INTRODUCTION TO PATHOPHYSIOLOGY AND SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

 Study of the changes that occur in cells, tissues and organs when altered by disease and/or injury and the effects
these have on normal body function
 To relate normal body function to the pathological changes that occur and can lead to disease processes
 Can lead to developing understanding in relation to the body’s transition from normal biological functioning to
diseased pathophysiological states
 “Health” and “illness” are not viewed the same in any two individuals as patients and their own conception of health
and illness is very different

ETIOLOGY

 Study of the cause(s) of disease and/or injury

 Causes of disease can be either:
- Endogenous originating from within the body
- Exogenous coming from outside the body
 Diseases can be of unknown cause (idiopathic)
 Some conditions are caused by the effects of treatments and called iatrogenic
 Nosocomial denotes a new disorder, not the patient’s original condition e.g. Hospital-acquired infection
 Risk factors exist which include dietary, occupational or lifestyle conditions e.g. smoking
 Predisposing factors make an individual more susceptible to disease
 Disease prevention is highlighted for healthcare professionals to consider and incorporate if appropriate
 Some diseases such as pneumonia, which easily identify a specific cause or etiology and the infection to some extent
follows a standardized disease process
 Other diseases such as multiple sclerosis or arthritis follow pathological changes that are not so easy to define and
the cause is less clear
 Of conditions such as type 2 diabetes mellitus and atherosclerosis are due to several interacting factors

PATHOLOGY
- The scientific study of disease
- Includes the study of structural alterations in cells, tissues and organs that help to identify the cause of disease

CLINICAL FEATURES
 Etiology and pathogenesis of disease leads to clinical features and include the signs and symptoms of disease
o Symptoms - an indication that a disease is present and is what the patient usually complains of
o Sign – what the clinician or healthcare practitioner is looking or feeling for
 Clinical features of a disease are often accompanied by structural or functional changes that can be investigated
 Some conditions identify similar clinical features to describe them such as indigestion and angina; the same
descriptions of chest pain appear in both conditions and it is difficult at times to tell them apart (differential diagnosis)

INVESTIGATIONS
 Proper investigation of disease is required to ensure prompt and accurate diagnosis to allow treatment to be
instigated.
 This usually involves:
o A clinical history and examination
o A range of diagnostic interventions may be required such as: X-ray and Laboratory Investigations
(Microbiology, Immunology, Biochemistry, Hematology, Histopathology, Genetics)
 RELATED FORM DEFINITION
Health Can be defined as the absence of clinical features associated with any disease or ‘a
state of physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease
Pathogenesis Pattern of tissue changes associated with the developmental of disease or how the
causative agents acts to produce the clinical and pathological changes characteristics of
a specific disease
Morbidity Effects of the disease on a person
Mortality Describes the possibility of causing death
Epidemiology Study of how diseases spread in populations in relation to their aetiology. It includes
the prevalence of disease in population affected at a specific time. The inicidence is the
number of new cases. Some diseases are notifiable such as some infectious diseases.
Epidemiology is influenced by certain socioeconomic factors such as poverty and
overcrowding
Pathogens Theses are the micro-organisms that cause infection, in many cases antibiotics are
available to treat the pathogen
Idiopathic Diseases with no identifiable cause
Iatrogenic Diseases and/or injury as a result of medical intervention(s)
Nosocomial Diseases acquired as a consequence of being in a hospital environment
Diagnosis Naming or identification of disease
Differential Diagnosis Two or more diseases with similar presentation and clinical features
Prognosis Expected outcome of disease, which varies between different diseases and is influenced
by intervention and treatment
Acute disease Sudden appearance of signs and symptoms lasting a short time
Chronic Disease Develops more slowly lasting a long time or a lifetime
Relapse Occurs when the symptoms of a disease return after a period of apparent recovery or
remission
Remissions Periods of good health with a reduction or disappearances of clinical symptoms or they
diminish significantly
Exacerbations Periods when clinical manifestations become worse or more severe
Sequelae Any abnormal conditions that follow are the result of a disease, treatment or injury
 PREFIXES MEANING EXAMPLE
anti- Against, opposing Antiemetic (against vomiting)
arthr- joint Arthritis (inflammation of the joints)
bi- Two, double Bifocal (two types of lenses)
de- Down, from Dehydrated (reduced water content)
dia- Between, through, apart, across Diaphragm (breathing muscle across chest)
dis- Apart from, free form Discomfort
em- In Empyaemia (pus in the lung cavity)
epi- Upon, on, over Epidermis (outer layer of the skin)
glyc- Sugar or sweet Glycaemia (Blood sugar)
Haem/hem Blood Haemoglobin (blood protein)
Hemi- Half Hemicolectomy (half of the bowel removed)
Hyper- Excessive, above Hyperglycaemia (high blood sugar)
hypo- Under, deficient Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid gland)
In-, im- In, into, within Injection (pushing fluid into) implant (insert into)
Inter- between Intercostal muscle (between ribs)
micro- small Micro-organisms (small organism)
multi- Many Multi-system organ failure (MSOF)
osteo- Bone Osteoarthritis (bone, joint swelling)
neo- New, recent Neonatal (newborn)
pan- All, entire Panacea (cure all)
per- Through, excessive Permeable (may pass through)
poly- Many, much, excessive Polycustic ovaries (many cyst on the ovaries)
post- After, behind Post-operative (after surgery)
pre- Before, in front of Pre-operative (before surgery)
semi- Half Semiconscious (half conscious)
sub- Under, beneath Subcutaneous (under the skin)
trans- Across, through Trans-urethal (cut across the urethra)
rhin- Nose Rhinitis (nose inflammation)
sepsis- infection Septacaemia (infection in the bloo

