• Chemical

bonds – occur when outermost

electrons (valence shell electrons) are
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY transferred or shared between atoms.
REVIEWER
(CABUG, RICARDO JR. A. BSMT 133) Three types of chemical bonds:
1. Ionic bond – occurs when electrons are
CHAPTER 2: The Chemical Basis of Life transferred between atoms, creating
2.1 BASIC CHEMISTRY oppositely charge ions. (Example: NaCl)
1. Chemistry – is the scientific discipline - Ion – a charged atom formed because of a
concerned with the atomic composition and donation or gain of an electron(s).
structure of substances and the reactions they • Electron shells - is the outside part of
undergo. an atom around the atomic nucleus. It is a group
of atomic orbitals with the same value of the
Matter, Mass, and Weight: principal quantum number n.
1. Matter – is anything that occupies space and • Valence shells – it is the outermost shell
has mass. that can hold up to 8 electrons.
2. Mass – is the amount of matter in an object. • Octet rule – is a chemical rule of thumb that
3. Weight – is the gravitational force acting on an reflects observation that atoms of main-group
object of a given mass. elements tend to combine in such a way that
4. Kilogram (kg) – the international unit for each atom has eight electrons in its valence
mass. shell, giving it the same electron configuration
as a noble gas.
Elements and Atoms: • Electronegativity – is the ability of the atoms
1. Element – is the simplest type of matter nucleus to pull electrons towards it.
having unique chemical properties. It also
composed of atoms of only one kind. Covalent Bonding:
Example: Carbon – Carbon atoms 2. Covalent bond – forms when atoms share one
Oxygen – oxygen atoms or more pairs of electrons. (Example:
Hydrogen molecule)
(Note: About 96% of the body’s weight results
• Molecule – 2 or more atoms chemically combine
from the elements oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, or the resulting combination of atoms.
and nitrogen.)
• Single covalent bond – is when only one pair of

electrons is shared between atoms.
2. Atom – is the smallest particle of an element
• Double covalent bond – is where two pairs of
that has the chemical characteristics of that
electrons are shared between the atoms rather
element. It also contains protons, electrons,
than just one pair. Some simple molecules
and neutrons.
containing double bonds.
(The nucleus accounts for 99.97% of an atom’s
• Polar covalent bond – form when there is an
mass, but only 1-tentrillionth of its volume.)
unequal sharing of electrons. (Example: Water
3. Proton – positively charged particle located
H2O)
inside the nucleus.
• Polar molecules – have an asymmetrical
4. Neutron - neutral charged particle located in
electrical charge.
the nucleus.
• Has a positive “end” and a negative “end.”
5. Electron – negative charged particle located
Nonpolar covalent bond - are a type of
outside the nucleus.
chemical bond where two atoms share a pair of
6. Electron cloud – is an informal term in
electrons with each other.
physics. It is used to describe where electrons
• Nonpolar molecules – have a symmetrical
are when they go around the nucleus of an
electrical charge.
atom.
3. Hydrogen bond - is a partially electrostatic
7. Atomic number – is the unique number of
attraction between a hydrogen which is
protons in each atom of an element.
8. Mass number – is the number of protons and bound to a more electronegative atom such
as nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine, and another
neutrons.
adjacent atom bearing a lone pair of

electrons.
Electrons and Chemical Bonding:

