THE CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES OF LIFE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the structure of an atom and its relation
to the physical properties of elements.
Define ionic bond, covalent bond, hydrogen bond,
molecular weight, and mole.
Chemical reactions make and break chemical
bonds
To familiarize the molecule that supports all of life:
WATER
To familiarize the organic property of Carbon: The
Backbone of Life
 Describe and understand the Molecules of life:
Carbohydrates, Protein, Nucleic Acids, Lipids
LIFE STRUCTURAL LEVEL   8.)
 It may be really difficult to comprehend that
all lifeforms body from simple bacteria to us
humans are made of spinning protons, neutrons,
and electrons.
 Based on the illustration on the first slide
(life structural level), it is easier, however to picture
forms of matter in levels that increases in
complexity. For example, subatomic particles can
be organized into atoms, which are the components
of molecules, and molecules can be organized into
macromolecules, such as DNA and proteins, which
can be built into cells. Cells can then be organized
into tissues, which form organs, and organs can be
grouped into organ systems, which are built into
entire organisms—including humans like you.
STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
All matter whether air, rock, or a living organism is
made up of small units called atoms.
ATOM: 1.) Smallest component of a substance,
and it cannot be subdivided into smaller substances
without losing properties.
2.) Atoms combine to form molecules
3.) Every Atom has a centrally located nucleus
(neutrally charged), which is made up of positively
charged ( + ) proton, and negatively charged (-)
electrons particles that move around the nucleus.
4.) All atoms contain an equal number of
electrons and protons. Because the total positive
charge of the nucleus equals the total negative
charge of the electrons, each atom is electrically
neutral.
5.) Nucleus of the atom (Neutron and Proton)
are stable that is, they do not change
spontaneously. And no do not participate in
chemical reactions, only the electrons if its valence
shell is not completely filled/paired with electrons of
the said element.
6.) The number of protons in an atomic nucleus
ranges from one (in a hydrogen atom) to more than
100 (in the largest atoms known).
7.) Atoms are often listed by their atomic
number, the number of protons in the nucleus.
Protons and neutrons are approximately the
same weight, which is about 1840 times that of an
electron
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
All atoms with the same number of protons
behave the same way chemically and are classified
as the same chemical element.
Each element has its own name and a one- or
two letter symbol, usually derived from the English
or Latin name for the element.
EX. Element Hydrogen is H, and the symbol for
Helium is He
92 naturally occurring elements. However, only 26
of these are essential or commonly found in
organisms
ISOTOPES – Atoms with different numbers of
neutrons in their nuclei, but same number of
protons.

Electronic Configurations
In an atom, electrons are arranged in electron
shells, which are regions corresponding to different
energy levels. The arrangement is called an
electronic configuration.
SHELLS ARE LAYERED OUTWARD FROM THE
NUCLEUS ( NEUTRON AND PROTON )
2 ELECTRON IN THE FIRST SHELL
8 ELECTRONS IN THE SECOND AND THIRD
SHELL (VALENCE).
The fourth, fifth, and sixth electron shells can
each accommodate 18 electrons
NO NEED TO COMPLICATE GUYS! IT JUST
LOOK LIKE THIS!   CALLED IONIC COMPOUNDS OR SALTS
How Atoms Form Molecules:
Chemical Bonds
When the outermost energy level of an atom is
not completely filled by electrons, you can think of it
as having either unfilled spaces or extra electrons
in that energy level, depending on whether it is
easier for the atom to gain or lose electrons.
 For example, an atom of oxygen, with two
electrons in the first energy level and six in the
second, has two unfilled spaces in the second
electron shell
The valence, or combining capacity, of an atom is
the number of extra or missing electrons in its
outermost electron shell
And of course, an unfulfilled outer electron shell
(valence shell) are unstable so in order for this
element to attain a state of stabilization they must
either gain electrons or lose, just to stabilized or
completely filled their outermost shell (valence
shell).
Molecules hold together because the valence
electrons of the combining atoms form attractive
forces, called chemical bonds, between the atomic
nuclei
• EXAMPLE IS HYDROGEN BONDING IN WATER
IONIC BONDS - In some cases, two atoms are so
unequal in their attraction for valence shells that the
more electronegative atom strips an electron
completely away from its partner.
The two resulting oppositely charged atoms (or
molecules) are called ions. A positively charged ion
is called a cation, while a negatively charged ion is
called an anion. Because of their opposite charges,
cations and anions attract each other; this attraction
is called an ionic bond.
COMPOUNDS FORMED BY IONIC BONDS ARE
 MOST DRUGS ARE MANUFACTURED AS
SALTS OR IN IONIC COMPOUND FORM
BECAUSE
THEY ARE QUITE STABLE WHEN DRY BUT CAN
DISSOCIATE (COME APART) EASILY IN
WATER  
COVALENT BONDS - A covalent bond is a
chemical bond formed by two atoms sharing one or
more pairs of electrons.
STRONGER and FAR MORE COMMON in
ORGANISMS than are true IONIC BONDS.
The principles of covalent bonding that apply to
atoms of the same element also apply to atoms of
different elements

HYDROGEN BONDING – CONSIDER TO BE A
WEAK CHEMICAL INTERACTIONS, BUT IS SO
CENTRAL TO THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE THAT
THEY DESERVE SPECIAL ATTENTION
 When a hydrogen atom is covalently
bonded to an electronegative atom, the hydrogen
atom has a partial positive charge that allows it to
be attracted to a different electronegative atom
nearby. This attraction between a hydrogen and an
electronegative atom is called a hydrogen bond. In
living cells, the electronegative partners are usually
oxygen or nitrogen atoms.
The molecular mass of a molecule is the sum of
the atomic masses of all its atoms. The unit of
molecular mass is a dalton (da).
To relate the molecular level to the laboratory
level, we use a unit called the mole. One mole of a
substance is its molecular mass expressed in
grams.
 For example, 1 mole of water weighs 18
grams because the molecular mass of H2O is 18
da, or [(2 X 1) + 16] = 18grams.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
chemical reactions involve the making or breaking
of bonds between atoms.
After a chemical reaction, the total number of
atoms remains the same, but there are new
molecules with new properties because the atoms
have been rearranged.
All chemical bonds require energy to form or
break.
But life forms’ Activation Energy is hacked by
ENZYMES to diminish the energy consumption and
damage of a living cell unlike in laboratory.
 EXERGONIC REACTION - A chemical reaction
that releases more energy than it absorbs
ENDERGONIC REACTION – A chemical reaction
that absorbs more energy than it releases
_______________________________________
SYNTHESIS REACTIONS/ANABOLIC - When
two or more atoms, ions, or molecules combine to
form new and larger molecules/FORMS NEW
BONDS
DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS/CATABOLIC -
To
decompose means to break down into smaller
parts, and in a decomposition reaction bonds are
broken.
The reverse of a synthesis reaction is a
decomposition reaction
Exchange Reactions - part synthesis and part
decomposition
 