PREFIX RELATED ORGAN

Adeno- Gland
Adreno- Adrenal gland
Angio- Blood vessel
Arthro- Artery
Bronchi/broncho- Bronchus
Cardio- Heart
Cerebri-/cerebro Cerebrum of the brain
Colpo- Vagina
Costo- Ribs
Cysti-/cysto- Bladder
Duodeno- Duodenum of intestine
Encephalo- Brain
Entero- Gasrtric, stomach
Hepato- Liver
Histo- Tissue
Hyster- Uterus
Ile-/Ilo- Illeum of intestine
Jejuno- Jejunum of intestine
Laryngo- Larynx
Lympho- Lymphatic System
Meningo- Membranes covering the brain & spinal cord
Myelo- Bone marrow or spinal cord
Myo- Muscles
Nephro- Kidney
Neuro- Nerve or nervous system
Oophoro- Ovaries
Orchio-/Orchido- Testes or testis
Osseo-/ossi-/oste-/osteo- Bone or bones
Pharyngo- Pharynx
Phlebo- Vein or veins
Pleuro- Pleura/rib
Pneuma-/Pneumo- Lungs/respiration
Pulmo- Lungs
Pyelo- Pelvis of the kidney
Salpingo- Fallopian tube

SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLE

-ac-, -al, -ic Relating to Cardiac (relating to heart)
Neural (relating to nerves)
Haemorrhagic (relating to bleeding)
-aemia Blood condition Leukemia (cancer of the blood)
-emesis Vomit Haematemesis (vomiting blood)
-esis,- ia State or condition Paresis (partial paralysis)
-iasis, -ism Psoriasis (skin condition)
Priapism (persistent erection)
-ity, -osis Acidity (excess acid)
Narcosis (drugged state)
Inhalation (state of inhalation)
-sis, -tion
Theraphy (treatment condition)
-y
-ent, -er, -or Person or agent Recipient (person who receives)
Examiner (person who examines)
Donor (person who gives)
-gram Recording Electrocardiogram (recording of heart)
-graphy Written record Mammogram (x-ray of the heart)
-graph Instrument that records Echocardiogram (record of sound)
-ible, -ile Capable, able Contractile (able to open)
-itis inflammation Meningitis (inflammation of the meninges of the brain)
-logy Science, study of Biology (science of life)
-oma Growth, tumor Sarcoma (cancerous tumour)
-penia Lack of, deficiency of Leukopenia (deficiency of WBC)
-phobia Abnormal fear or intolerance Acrophobia (fear of heights)
-plasty Surgical shaping/formation Angioplasty (reshaping of arteries)
-pnea Breathing Apnoea (absence of breathing)
-ptosis Prolapse, downward, displacement Nephroptosis (prolapse of kidney)
-rrhage, -rhaggia Excessive flow Haemorrhage (excessive bleeding)
-stomy Surgical opening Colostomy (colon to the surface of abdomen)
-scopy Act of examining Microscopy (observing objects under microscope)
-tomy Cutting, incision Phlebotomy (incision into the vein)