 Molecules and Compounds: elements or new compounds. (Represented
1. Molecule – is formed when two or more symbolically as: AB à A+B.)
atoms chemically combined to form a • Catabolism - is the set of metabolic pathways
structure that behaves as an independent that breaks down molecules into smaller units
unit. that are either oxidized to release energy or
2. Compound – is a substance resulting from used in other anabolic reactions. Catabolism
the chemical combination of two or more breaks down large molecules into smaller
different types of atoms. units.
• Hydrolysis - is a chemical process in which a
Dissociation: molecule of water is added to a substance.
1. Dissociate – Sometimes this addition causes both
(with reference to a molecule) to split into substance and water molecule to split into two
separate smaller atoms, ions, or molecules, parts.
especially reversibly. • Metabolism – the chemical processes that
2. Electrolytes – is a substance that produces occur within a living organism in order to
an electrically conducting solution when maintain life. all of the anabolic and catabolic
dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water. reactions in the body.
The dissolved electrolyte separates into
cations and anions, which disperse 3. Exchange reaction – is a combination of a
uniformly through the solvent. decomposition reaction and a synthesis
reaction. It occurs between compounds that,
2.2 CHEMICAL REACTIONS when written as a molecular equation, appear
1. Chemical reaction – is the formation or to involve the exchange of parts between the
breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, two reactants. (Represented symbolically as:
ions, molecule, or compounds. AB + CD à AC + BD.)
2. Reactants – the substances that enter into a
chemical reaction. Energy and Chemical Reactions:
3. Products – the substances that result from 1. Reversible reaction - are reactions in which
the chemical reaction. reactants form products and the products can
also react with each other to re-form the
A + B à C + D reactants.
Reactants Product • Equilibrium – when the ate of product
formation equals the rate of reactant
Classification of Chemical Reactions: formation.
1. Synthesis reaction – when two or more 2. Energy – is the capacity to do work.
reactants combine to form a larger, more 3. Work – is the moving of matter.
complex product. (Build a new molecule) 4. Kinetic energy – is energy caused by the
(Represented symbolically as: A + B à AB.) movement of an object and is the form of
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – is a energy that actually does work.
complex organic chemical that provides 5. Potential energy – is stored energy.
energy to drive many processes in living 6. Chemical energy – is a form of potential energy
cells, e.g. muscle contraction, nerve that are stored in chemical bonds. (Example:
impulse propagation, chemical synthesis. ATP à ADP + P.)
• Anabolism - the synthesis of complex 7. Mechanical energy – is energy resulting from
molecules in living organisms from simpler the position or movement of an object.
ones together with the storage of energy;
constructive metabolism. Rate of Chemical Reactions:
• Dehydration reaction - also known as 1. Rate – at which a chemical reaction proceeds is
Zimmer's hydrogenesis, is a chemical influenced by several factors:
reaction that involves the loss of a water • Concentration of the reactants
molecule from the reacting molecule. Reactants - differ from one another in their
ability to undergo chemical reactions.
2. Decomposition Reaction - is a type of Concentration - Within limits, the greater
chemical reaction in which a single the concentration of the reactants, the
compound breaks down into two or more greater the rate at which a chemical
 reaction will occur because, as the Water:
concentration increases, the reacting 1. Water (H2O) - is an inorganic molecule that
molecules are more likely to come in consists of one atom of oxygen joined by polar
contact with one another. covalent bonds to two atoms of hydrogen.