All chemical reactions are, in theory, reversible;
that is, they can occur in either direction
• A chemical reaction that is readily reversible
(when the end product can revert to the original
molecules) is termed a reversible reaction and is
indicated by two arrows.
WATER: THE MOLECULE THAT SUPPORTS ALL
OF LIFE
Life on Earth began in water and evolved there for
3 billion years before spreading onto land. Water is
the substance that makes life possible as we know
it here on Earth, and possibly on other planets as
well.
All organisms familiar to us are made mostly of
water and live in an environment dominated by
water.
Three-quarters of Earth’s surface is covered by
water
 Water is the only common substance on Earth to
exist in the natural environment in all three physical
states of matter: LIQUID WATER; solid (ice) and a
gas (water vapor).
Inside the cell, water is the medium for most
chemical reactions. In fact, water is by far the most
abundant component of almost all living cells.
Water has structural and chemical properties that
make it particularly suitable for its role in living cells.
A POLAR MOLECULE: OXYGEN IS MORE
ELECTRONEGATIVE THAN HYDROGEN, SO
THE
ELECTRONS OF THE COVALENT BONDS
SPEND MORE TIME CLOSER IN OXYGEN THAN
TO HYDROGEN; As a result
The oxygen of the molecule has two regions of
partial negative charge (-), and each hydrogen has
a partial positive charge (+).
ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS
ACIDS- An acid can be defined as a substance
that dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions
(H+) and one or more negative ions (anions).
Defined also as proton (H+) donor
 BASE- A base dissociates into one or more
negatively charged hydroxide ions (OH-) that can
accept, or combine with, protons, and one or more
positive ions (cations).
 An organism must maintain a fairly constant
balance of acids and bases to remain healthy. H+
and OH- are involved in almost all biochemical
processes
The more hydrogen ions that are free in a
solution, the more acidic the solution is.
Conversely, the more hydroxide ions that are free
in a solution, the more basic, or alkaline.
 It is convenient to express the amount of H+
in a solution by a logarithmic pH scale, which
ranges from 0 to 14
CARBON: THE BACKBONE OF LIFE
LIVING ORGANISMS: FROM BACTERIA TO
PLANTS AND ANIMALS, ARE MADE UP OF
CHEMICALS BASED MOSTLY ON THE
ELEMENT CARBON.
 Carbon enters the biosphere through the
action of producers—plants and other
photosynthetic organisms that use solar energy to
transform atmospheric CO2 into the carbon-based
molecules of life.
 Of all the chemical elements, carbon is
unparalleled in its ability to form molecules that are
large, complex, and varied, making possible the
diversity of organisms that have evolved on Earth.
DNA, PROTEINS, CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS,
AND OTHER MOLECULES THAT DISTINGUISH
LIVING MATTER FROM
INANIMATE MATERIAL ARE ALL COMPOSED OF
CARBON ATOMS bonded to one another and to
atoms of different elements
Hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), sulfur
(S), and phosphorus (P) are other common
ingredients of these compounds, but it is the
element carbon (C) that accounts for the enormous
variety of biological molecules.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: THE STUDY OF
CARBON COMPOUNDS, however pure carbon
just like diamond is not organic or compounds
lacking with carbon and hydrogen like CO2.
THE FORMATION BONDS WITH
CARBON
CARBON ATOMS CAN FORM DIVERSE
MOLECULES BY
BONDING TO FOUR OTHER ATOMS
Carbon has 6 electrons, with 2 in the first electron thecounter vapor inhaler for treatment of nasal
shell and 4 in the second shell; thus, it has 4 congestion
valence electrons in a shell that can hold up to 8
The Chemical Groups Most Important in the
electrons
Processes of Life
Carbon chains form the skeletons of most organic
The properties of an organic molecule depend not
molecules.
only on the arrangement of its carbon skeleton but
The skeletons vary in length and may be straight, also on the various chemical groups attached to
branched, or arranged in closed rings that skeleton
These groups may participate in chemical
reactions or may contribute to function indirectly by
their effects on molecular shape; they help give
each molecule its unique properties; such groups
are known as functional groups
• FOR EXAMPLE: the differences between
estradiol (a type of estrogen) and testosterone.
ISOMERS
compounds that have the same numbers of
atoms of the same elements but different structures
and hence different properties.
Three types:
1.) STRUCTURAL ISOMERS - differ in the
SEVEN (7) Chemical groups most important in
covalent arrangements of their atoms.
biological processes:  
2.) CIS-TRANS ISOMERS - carbons have
THE MOLECULES OF LIFE
covalent bonds to the
Given the rich complexity of life on Earth, it might
same atoms, but these atoms differ in their spatial
surprise you that the most important large
arrangements due to the inflexibility of double
molecules found in all living things from bacteria to
bonds
elephants.
3.) Enantiomers - are isomers that are mirror
FOUR MAIN CLASSES: CARBOHYDRATES,
images of each other and that differ in shape due to
LIPIDS,
the presence of an asymmetric carbon, one that is
attached to four different atoms or groups of atoms PROTEINS, AND NUCELIC ACIDS
The concept of enantiomers is important in the THREE OF THESE CLASSES: PROTEIN,
pharmaceutical industry because the two
CARBOHYDRATES, AND NUCLEIC ACIDS ARE
enantiomers of a drug may not be equally effective,
CALLED
as is the case for both ibuprofen and the asthma
medication albuterol. MACROMOLECULES
The architecture of a large biological molecule
plays an essential role in its function, exhibit unique
• Another example is Methamphetamine also
emergent properties arising from the orderly
occurs in two enantiomers that have very different
arrangement of their atoms
effects. One enantiomer is the highly addictive
stimulant drug known as “crank,” sold illegally in the Large carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids
street drug trade. The other has a much weaker are chainlike molecules called polymers
effect and is the active ingredient in an over-
A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many 3 carbon sugars = called trioses
similar or identical building blocks linked by
4 carbon sugars = tetroses
covalent bonds, much as a train consists of a chain
of cars. The repeating units that serve as the 5 carbon sugars = pentoses 6 carbon sugars =
building blocks of a polymer are smaller molecules hexoses
called monomers 7 carbon sugars = heptoses
The reaction connecting monomers is a good  Disaccharide- are formed when two
example of a dehydration reaction, a reaction in monosaccharides bond in a dehydration synthesis
which two molecules are covalently bonded to each reactions.
other with the loss of a water molecule.
EX. two monosaccharides, glucose and fructose,
Meanwhile, disassembled to monomers by combine to form a molecule of the disaccharide
sucrose
hydrolysis; a process that is essentially the reverse
of the dehydration reaction. Polysaccharides- Carbohydrates in the third major
group, the polysaccharides, consist of tens or
hundreds of monosaccharides joined through
dehydration synthesis;
Ex. GLYCOGEN
CARBOHYDRATES
LIPIDS
• The carbohydrates are a large and diverse group
If lipids were suddenly to disappear from the
of organic compounds that includes sugars and
Earth, all living cells would collapse in a pool of
starches.
fluid, because lipids are essential to the structure
Carbohydrates perform a number of major and function of membranes that separate living
functions in living systems. For instance one type of cells from their environment.
sugar (deoxyribose) is a building block of
 Like carbohydrates, they are composed of atoms
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the molecule that
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
carries hereditary information.
they are nonpolar molecules so, unlike water, do
Simple carbohydrates are used in the synthesis of
not have a positive and a negative end (pole).
amino acids and fats or fatlike substances
• SIMPLE LIPIDS: fats or triglycerides, contain an
Macromolecular carbohydrates function as food
alcohol called glycerol and a group of compounds
reserves; such as amylose and amylopectin in
known as fatty acids
starch
A molecule of fat is formed when a molecule of
The principal function of carbohydrates, however,
glycerol combines with one to three fatty acid
is to fuel cell activities with a ready source of
molecules.
energy.
 The chemical bond formed where the water
General formula for carbohydrates is (CH2O)n;
molecule is removed is called an ester linkage.
where n indicates that there are three or more
CH2O units. Mostly in  HYDROLYSIS: the reverse reaction; fat
molecule is broke down into its component fatty
2:1 ratio between hydrogen and oxygen aAtoms
acids and glycerol molecules
Carbohydrates can be classified into three major
groups on the basis of size: monosaccharides,
disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccarhides – simple sugars ( 3 to 7 carbon
atoms).
COMPLEX LIPIDS - Complex lipids contain such Although only 20 different amino acids occur
elements as phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur, in naturally in proteins, a single protein molecule can
addition to the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen found contain from 50 to hundreds of amino acid
in simple lipids. molecules, which can be arranged in an almost
infinite number of ways to make proteins of different
CALLED PHOSPHOLIPIDS
lengths, compositions, and structures
 Some complex lipids are useful in
identifying certain bacteria.
• For example, the cell wall of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, the bacterium that causes
tuberculosis, is distinguished by its lipid-rich
content. The cell wall contains complex lipids such
as waxes and glycolipids that give the bacterium PROTEINS LEVEL OF STRUCTURE:
distinctive staining characteristics.
• Proteins are described in terms of four levels of
STEROIDS organization: primary, secondary, tertiary, and
 Steroids are structurally very different from lipids, quaternary
with the four interconnected carbon rings that are 1.) The primary structure is the unique
characteristic of steroids   sequence in which the amino acids are linked
PROTEINS together to form a polypeptide chain

