
cell membrane that are supported by specific sites in the ribosome during
microfilaments and increase surface area translation, which is a process that synthesizes
of certain cells. a protein from an mRNA molecule.

Cell Cycle: • Centromere - is the specialized DNA
1. Interphase - is the phase of the cell cycle in sequence of a chromosome that links a
which a typical cell spends most of its life. pair of sister chromatids. During mitosis,
During this phase, the cell copies its DNA in spindle fibers attach to the centromere via
preparation for mitosis. the kinetochore.
2. Cell division - is the formation of daughter 2. Metaphase - the chromosomes align in the
cells from a single parent cell. center of the cell in association with the
3. Diploid - Having two sets of chromosomes or spindle fibers.
double the haploid number of chromosomes 3. Anaphase - the chromatids separate to form
in the germ cell, with one member of each two sets of identical chromosomes. The
chromosome pair derived from the ovum chromosomes, assisted by the spindle fibers,
and one from the spermatozoon. The diploid move toward the centrioles at each end of the
number, 46 in humans, is the normal cell. The cytoplasm begins to divide.
chromosome complement of an organism's 4. Telophase - the chromosomes disperse, the
somatic cells. nuclear envelopes and the nucleoli form, and
4. Haploid describes a cell that contains a the cytoplasm continues to divide to form two
single set of chromosomes. The term haploid cells.
can also refer to the number of (Note: Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase
chromosomes in egg or sperm cells, which begins. The chromosomes have unraveled to
are also called gametes. In humans, gametes become chromatin. Cell division has produced
are haploid cells that contain 23 two daughter cells, each with DNA that is
chromosomes, each of which a one of a identical to the DNA of the parent cell.)
chromosome pair that exists in diploid cells.
7. Differentiation - The process by which cells
(Note: Of the 23 pairs, 1 pair is the sex develop with specialized structures and
chromosomes, which consist of 2 X functions.
chromosomes if the person is a female or an X 8. Apoptosis - is a form of programmed cell death
chromosome and a Y chromosome if the person that occurs in multicellular organisms.
is a male. The remaining 22 pairs of Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell
chromosomes are called autosomes.) changes and death.

5. Autosomes - are homologous pairs, which
transfer genetic information from the
parents to the offspring. Each pair of
chromosome contains all the genes that are
responsible for the existence of the life.
6. Mitosis - is a process where a single cell
divides into two identical daughter cells (cell
division). During mitosis one cell? divides
once to form two identical cells. The major
purpose of mitosis is for growth and to
replace worn out cells.
Mitosis is divided into four stages:
1. Prophase - the chromatin condenses into
chromosomes. Each chromosome
consists of two chromatids joined at the
centromere. The centrioles move to the
opposite ends of the cell, and the
nucleolus and the nuclear envelope
disappear.
• Chromatid - is one of two identical halves
of a replicated chromosome. The
chromosome consists of two identical
structures called sister chromatids,
which are joined at the centromere.