Water has many important roles in humans and

• Temperature - Because molecular motion
all living organisms:
changes as environmental temperature
changes, the rate of chemical reactions is 1. Stabilizing body temperature - because heat
partially dependent on temperature. energy causes not only movement of water
• Catalysts - At normal body temperatures, molecules, but also disruption of hydrogen
most chemical reactions would take bonds, water can absorb large amounts
place too slowly to sustain life if not for of heat and remain at a stable temperature.
substances called catalysts. 2. Providing protection - water is an effective
Catalyst: increases the rate of a reaction lubricant.
without itself being permanently changed 3. Facilitating chemical reactions - most of the
or depleted. chemical reactions necessary for life do not
take place unless the reacting molecules are
2.3 ACIDS AND BASIS dissolved in water.
1. Acid – is a proton H+ donor. 4. Transporting substances - many substances
- pH below 7 dissolve in water and can be moved from
- Body pH 7.35 – 7.45 place to place as the water moves. For
- Less than 7.35 is acidic (Acidosis) example, blood transports nutrients, gases,
- More than 7.45 (Alkalosis) and waste products within the body.
- Example: HCl (Hydrochloric acid)
2. Base – is a proton H+ acceptor. 2.5 INORGANIC MOLECULES
- pH above 7
The Four major groups of organic molecules
- Exampl: NaOH (Sodium hydroxide)
essentials to living organisms are:
3. Lipids concentration of a solution.
4. Neutral solution - has an equal number of 1. Carbohydrates - are composed of carbon,
H+ and OH− and thus a pH of 7.0. hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
5. Acidic solution - has a greater Functions:
concentration of H+ than of OH− and thus - Short-term energy storage.
a pH less than 7.0. - Converted to glucose quickly.
6. Salts - is a compound consisting of a - Glucose is used to make ATP (energy)
- Brain cells required glucose.
positive ion other than H+ and a negative
• Monosaccharide – is the most basic form of
ion other than OH−. carbohydrates.
7. Buffer - is a chemical that resists changes
in pH when either an acid or a base is (Note: Monosaccharides can be combined
added to a solution containing the buffer. through glycosidic bonds to form larger
carbohydrates, known
2.4 INORGANIC MOLECULES as oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. An
1. Inorganic chemistry - deals with those oligosaccharide with only two monosaccharides is
substances that do not contain carbon. known as a disaccharide. When more than 20
2. Organic chemistry - is the study of monosaccharides are combined with glycosidic
carbon-containing substances. bonds, an oligosaccharide becomes
(Organic molecules: Carbohydrates, a polysaccharide. Some polysaccharides, like
Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic acids) cellulose, contain thousands of monosaccharides.
A monosaccharide is a type of monomer, or
Rate of Chemical Reactions: molecule that can combine with like molecules to
1. Oxygen - is a small, nonpolar, inorganic create a larger polymer. Common
molecule consisting of two oxygen atoms monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and
bound together by a double covalent bond. galactose.)
2. Carbon dioxide - consists of one carbon
atom bound to two oxygen atoms.
• Disaccharide - are formed when two in nuts, seeds, fish, seed oils, and
monosaccharides are joined by a covalent oysters.
bond. • Trans fat (Not healthy)- also called trans-
unsaturated fatty acids or trans fatty acids, are
(Note: A disaccharide, also called a double a type of unsaturated fat that occur in small
sugar, is a molecule formed by two amounts in nature but became widely produced
monosaccharides, or simple sugars. Three industrially from vegetable fats starting in the
common disaccharides are sucrose, maltose, 1950s for use in margarine, snack food, and
and lactose. They have 12 carbon atoms, and packaged baked goods and for frying fast food.
their chemical formula is C12H22O11. Other, • Cis fat (Healthy) - also called cis fatty acid, are
less common disaccharides include lactulose, natural fatty acid in which the carbon moieties
trehalose, and cellobiose. Disaccharides are lie on the same side of the double bond; natural
formed through dehydration reactions in which fats and oils contain only cis double bonds (e.g.,
a total of one water molecule is removed from oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid with a
the two monosaccharides.) cis configuration).
• Phospholipids - is a type of lipid molecule that is
Disaccharides Monosaccharides
the main component of the cell membrane. Also
Maltose = Glucose + Glucose these are natural emulsifiers, allowing fat and
water to mix, and they are. In general,
Lactose = Glucose + Galactose phospholipids are composed of a phosphate
group, two alcohols, and one or two fatty acids.
Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose • Hydrophilic (water-loving) or water-soluble – a
molecule or substance that is attracted to water.
• Polysaccharide - consist of many
Water is a polar molecule that acts as a solvent,
monosaccharides bound in long chains. dissolving other polar and hydrophilic
• Glycogen – is an energy-storage molecule. substances. In biology, many substances are
Also is a polysaccharide formed by combining hydrophilic, which allows them to be dispersed
many glucose molecules. throughout a cell or organism.
• Hydrophobic (water-fearing) or water-
2. Lipids - are substances that dissolve in insoluble - literally means to fear water. In
nonpolar solvents, such as alcohol or acetone, chemistry, it refers to the property of a
but not in polar solvents, such as water. substance to repel water. In actuality, it isn't
Function: that the substance is repelled by water so much
- Long term energy storage. as its lack of attraction to it. A hydrophobic
- Insulates against heat loss. substance exhibits hydrophobicity and may be
- Protective cushion for organs. termed a hydrophobe.
- Cholesterols is part of the cell membrane • Eicosanoids - are a group of important chemicals
structure. derived from fatty acids. Eicosanoids are made in
• Glycerol and Fatty acids – is the building most cells and are important regulatory
blocks of lipids. molecules. Among their numerous effects is their
• Triglycerides - are the most common type of role in the response of tissues to injuries.
fat molecules. • Prostaglandins - are a group of physiologically
• Saturated – a type of lipid that contains single active lipid compounds having diverse hormone-
covalent bonds between the carbon atoms. like effects in animals. Prostaglandins have been
• Unsaturated – a type of lipid that contains one found in almost every tissue in humans and other
or more double covalent bonds between animals. They are derived enzymatically from
carbon atoms. fatty acids.
• Monounsaturated fats - are fatty acids that • Steroids - are composed of carbon atoms bound
have one double bond in the fatty acid chain together into four ring like structures.
with all of the remainder carbon atoms being • Cholesterol - is an important steroid because
single-bonded. other steroid molecules are synthesized from it.
• Polyunsaturated fats - are fats in which the
constituent hydrocarbon chain possesses two 3. Proteins - is an important component of every
or more carbons–carbon double bonds. cell in the body. Hair and nails are mostly made of
Polyunsaturated fat can be found mostly protein. It contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
 and nitrogen, and Nucleic Acids: DNA and molecules called ribonucleotide bases: adenine
RNA most have some sulfur. (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U).
Functions:
- Used to make skin, hair, nails, and Adenosine Triphosphate - is a complex organic
muscles. chemical that provides energy to drive many
- Part of the hemoglibin molecule. processes in living cells, e.g. muscle contraction,
- Act as enzymes. nerve impulse propagation, chemical synthesis.
- Immune system functions Found in all forms of life, ATP is often referred
- Muscle contractions (actin and myosin) to as the "molecular unit of currency" of
- Part of the cell membrane. intracellular energy transfer.
• Amino Acid - often referred to as the