Proteins are organic molecules that contain 2.) A protein’s secondary structure is the
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Some localized, repetitious twisting or folding of the
also contain sulfur polypeptide chain

Hundreds of different proteins can be found in any

single cell, and together they make up 50% or more
3.) Tertiary structure refers to the overall
of a cell’s dry weight.
threedimensional structure of a polypeptide chain
Proteins are essential ingredients in all aspects of
4.) Some proteins have a quaternary structure,
cell structure and function
which consists of an aggregation of two or more
• Enzymes are the proteins that speed up individual polypeptide chains (subunits) that
biochemical reactions Enzymes are the operate as a single functional unit
proteins that speed up biochemical reactions
Some proteins play a role in the contraction
of animal muscle cells
• movement of microbial and other types of
cells.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
• hormones of certain organisms, have
regulatory functions. In 1944, three American microbiologists—Oswald
Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty—
AMINO ACIDS - amino acids are the building discovered that a substance called
blocks of proteins. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the substance of
which genes are made
Amino acids contain at least one carboxyl
(¬COOH) group and one amino (¬NH2) group Nine years later, James Watson and Francis
attached to the same carbon atom, called an alpha- Crick, working with molecular models and X-ray
carbon information supplied by Maurice Wilkins and
Rosalind Franklin, identified the physical structure
Most amino acids exist in either of two
of DNA.
configurations called stereoisomers, designated by
D and L.
 Also, one of RNA’s bases is uracil (U) instead of
thymine in DNA
Each nucleotide has three parts: a nitrogen-
containing base, a pentose (five-carbon) sugar
(either deoxyribose or ribose), and a phosphate
Three major kinds of RNA have been identified in
group (phosphoric acid).
cells.
messenger RNA (mRNA)
Nucleotides are named according to their
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
nitrogencontaining base. Thus, a nucleotide
containing thymine is a thymine nucleotide, one transfer RNA (tRNA)
containing adenine is an adenine nucleotide, and
so on ==> EACH OF WHICH HAS A SPECIFIC ROLE IN
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

 The term nucleoside refers to the combination of

a purine or pyrimidine plus a pentose sugar; it does  Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the principal
not contain a phosphate group. energy-carrying molecule of all cells and is
indispensable to the life of the cell
THE END, THANK YOU
DNA -molecule consists of two long strands
wrapped around each other to form a double helix
Every strand of DNA composing the double helix
has a “backbone” consisting of alternating
deoxyribose sugar and phosphate groups.
The bases are held together by hydrogen bonds;
A and T are held by two hydrogen bonds, and G
and C by three. DNA does not contain uracil (U).
Nucleotides form genes, and a single DNA
molecule may contain thousands of genes. Genes
determine all hereditary traits, and they control all
the activities that take place within cells.
Because the sequence of bases of one strand is
determined by the sequence of bases of the other,
the bases are said to be complementary.

RNA - RNA, the second principal kind of nucleic

acid, differs from DNA in several respects.
Whereas DNA is double-stranded, RNA is usually
single-stranded
The five-carbon sugar in the RNA nucleotide is
ribose, which has one more oxygen atom than
deoxyribose.
FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF PROKARYOTIC a double membrane around its nucleus. (Some
AND EUKARYORIC CELLS bacteria, such as Vibrio cholerae, have two
chromosomes, and some bacteria have a linearly
CLARK CLEO B. BADILLES
arranged chromosome.)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
To Compare the cell structure of prokaryotes and
eukaryotes 2.) Their DNA is not associated with histones
(special chromosomal proteins found in
To Identify the three basic shapes of bacteria
eukaryotes); other proteins are associated with the
To Describe and familiarize with structures and DNA.
function of structures external to the cell wall
3.) They generally lack organelles. Advances in
Compare and contrast the cell walls of gram- microscopy reveal a few membrane-enclosed
positive bacteria, gram-negative bacteria, acid-fast organelles (for example, some inclusions).
bacteria, archaea, and mycoplasmas. However, prokaryotes lack other
membraneenclosed organelles such as nuclei,
Describe the structure, chemistry, and functions mitochondria, and chloroplasts.
of the prokaryotic plasma membrane.
4.) Their cell walls almost always contain the
Familiarize structures internal to the Cell Wall of complex polysaccharide peptidoglycan.
bacteria
5.) They usually divide by binary fission, where
DNA is copied, and the cell splits into two cells.
COMPARING PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC This involves fewer structures and processes than
CELLS eukaryotic cell division.

