THE CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION

 Cells are the living structural and functional units enclosed by a membrane.
 All cells arise from existing cells by the process of cell division, in which one cell divides into two identical cells.
 Cell biology or cytology is the study of cellular structure and function

THE 3 MAIN PARTS OF THE CELL

1. PLASMA MEMBRANE
2. CYTOPLASM; Cytosol, Organelles
3. NUCLEUS; Chromosomes, Genes

PARTS OF THE CELL

 PLASMA MEMBRANE

–Forms the cell’s flexible outer surface, separating the cell’s internal environment from the external environment.
–It is a selective barrier (semi –permeable) that regulates the flow of materials into and out of a cell.
–This selectivity helps establish and maintain the appropriate environment for normal cellular activities.
–The plasma membrane also plays a key role in communication among cells and between cells and their external environment.
–Flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains the cytoplasm of a cell.
–fragile, transparent barrier that contains the cell contents and separates them from the surrounding environment.
 THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL -the arrangement of molecules within the membrane resembles a sea of lipids containing many types of proteins.
- The lipids act as a barrier to certain substances.
-The proteins act as “gatekeepers” to certain molecules and ions

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
• Consists of a Lipid Bilayer - made up of phospholipids, cholesterol and glycolipids.
MEMBRANE PROTEIN
1.INTEGRAL PROTEIN
•Extend into or through the lipid bilayer among the fatty acid tails and are firmly embedded in it.
•Transmembrane proteins are integral protein which spans the entire lipid bilayer and protrude into both the cytosol and extracellular fluid
2.PERIPHERAL PROTEIN
•Not as firmly embedded in the membrane.
•They are attached to the polar heads of membrane lipids or to integral proteins at the inner or outer surface of the membrane.
3.GLYCOPROTEIN
•Membrane proteins with a carbohydrate group attached that protrudes into the extracellular fluid
4.GLYCOCALYX
• The “sugary coating” surrounding the membrane made up of the carbohydrate portions of the glycolipids and glycoproteins

FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE PROTEIN

1.ION CHANNELS –some membrane proteins forms ion channels
2.CARRIERS –other integral proteins act as carriers, selectively moving a polar substance or ion from one side of the membrane to the other. Also known as
transporters.
3.RECEPTORS –serve as cellular recognition sites. Each type of receptor recognizes and binds a specific type of molecule.
* LIGAND –binding of a specific molecule to a receptor
4.ENZYMES – catalyze specific chemical reactions at the inside or outside surface of the cell.
5.LINKERS –anchor proteins in the plasma membranes of neighboring cells to one another or to protein filaments inside and outside the cell.
6.CELL IDENTITY MARKERS –they may enable a cell to (1) recognize other cells of the same kind during tissue formation or (2) recognize and respond to potentially
dangerous foreign cells

MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY
•the plasma membranes are selectively permeable.
•the cell is either permeable or impermeable to certain substances.
** PERMEABLE – means that a structure permits the passage of substances through it.
** IMPERMEABLE –means that a structure does not permit the passage of substances through it.
•the lipid bilayer is permeable to small, nonpolar, uncharged molecules (e.g. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and steroids), but impermeable to glucose.
•transmembrane proteins act as channels and transporters to assist the entrance of certain substances, for example, glucose and ion

TRANSPORT ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

1. PASSIVE PROCESS
-- DIFFUSION; Simple Diffusion, Channel-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion
• CARRIER-MEDIATED FACILITATED DIFFUSION – Osmosis
2. ACTIVE PROCESS; Active Transport, Vesicular Transport