building blocks of proteins, are compounds
that play many critical roles in your body. It
containing amine (-NH2) and carboxyl (-
COOH) functional groups, along with a side
chain (R group) specific to each amino acid.
• Denaturation - involves the disruption and
possible destruction of both the secondary
and tertiary structures. Since denaturation
reactions are not strong enough to break the
peptide bonds, the primary structure
(sequence of amino acids) remains the same
after a denaturation process.

• Enzymes - is a protein catalyst that
increases the rate at which a chemical
reaction proceeds without the enzyme
being permanently changed. Enzymes
increase the rate of chemical reactions by
lowering the activation energy, which is the
energy necessary to start a chemical

reaction.
4. Nucleic Acid - are biopolymers, or small
biomolecules, essential to all known forms
of life.
Functions:
- Regulation
- Heredity

- Gene expression
• Nucleotides - is an organic molecule that is
the building block of DNA and RNA (Nucleic
acid). They also have functions related to
cell signaling, metabolism, and enzyme
reactions. A nucleotide is made up of three
parts: a phosphate group, a 5-carbon sugar,

and a nitrogenous base.
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - is a molecule
that encodes an organism's genetic
blueprint. In other words, DNA contains all
of the information required to build and
maintain an organism.
• Ribonucleic acid - is a polymeric molecule
essential in various biological roles in
• coding, decoding, regulation, and
expression of genes. It is also a linear
molecule composed of four types of smaller