Prokaryotes and eukaryotes both contain

NUCLEIC ACIDS, PROTEINS, LIPIDS, AND EUKARYOTES
CARBOHYDRATES
1.) Their DNA is found in the cell’s nucleus,
PROKARYOTES: From the Greek word meaning which is separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear
PRENUCLEUS membrane, and the DNA is found in multiple
chromosomes.
Use the same kinds of chemical reactions to
METABOLIZE FOOD, build PROTEINS, and
STORE ENERGY. 2.) Their DNA is consistently associated with
chromosomal proteins called histones and with
nonhistones.
It is primarily the structure of CELL WALLS AND
RIBOSOMES, and ABSENCE OF ORGANELLES,
the distinguishes prokaryotes from eukaryotes 3.) They have a number of membrane-
enclosed organelles, including mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes,
and sometimes chloroplasts.
4.) Their cell walls, when present, are
chemically simple.

PROKAYOTES
5.) Cell division usually involves mitosis, in
1.) Typically their DNA is not enclosed within a
which chromosomes replicate and an identical set
membrane and is usually a singular, circularly
is distributed into each of two nuclei. Division of the
arranged chromosome. Gemma obscuriglobus has
cytoplasm and other organelles follows so that the HELPFUL IN IDENTIFYING CERTAIN COCCI
two cells produced are identical to each other. SPECIES.
1.) diplococci – cocci that remains in pairs after
dividing
2.) streptococci – those that divide and remain
attached in chainlike patterns
THE PROKARYOTIC CELL 3.) tetrads – those that divide in two planes and
Make up a vast group of very small unicellular remain in groups of four
organisms that included BACTERIA and 4.) sarcinae – those that divide in three planes
ARCHAEA. and remain attached in cubelike groups of eight (8)
5.) staphylococci – multiple planes and form
BACTERIA and ARCHAEA: CHEMICAL grapelike clusters or broad sheets
COMPOSITION IS DIFFERENT

BACTERIA: Differentiated by many factors:

MORPHOLOGY (SHAPE) BACILLI
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION Bacillus or Bacilli has two meanings in
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS microbiology: 1.) When capitalized and italicized, it
refers to a specific genus.
BIOCHEMICAL ACTIVITIES SOURCES OF
ENERGY 2.) Or just simply bacterial shape
Divide only across their short axis, so there are
fewer groupings of bacilli than of cocci.
SHAPES OF BACTERIA
1.) SINGLE BACILLI – Appear as single rods
Most bacteria range from 0.2 to 2.0 μm in
diameter and from 2 to 8 μm in length. 2.) DIPLOBACILLI – Appear in pairs after
division 3.) STREPTOBACILLI – occur in chainlike
patterns.
THREE MAIN SHAPES:  Other bacilli are oval and looks so much like
cocci that they are called coccobacilli
1.) COCCUS (plural COCCI: meaning berries)
– spherical-shaped
2.) BACILLUS (plural: bacilli, meaning little rods
or walking sticks) – rod-shaped
3.) SPIRAL

SPIRAL – Have one or more twists, they are

COCCI never straight
Usually round but can be oval, elongated, or 1.) VIBRIOS – look like curved rods
flattened on one side
2.) SPIRILLA – have helical shape, like a
WHEN DIVIDE TO REPRODUCE CELLS CAN corkscrew, and fairly rigid bodies
REMAIN ATTACHED TO ONE ANOTHER:
3.) SPIROCHETES – helical and flexible

MOST BACTERIAS: monomorphic: that is they
maintain a single shape; however, a number of
environmental changes can alter that certain shape
and these bacterial cells are called
pleomorphic
 There are also bacteria or prokaryotes that are
STAR-SHAPED and RECTANGULAR SHAPED
a.) Genus Stella
b.) Haloarcula. A Genus of halophilic archaea
STRUCTURES
EXTERNAL TO CELL
WALL
Among the possible structures external to the
prokaryotic cell wall are the: glycocalyx, flagella,
axial filaments, fimbriae, and pili.
GLYCOCALYX
Many prokaryotes secrete on their surface(cell
wall) a substance called glycocalyx (meaning
sugar coat). Made inside the bacterial cell.
BACTERIAL GLYCOCALYX: is a viscous (sticky),
gelatinous polymer that is external to the cell wall
and composed of polysaccharide, polypeptide and
both.
A very important component of biofilms, which
helps bacterial cells attach to their target
environments and to each other.
Can protect prokaryotic cell against dehydration,
and its viscosity may inhibit the movement of
nutrients out of the cell
2 TYPES BASED ON ATTACHMENT
1.) CAPSULE – If the substance is organized
and if firmly attached to the cell wall.
2.) SLIME LAYER – If the substance is
unorganized and loosely attached to the cell wall
_____________________________________
CAPSULES - often protect pathogenic bacteria
from phagocytosis by cell of the host.
EXAMPLES OF BACTERIA THAT USES
CAPSULE FOR ITS VIRULENCY:
I. Bacillus anthracis – produces capsule of D-
GLUTAMIC ACID to cause anthrax, B. anthracis
which does not produce capsules are harmless and
does not cause anthrax to humans and animals
II. Streptococcus pneumoniae –
ENCAPSULATED form only causes pneumonia.
III. Klebsiella – produces polysaccharide
capsule to adhere to and colonize the respiratory
tract
EVEN WITHOUT CAPSULES, AND JUST
POSSESSING GLYCOCALYX BACTERIA CAN
STILL
CAN CAUSE DISEASES: HERE ARE THE
EXAMPLES I. Streptococcus mutans – uses
glycocalyx to attach itself to human teeth causes
dental caries
II. Virbio cholerae – produces glycocalyx that helps
it attach to the cells of small intestine, causes
cholera
FLAGELLA AND ARCHAELLA
Some bacterial cells have flagella (singular
flagellum), WHICH ARE LONG FILAMENTOUS
APPENDAGES THAT PROPEL BACTERIA
SEMIRIGID, HELICAL STRUCTURE, THAT
MOVES THE CELL BY ROTATING FROM BASAL
BODY, similar to a shaft of an electric motor
ROTATION: maybe clockwise
counterclockwise
ATRICHOUS – Bacterial cells which lack flagella
POSITIVE SIGNAL/STIMULI: attractant, moves
toward many run and few tumbles
NEGATIVE SIGNAL/STIMULI: repellent, many
tumbles and few runs
or
 The flagellar protein called H antigen is useful for
distinguishing among serovars, or variations within
a species, of gramnegative bacteria.