TRANSPORT ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

1.PASSIVE PROCESS
– A substance moves down its concentration or electrical gradient to cross the membrane using only its own kinetic energy (energy of motion).
– Kinetic energy is intrinsic to the particles that are moving. There is no input of energy from the cell.
2.ACTIVE PROCESS
– Cellular energy is used to drive the substance “uphill” against its concentration or electrical gradient.
–The cellular energy used is usually in the form of adenosinetriphosphate (ATP).
PASSIVE PROCESS: DIFFUSION
1.DIFFUSION
– Is a passive process in which the random mixing of particles in a solution occurs because of the particles’ kinetic energy.
–They move down from higher concentration gradient to a lower conc. Gradient.
DIFFUSION IS INFLUENCED BY:
 Steepness of The Concentration Gradient
 Temperature
 Mass of Diffusion Substance
 Surface Area
 Diffusion Distance
DIFFUSION
• SIMPLE DIFFUSION - is a passive process in which substances move freely through the lipid bilayer of the plasma membranes of cells without the help of
membrane transport proteins.
•CHANNEL-MEDIATED FACILITATED DIFFUSION - in channel mediated facilitated diffusion, a solute moves down its concentration gradient across the lipid bilayer
through a membrane channel
•CARRIER-MEDIATED FACILITATED DIFFUSION - in carrier mediated facilitated diffusion, a carrier (also called a transporter) moves a solute down its concentration
gradient across the plasma membrane
OSMOSIS
•The net movement of a solvent through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
• Like the other types of diffusion, osmosis is a passive process. In living systems, the solvent is water, which moves by osmosis across plasma membranes from an
area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration.
TONICITY
• Tonicity of a solution relates to how the solution influences the shape of body cells.
1.Isotonic Solution
2.Hypotonic Solution
3.Hypertonic Solution
ACTIVE PROCESS
-Active transport
-Solutes are transported across plasma membranes with the use of energy, from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration sodium-
potassium pump.
•PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT - energy derived from hydrolysis of ATP changes the shape of a carrier protein, which “pumps” a substance across a plasma
membrane against its concentration gradient. Indeed, carrier proteins that mediate primary active transport are often called pumps.
•SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT–energy stored in a Na or H concentration gradient is used to drive other substances across the membrane against the iron
concentration gradients. Because a Na or H gradient is established by primary active transport, secondary active transport in directly uses energy obtained from the
hydrolysis of ATP
TRANSPORT VESICLES
 VESICLE -a small spherical sac formed by budding off from a membrane
• ENDOCYTOSIS -materials move into a cell in a vesicle formed from the plasma membrane
–THREE TYPES: Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis; Phagocytosis; Bulk-Phase endocytosis (Pinocytosis)
• EXOCYTOSIS -vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane, releasing their contents into the extracellular fluid. Materials move out in the cell in a vesicles fuse with the
plasma membrane.
• TRANSCYTOSIS - a combination of endocytosis and exocytosis; vesicles undergo endocytosis on one side of a cell, move across the cell, and then undergo
exocytosis on the opposite side.
ENDOCYTOSIS
•RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS –highly selective type of endocytosis by which cells take up specific ligands.
•PHAGOCYTOSIS–a form of endocytosis in which the cell engulfs large solid particles, such as worn-out cells, whole bacteria, or virus.
•PINOCYTOSIS / BULK-PHASE ENDOCYTOSIS–a form of endocytosis in which tiny droplets of extracellular fluid are taken up

 CYTOPLASM – consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.
•CYTOSOL –the fluid portion of cytoplasm, contains water, dissolved solutes, and suspended particles.
•ORGANELLES–little organs, specialized structures inside the cell. (e.g. Cytoskeleton, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes)
CYTOSOL
•The cytosol (intracellular fluid) is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds organelles and constitutes about 55% of total cell volume
•Cytosol is 75–90% water plus various dissolved and suspended components.
•Among these are different types of ions, glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, proteins, lipids, ATP, and waste products
•The cytosol is the site of many chemical reactions required for a cell’s existence
•The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytosol
•Microfilaments
•Intermediate Filaments
•Microtubules
PROTEIN FILAMENTS
•Microfilaments –are the thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton. They are composed of the proteins actin and myosin and are most prevalent at the edge of a cell
- They help generate movement and provide mechanical support
•Intermediate Filaments -thicker than microfilaments but thinner than microtubules
•Microtubules -largest of the cytoskeletal components and are long, unbranched hollow tubes composed mainly of the protein tubulin.
PARTS OF THE CELL
•The centrosome located near the nucleus, consists of two components: a pair of centrioles and pericentriolar material
•The two centrioles (are cylindrical structures, each composed of nine clusters of three microtubules (triplets) arranged in a circular pattern
•Surrounding the centrioles is pericentriolar material, which contains hundreds of ring-shaped complexes composed of the protein tubulin.
•These tubulin complexes are the organizing centers for growth of the mitotic spindle, which plays a critical role in cell division, and for microtubule formation in
nondividing cells.