BACTERIAL CELL’S FLAGELLA MAY BE

PERITRICHOUS OR POLAR
PERITRICHOUS - if the flagella are distributed ARCHAELLA
the entire bacterial cell
Motile archaically cells have Archaella (singular:
POLAR – At one or both poles or ends of the Archaella). Archaella share similarities with
bacterial cell bacterial flagella and pili.
1.) MONOTRICHOUS – One pole
2.) LOPHOTRICHOUS – A TUFT of flagella NO BASAL BODY TYPE ANCHORAGE FOUND
coming from one pole IN FLAGELLA
3.) AMPHITRICHOUS – flagella at both poles
of the cell
 Archaella rotate like flagella, an action that
FLAGELLA HAS THREE BASIC PARTS pushes the cell through water, and, like pili,
1.) FILAMENT – the long outermost region, archaella use ATP for energy and lack a
contains globular proteins flagellin cytoplasmic core. Archaella consist of glycoproteins
called archaellins.
2.) HOOK – where the filament is attach and
slightly wider AXIAL FILAMENTS

3.) BASAL BODY – which anchors the BUNDLES OF FIBRILS that arise at the ends of
flagellum to the cell wall and plasma membrane the cell beneath an outer sheath and spiral around
the cell of spirochetes.
Bacterial cells can alter the speed and direction of
rotation of flagella and thus are capable of various
patterns of motility, the ability of an organism to PROPLES the spirochetes in a spiral motion
move by itself. The movement of a bacterium
toward or away from a particular stimulus is called
TAXIS. Such stimuli include chemicals
Movement resembles like “corkscrew”
(chemotaxis) and light (phototaxis)
“RUN” OR “SWIM” - when the bacterium moves in
one direction for length of time
“TUMBLES” – Runs are interrupted by periodic
abrupt, random changes in direction. Caused by a
reversal flagellar rotation. Examples:
1.) Borrelia burgdorferi – the causative agents
of lyme disease

2.) Treponema pallidum – causative agents of
syphillis , the corkscrew movement enable this
bacteria to move effectively through bodily fluids.
FIMBRIAE AND PILI
• Many gram-negative bacteria contain hairlike
appendages that are shorter, straighter, and thinner
than flagella. These structures, which consist of a
protein called pilin. arranged helically around a
central core, are divided into two types, fimbriae
and pili
FIMBRIAE: can occur at the poles of the bacterial
cells or can be evenly distributed over the entire
surface of the cell.
CAN BE FEW TO SEVERAL HUNDRED PER
BACTERIAL CELL
TENDENCY: Adhere to each other and surfaces,
as a result they are involved in forming biofilms and
other aggregations on the surfaces of liquids, glass,
rocks.
EX. Neisseria gonorrhoeae , the causative agent of
gonorrhea, help the microbe colonize mucous
membranes.
 E. coli 0157 enable the bacterium to adhere to
the lining of the small intestine, where it causes a
severe watery diarrhea. When FIMBRIAE are
absent, colonization cannot happen, and no
disease ensues.
PILI ( SINGULAR PILUS), are usually longer than
fimbrae and number only one or two per cell.
Involved in motility and DNA transfer.
TWITCHING MOTILITY: a pilus extends by the
addition of subunits of pilin, makes contact with a
surface or another cell, and then retracts
(powerstroke) as the pilin subunits are
disassembled.
TWITCHING MOTILITY: Pseudomonas
aeruginosa,
Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and some strain of E. cloi
GLIDING MOTILITY: Provide a means for
microbes to travel in environments with a low water
content, such as biofilms and soils.
Some pili are used to bring bacteria together,
allowing the transfer of DNA from one cell to
another, a process called conjugation. Such pili are
called conjugation (sex) pili.
THE CELL WALL
The CELL WALL of the bacterial cell is a
complex, semirigid structure responsible for the
shape of the cell.
Almost all prokaryotes have a cell wall that
surrounds the underlying, fragile plasma
(cytoplasmic) membrane and protects it and the
interior of the cell from adverse changes in the
outside environment
The major function of the cell wall is to prevent
bacterial cells from rupturing when the water
pressure inside the cell is greater than that outside
the cell; as with plant cells.
Maintain shape of a bacterium, and serve as a
point of anchorage for flagella
It contributes to the ability of some species to
cause disease
SITE OF ACTION OF SOME ANTIBIOTICS
COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS:
BACTERIAL CELL WALL is composed of a
macromolecular network called peptidoglycan
 2 CLASSES OF TEICHOIC ACIDS:
(also known as murein)
1.) LIPOTEICHOIC ACID – which spans the
PEPTIDOGLYCAN: consists of a repeating
disaccharide connected by polypeptides to form a peptidoglycan layer and is linked to the plasma
lattice that surrounds and protects the entire cells. membrane

DISACCHARIDES: N- acetylglucosamine (NAC) 2.) WALL TEICHOIC ACID – which is linked to

and the peptidoglycan layer

N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM)

Because of the cell walls negative charge (from
phosphate groups), teichoic acids may bind and
regulate the movement of cations(positive ions) into
and out of the cell.
Provide antigenic specificity and thus make it
Various components of peptidoglycan are
possible to identify gram-positive bacteria by
assembled in the cell wall
certain lab tests.
ALTERNATING: NAM and NAG molecules are
linked in rows of 10 to 65 sugars to form a
carbohydrate “backbone” (the glycan portion of
peptidoglycan). ADJACENT ROWS: link by
polypeptides, structure varies but always include
tetrapeptide side chains, which consist of four chain GRAM-NEGATIVE CELL WALLS
amino acids attached to NAMs in the backbone.
The cell walls of gram-negative bacteria consist of
Penicillin, interferes with the final linking of the one or a very few layers of peptidoglycan and an
peptidoglycan by peptide cross-bridges. As a result outer membrane.
the cell wall is greatly weakened and the cell
undergoes lysis.
The peptidoglycan is bonded to lipoproteins in the
outer membrane and is in the periplasm, a gel-like
fluid in the periplasmic space of gram negative
bacteria, the region between the outer membrane
and the plasma membrane.
GRAM-POSITIVE CELL WALLS
CELL WALL: consists of many layers of
peptidoglycan, forming thick, rigid structure.
CONTAIN: TEICHOIC ACIDS, which is primarily
consists of an alcohol(glycerol and ribitol), and Gram-negative cell walls do not contain teichoic
phosphate. acids. Because the cell walls of gramnegative
 PERIPLASMIC SPACE: the space between bacteria contain only a small amount of
the bacterial cell wall and plasma membrance of peptidoglycan, they are more susceptible to
grampositive bacteria; composed of lipoteichoic mechanical breakage.
acid.

The outer membrane of the gram-

negative cell consists of lipopolysaccharides (LPS),
lipoproteins, and phospholipids; STRONG
NEGATIVE CHARGE, an important factor in
EVADING PHAGOCYTOSIS AND ACTIONS OF
COMPLEMENTS
The outer membrane also provides a barrier to
detergents, heavy metals, bile salts, certain dyes,
antibiotics (for example, penicillin), and digestive
enzymes such as lysozyme.
PORINS: a part of permeability of the outer
membrane, that form channels. Permits the
passage of molecules such as nucleotides,
disaccharides, peptides, amino acids, vitamin B12,
and iron.
The lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of the outer
membrane is a large, complex molecule that
contains lipids and carbohydrates and consists of
three components: namely (1) Lipid A, (2)a core
polysaccharide, and (3) O polysaccharide
• Lipid (A) is responsible for the symptoms
associated with infections by gram-negative
bacteria, such as fever, dilation of blood vessels,
shock, and blood clotting.
The core polysaccharide attached to lipid A and
contains unusual sugars. Its role is structural to
provide stability
O polysaccharide - extends outward from the
core polysaccharide and is composed of sugar
molecules, functions as an antigen and is useful for
distinguishing serovars of gram-negative bacteria.
CELL WALLS AND THE GRAM STAIN
MECHANISM
 The mechanism of the Gram stain is based on
differences in the cell wall structure of gram-
positive and gram-negative bacteria and how each
reacts to various reagents (substances used for
producing a chemical reaction).
ATYPICAL CELL WALLS
Among prokaryotes, certain types of cells have no
walls or have very little wall material.
Ex. Mycoplasma and related organisms; because
their size and because they have no cell walls, they
pass through most bacterial filters and were first
mistaken for viruses.
Their plasma membranes are unique among
bacteria in having lipids called sterols, which are
thought to help protect them from lysis (rupture)
Archaea: Contain substance similar to
peptidoglycan called pseudomurein; contains N-
acetylalosaminuronic acid instead of NAM and
lacks the D-AMINO ACIDS found in bacterial cell
walls.
GRAMED STAINED but appear
GRAMNEGATIVE because they do not contain
peptidoglycan
ACID-FAST CELL WALL
Acid-fast bacteria can be stained with
carbolfuchsin, which penetrates bacteria more
effectively when heated.
Used to identify all bacteria of the genus
Mycobacterium and pathogenic species of
Nocardia. These bacteria contain high
concentrations (60%) of a hydrophobic waxy lipid
(mycolic acid) in their cell wall that prevents the
uptake of dyes, including those used in the Gram
stain.
Acid-fast bacteria retain the red color of
carbolfuchsin because it’s more soluble in the cell
wall’s mycolic acid than in the acid-alcohol.
DAMAGE TO CELL WALL
Chemicals that damage bacterial cell walls, or
interfere with their synthesis, often do not harm the
cells of an animal host because the bacterial cell
wall is made of chemicals unlike those in eukaryotic
cells. Thus, cell wall synthesis is the target for
some antimicrobial drugs.
EXPOSURE TO DIGESTIVE ENZYME
LYSOZYME, present in perspiration, tears, mucus,
and saliva
PROTOPLAST – Cellular contents that remain
surrounded by the plasma membrane that remain
intact even after exposure to lysozyme; usually in
gram-positive bacterial cells.
 When lysozyme is applied to gram-negative
cells, usually the wall is not destroyed to the same
extent as in gram-positive cells; some of the outer
membrane also remains. In this case, the cellular
contents, plasma membrane, and remaining outer
wall layer are called a spheroplast.
 EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) =
gram-negative bacterial cells are first treated with
this substance in order for the lysozyme to exert its
effect. Weakens ionic bonds in the outer membrane
and thereby damages it.
 PROTOPLASTS and SPHEROPLAST burst
in pure water or very dilute salt or sugar solution
because the water molecules from the surrounding
fluid rapidly move INTO AND ENLARGE THE
CELL, rupturing called OSMOTIC LYSIS.
 B-lactam antibiotics that penetrate the outer
membrane better than penicillin, for gramnegative
bacterial cells.  
STRUCTURES INTERNAL TO THE CELL WALL
THE PLASMA (CYTOPLASMIC MEMBRANE)
The plasma (cytoplasmic) membrane (or inner
membrane) is a thin structure lying inside the cell
wall and enclosing the cytoplasm of the cell
- Primarily consists of phospholipids, which
are the most abundant chemicals in the membrane,
and PROTEINS
- LACK STEROLS, therefore the prokaryotic
plasma membranes are less rigid than eukaryotic
ones. EXCEPT; bacteria from genus Mycoplasma,
contains sterols on its membrane
STRUCTURE OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
In electron micrographs, prokaryotic and eukaryotic
plasma membranes look like two-layered
structures; there are two dark line with a light space
between the lines.
• The phospholipids molecules are arranged
in two parallel rows, called a lipid bilayer; Each
phospholipid molecule contain a POLAR HEAD,
composed of a phosphate group and glycerol that
is hydrophilic (water-loving) and soluble in water,
AND NON POLAR TAILS, composed of fatty acids
that are hydrophobic (water-fearing) and insoluble
in water.
• This dynamic arrangement of phospholipids
and proteins is referred to as the fluid mosaic
model.
 The protein molecules in the membrane can be
arranged in a variety of ways:
1.) PERIPHERAL PROTEINS – lie at the inner
or outer surface of the membrane. Funx as
enzymes, support, and as mediators(changes
membrane’s shape during movement)
2.) INTEGRAL PROTEIN – penetrate the
membrane completely and are called
transmembrane proteins. Channels that have pore,
or hole through which substance enter and exit the
bacterial cell.
GLYCOPROTEINS – Proteins attached to
carbohydrates on the outer surface of the plasma
membrane. Plays an important role in certain
infectious diseases. INFLUENZA virus that causes
cholera and botulism enter their target cell by
binding first to glycoproteins of their plasma
membrane (human glycoprotein)
GLYCOLIPIDS – lipids are attached to
carbohydrates on the surface of the plasma
membrane.
FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE:
• The most important function of the plasma
membrane is to serve as a selective barrier through
which materials enter and exit the cell. In this
function, plasma membranes have selective
permeability (sometimes called semipermeability
• Polar substances resistance to enter and
out of the cell
• Nonpolar substances such as oxygen,
carbon dioxide exit and enter easily.
Plasma membranes are also important to the
breakdown of nutrients and the production of
energy. The plasma membranes of bacteria contain
enzymes capable of catalyzing the chemical
reactions that break down nutrients and produce
ATP.
PASSIVE PROCESSES
Passive processes include simple diffusion,
facilitated diffusion, and osmosis
1.) SIMPLE DIFFUSION - is the net (overall)
movement of molecules or ions from an area of
high concentration to an area of low concentration
 The movement continues until the
molecules or ions are evenly distributed. The point
of even distribution is called equilibrium