CENTROSOME
- The pericentriolar material of the centrosome contains tubulins that build microtubules in non-dividing cells
- The pericentriolar material of the centrosome forms the mitotic spindle during division.
CILIA AND FLAGELLA
- Cilia move fluids along a cell’s surface
- A flagellum moves an entire cell
RIBOSOMES
-Ribosomes associated with endoplasmic reticulum synthesize proteins destined for insertion in the plasma membrane or secretes from the cell
- Free ribosomes synthesize proteins used in the cytosol
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM –> a network of membrane-enclosed sacs or tubules that extend throughout the cytoplasm and connect to the nuclear envelope
-Rough ER synthesizes glycoproteins and phospholipids that are transferred into cellular organelles. Inserted into the plasma membrane or secreted during
exocytosis
- Smooth ER synthesizes fatty acids and steroids, such as estrogens and testosterone; inactivates or detoxifies drugs and other potentially harmful substances;
removes the phosphate group from glucose-6 phosphate; and stores and release calcium ions that trigger contraction in muscle cells
GOLGI APPARATUS
-Modifies sorts, packages, and transport proteins received from the rough ER.
-Forms secretory vesicles that discharge processed proteins via exocytosis into extracellular fluid forms membrane vesicles that ferry new molecules to the plasma
membranes forms transport vesicles that carry molecules to other organelles, such as lysosomes
LYSOSOMES
-Digest substance that enter a cell via endocytosis and transport final products of digestion into cytosol.
-Carry out autophagy, the digestion of worn-out organelles
-Implement autolysis, the digestion of an entire cell
-Accomplish extracellular digestion
MITOCHONDRIA
-Generate ATP through reactions of aerobic cellular respiration
-Play an important early role in apoptosis

 NUCLEUS – is a large organelle that houses most of a cell’s DNA

• Chromosome –a single molecule of DNA associated with several proteins contains thousands of hereditary units called genes.
• Genes –control most aspects of cellular structure and function.

CELL DIVISON
TYPES OF CELL DIVISON

1. MEIOSIS
- Also known as reduction division.
- It is a type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent cell by half and produces four gamete cells(haploid).
- Occurs only in gametes or sex cells.
2. MITOSIS
- Type of cell division where in parent cell divides and each of the two daughter cells receives a chromosomal set identical to that of the parent cell
(diploid).

CELL CYCLE
• The cell cycle is a sequence of cell growth and division.
• The cell cycle is the period from the beginning of one division to the beginning of the next.
• The time it takes to complete one cell cycle is the generation time.
PHASES OF CELL CYCLE
1. Interphase:
 G1 phase - Usually the longest & most variable phase of the cycle.
- Increase in size and synthesize new proteins and organelles in the cell.
 S phase - Characterized by DNA replication and beginning of centrosome duplication.
- Histone synthesis is also observed during this period.
 G2 phase --Proteins required for mitosis starts to accumulate.
--Chromatin starts to condensed.
2. M Phase:
 Prophase
- 1st and the longest phase in mitosis.
- Chromatin in the nucleus begins to condense and becomes visible in the light microscope as chromosomes.
- Nucleolus disappears and Nuclear envelope breaks down.
- Centrosomes begin moving to opposite ends of the cell and spindle fibers extend from the centromeres.
 Metaphase
- Alignment of chromosomes into the equatorial region of the cell or in the middle.
-The centrosomes are now both in the opposite side of cell with the mitotic spindle fibres extending from them.
 -The mitotic spindle fibers attach to each of the sister chromatids.
 Anaphase
- The chromosomes are pulled by the kinetochore microtubules to the poles and form a "V" shape.
- Centromeres split and Sister chromatids separate and migrate to opposite poles.
 Telophase
- Opposite of Prophase.
- The two sets of chromosomes are at the spindle poles and begin reverting to their decondensed state.
- Nucleolus and Nuclear membrane start to reappear.
- Formation of cleavage furrow.
- The spindle fibers disperse, and cytokinesis will start.