CHROMATOPHORES: plasma membrane

infoldings, pigments and enzymes in bacteria
involed in photosyntehsis .
FACILITATED DIFFUSION - integral membrane
MESOSOMES – One or more large, irregular
folds of bacterial plasma membrane proteins function as channels or carriers that
facilitate the movement of ions or large molecules
across the plasma membrane (transporter protein
or permeases)
DESTRUCTION OF PLASMA MEMBRANE BY
ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
• Because the plasma membrane is vital to the  The process differs from simple diffusion in
bacterial cell, it is not surprising that several its use of transporters. Some transporters permit
antimicrobial agents exert their effects at this site. the passage of mostly small, inorganic ions that are
ALCOHOLS and QUARTERNARY AMMONIUM too hydrophilic to penetrate the nonpolar interior of
the lipid bilayer
COMPOUNDS, which are used as disinfectants
damage bacterial plasma membrane easily
ANTIBIOTIC POLYMYXINS BASE – causes
leakages to bacterial plasma membrane as a result
intracellular components damages which
subsequently causes BACTERIAL CELL DEATH
In some cases, molecules that bacteria need are
THE MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS ACROSS
too large to be transported into the cells by these
MEMBRANES
methods. Most bacteria, however, produce
Materials move across plasma membranes of enzymes (EXTRACELLULAR ENZYMES) that can
both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells by two kinds break down large molecules into simpler ones
of processes: passive and active (such as proteins into amino acids, or
polysaccharides into simple sugars).
PASSIVE TRANSPORT – substances across the
membrane from an area of high concentration to an
area of low concentration (move with the  Once the enzymes degrade the large
concentration gradient, or difference) molecules, the subunits move into the cell with the
help of transporters.
ACTIVE PROCESSES – the cell must use energy
to move substances from areas of low OSMOSIS - is the net movement of water
concentration to areas of high concentration molecules across a selectively permeable
(against the concentration gradient) membrane from an area with a high concentration
of water molecules (low concentration of solute
molecules) to an area of low concentration of water
molecules (high concentration of solute molecules).
 AQUAPORINS: INTEGRAL MEMBRANE
PROTEINS,
help water move freely across a selectively
permeable
membrane (WATER CHANNELS)
Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to
prevent the movement of pure water (water with no
solutes) into a solution containing some solutes.
PRESSURE NEEDED TO STOP the flow of water
across the selectively permeable membrane.
3 KINDS OF OSMOTIC PRESSURE
1.) HYPERTONIC – is a medium having a
higher concentration of solutes than that inside the
cell (hyper means above or more)
2.) ISOTONIC -is a medium in which the overall
concentration of solutes equals that found inside a
cell (iso means equal)
3.) HYPOTONIC SOLUTION - outside the cell
is a medium whose concentration of solutes is
lower than that inside the cell (hypo means under
or less)
Earlier we mentioned that lysozyme and certain
antibiotics (such as penicillin) damage bacterial cell
walls, causing the cells to rupture, or lyse. Such
rupturing occurs because bacterial cytoplasm
usually contains such a high concentration of
solutes that additional water enters the cell by
osmosis when the wall is weakened or removed.
 
ACTIVE PROCESSES
• In performing active transport, the cell uses
energy in the form of ATP to move substances
across the plasma membrane. Among the
substances actively transported are ions (for
example Na+, K+, H+, Ca2+, and Cl-), amino acids,
and simple sugars.
When a bacterial cell is in an environment in
which nutrients are in low concentration, the cell
must use active processes, such as active transport
and group translocation, to accumulate the needed
substances.
The movement of a substance in active transport
is usually from outside to inside, even though the
concentration might be much higher inside the cell.
LIKE PASSIVE PROCESSES OR
TRANSPORT/FACILITATED DIFFUSION ACTIVE
TRANSPORT OR PROCESSES DEPENDS ON
TRANSPORTER PROTEINS IN PLASMA
MEMBRANE
 Active transport enables microbes to move
substances across the plasma membrane at a
constant rate, even if they are in short supply.
In GROUP TRANSLOCATION, a special form of
active transport that occurs exclusively in
prokaryotes, the substance is chemically altered
during transport across the membrane. Once the
substance is altered and inside the cell, the plasma
membrane is impermeable to it, so it
remains inside the cell
Used energy in the form of phosphoenolpyruvic
acid (PEP).
 One example of group translocation is the
transport of the sugar glucose, which is often used
in growth media for bacteria
CYTOPLASM
For a prokaryotic cell, the term cytoplasm refers DNA because such cells presynthesize DNA for
to the substance of the cell inside the plasma future cells.
membrane
SHAPE: The nucleoid can be spherical,
Cytoplasm is about 80% water and contains elongated, or dumbbell shaped.
primarily proteins (enzymes), carbohydrates, lipids,
PLASMIDS ( 5 to 100 genes)
inorganic ions, and many lowmolecularmass
compounds. In addition to the bacterial chromosome, bacteria
often contain small usually circular, double-
Cytoplasm is thick, aqueous, semitransparent,
stranded DNA molecules called plasmids. These
and elastic.
molecules are
IN PROKARYOTES, the major structure in its
extrachromosomal genetic elements; that is, they
cytoplasm are a NUCLEOID (CONTAINING DNA) ,
are not connected to the main bacterial
particles called ribosomes, and reserve deposits
chromosome, and they replicate independently of
called inclusions.
chromosomal DNA.

 The term cytoskeleton is a collective term for a

 Under certain conditions, however, plasmids are
series of fibers (small rods and cylinders) in the
an advantage to cells. Plasmids may carry genes
cytoplasm. Not long ago, it was believed that the
for such activities as antibiotic resistance, tolerance
absence of a cytoskeleton was a distinguishing
to toxic metals, the production of toxins, and the
feature of prokaryotes. However, use of atomic
synthesis of enzymes. Plasmids can be transferred
force microscopy shows that prokaryotic cells have
from one bacterium to another. In fact, plasmid
a cytoskeleton similar to that of eukaryotes
DNA is used for gene manipulation in
biotechnology.

Components include MreB and ParM, cresetin, and

FtsZ, which correspond to the microfilaments,
intermediate filaments, and microtubules of the
eukaryotic cytoskeleton, respectively. RIBOSOMES
All eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells contain
ribosomes, where protein synthesis takes place
The prokaryotic cytoskeleton assumes roles in
cell division, maintaining cell shape, growth, DNA
movement, protein targeting, and alignment of
organelles. Cells that have high rates of protein synthesis,
such as those that are actively growing, have a
large number of ribosomes
THE NUCLEOID
• The nucleoid of a bacterial cell usually PROKARYOTIC CELL: contains tens of
contains a single long, continuous, and frequently
circularly arranged thread of double-stranded DNA thousands of ribosomes, giving them granular
called the bacterial chromosome appearance.

• Bacterial chromosomes are not surrounded
by a nuclear envelope (membrane) and do not
include histones. In actively growing bacteria, as
much as 20% of the cell volume is occupied by
RIBOSOMES are composed of two subunits,
each of which consists of protein and a type of RNA
called RIBOSOMAL RNA.
PROKARYOTIC : 70S RIBOSOMES ( A
Combination of A small 30S subunit and
50S subunits )
EUKARYOTIC : 80S RIBOSOMES
 The letter S in 70 and 80 RIBOSOMES is called
Svedberg units , which indicate the relative rate of
sedimentation during ultra-high-speed
centrifugation. BUT
YOU CAN THINK OF IT AS A UNIT SIZE RATHER
THAN
WEIGHT
Several antibiotics work by inhibiting protein
synthesis at prokaryotic ribosomes.
streptomycin and gentamicin = attach to the 30S
subunit and interfere with protein synthesis
erythromycin and chloramphenicol = interfere with
protein synthesis by attaching to the 50S subunit.
Because of differences in prokaryotic and
eukaryotic ribosomes, the microbial cell can be
killed by the antibiotic while the eukaryotic host cell
remains unaffected.
INCLUSIONS
These are several kinds reserve deposits within
the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells
Bacterial Cell may accumulate certain nutrients
when they are plentiful and use them when the
environment is deficient
 Some inclusions are common to a wide variety of
bacteria, whereas others are limited to a small
number of species and therefore serve as a basis
for identification.
SEVERAL TYPES OF INCLUSIONS
1.) Metachromatic granules are large inclusions
that take their name from the fact that they
sometimes stain red with certain blue dyes such as
methylene blue. Known collectively as VOLUTIN
( represents reserves of inorganic phosphate
(polyphosphate) than can be used in the synthesis
of ATP)
 Found in algae, fungi, and protozoa, as well as in
bacteria. These granules are characteristic of
Corynebacterium diphtheriae, the causative agent
of diphtheria
2.) Polysaccharide Granules - typically consist
of glycogen and starch, and their presence can be
demonstrated when iodine is applied to the cells
3.) Lipid inclusions appear in various species of
Mycobacterium, Bacillus, Azotobacter, Spirillum,
and other GENERA.
 A common lipid-storage material, one unique to
bacteria, is the polymer poly-b-hydroxybutyric acid.
Lipid inclusions are revealed by staining cells with
fat-soluble dyes, such as Sudan dyes.
4.) Sulfur Granules – Acidithiobacillus example
of an sulfur bacteria - derive energy by oxidizing
sulfur and sulfur-containing compounds.
These bacteria may deposit sulfur granules in the
cell, where they serve as an energy reserve.
5.) Gas Vacuoles - Hollow cavities found in
many aquatic prokaryotes, including cyanobacteria,
anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria, and
halobacteria.
Each vacuole consists of rows of several
individual gas vesicles, which are hollow cylinders
covered by protein
Maintain buoyancy so that cells can remain at the
depth in the water appropriate for them to receive
sufficient amounts of oxygen, nutrients, and light.
6.) Magnetosomes - are inclusions of iron oxide
(Fe3O4) surrounded by invaginations of the plasma
membrane.
 Formed by several gram-negative bacteria such
as Magnetospirillum magnetotacticum and act like
magnets. Bacteria may use magnetosomes to
move downward until they reach a suitable
attachment site.
Researchers speculate that magnetosomes may
protect the cell against hydrogen peroxide
accumulation (produce by immune cells)
ENDOSPORES
When essential nutrients are depleted, certain
gram-positive bacteria, such as those of the genera
Clostridium and Bacillus, form specialized
“resting” cells called endospores
Unique to bacteria, endospores are highly
durable dehydrated cells with thick walls and
additional layers. They are formed internal to the
bacterial cell membrane.
When released into the environment, they can
survive extreme heat, lack of water, and exposure
to many toxic chemicals and radiation
 For example, 7500-year-old endospores of
Thermoactinomyces vulgaris
 from the freezing muds of Elk Lake in
Minnesota have germinated when rewarmed and
placed in a nutrient medium, and 25- to 40million-
year-old endospores found in the gut of a stingless
bee entombed in amber (hardened tree resin) in
Dominican Repblic.
Although true endospores are found in gram-
positive bacteria, one gram-negative species,
Coxiella burnetii the cause of Q fever (usually a
mild disease with flulike symptoms), forms
endospore like structures that resist heat and
chemicals and can be stained with endospore
stains
 The process of endospore formation
within a vegetative cell takes several hours and is
known as sporulation or sporogenesis
 
 Endospores are important from a clinical
viewpoint and in the food industry because they’re
resistant to processes that normally kill vegetative
cells. Such processes include heating, desiccation,
use of chemicals, and radiation. Whereas most
vegetative cells are killed by temperatures above
70°C, endospores can survive
in boiling water for several hours or more. THEY
ARE THERMOPHILIC
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
 As mentioned earlier, eukaryotic organisms
include algae, protozoa, fungi, plants, and animals
• Some eukaryotes cause disease, but others are
part of the normal human microbiome
EUKARYOME – eukaryotic protozoans
THE END, THANK YOU
INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY Used for many commercial applications. They are
used in the synthesis of such chemical products as
Clark Cleo B. Badilles
vitamins, organic acids, enzymes, alcohols, and
LEARNING OUTCOMES many drugs.

List several ways in which microbes affect our Relationship to human health (pathogenic and
lives. Describe some of the destructive and symbiotic)
beneficial actions of microbes.
Differentiate the major characteristics of each
THE FIRST LIFE FORMS ON
group of microorganisms.
EARTH
Explain the importance of observations made by
Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek. 13.7 BYA / 13,700 MYA = The creation of our
universe
Compare spontaneous generation and
biogenesis. Identify the contributions to 4.6 BYA/4600 MYA = The planet forms from
microbiology made by Needham, Spallanzani, material revolving around the young sun.
Virchow, and Pasteur.
3.9 – 2.5 BYA/3900 – 2500 MYA = Cells
Identify the importance of Koch’s postulates. resembling prokaryotes appear. These first
organisms are CHEMOAUTOTROPHS: they use
Identify the importance of Jenner’s work. Identify
CO2 as a carbon source and oxidize inorganic
the contributions to microbiology made by Ehrlich
materials to extract energy.
and Fleming.
3.5 BYA/ 3500 MYA = Prokaryotes evolved to
Describe the historical events that leads to the
become
birth of microbiology (Golden Ages of Microbiology)
EUBACTERIA and ARCHAEABACTERIA
3 BYA/ 3000 MYA = The very first
MICROBIOLOGY- THE SCIENCE
photosynthesizing cyanobacteria evolved; use
• Microbiology - the study of microscopic water as reducing agent, thereby producing oxygen
organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, as waste
archaeabacteria, fungi and protozoa. This discipline
1.8 BYA / 1800 MYA = the very first unicellular
includes fundamental research on the biochemistry,
eukaryotes evolved.
physiology, cell biology, ecology, evolution and
clinical aspects of microorganisms, including the
host response to these agents.

• Microorganisms – are minute living

organisms, that individually are usually too small to A Brief History of Microbiology
be seen with unaided eye. • In 1665, after observing a thin slice of cork
through a crude microscope, Englishman Robert
Hooke reported that life’s smallest structural units
 Present everywhere, from our own body, deepest were “little boxes” or “cells”.
ocean (piezophiles), extreme environments
(archaeabacteria), to even outer space.
WHY STUDY MICROBIOLOGY? Hooke’s discovery marked the beginning of the
cell theory – the theory that all living things are
National Microbiome Initiative (NMI) composed of cells.
Help maintain the balance of life on in our
environment

• Meanwhile, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a
Dutchman who earned a living selling clothes and
buttons, was spending his spare time grinding
lenses and constructing simples microscopes of
remarkable quality.
The first to observe live microorganisms through
the magnifying lenses of the more than 400
microscopes he constructed. Between 1673 and
1723, he wrote about the “animalcules” he saw
through his simple, single lens microscope.
Observed rainwater, feces, and material scraped
from teeth.
TYPES OF
MICROORGANISMS
BACTERIA
ARCHAEA OR ARCHAEABACTERIA
FUNGI
PROTOZOA
ALGAE
VIRUSES
BACTERIA
BACTERIA – are relatively simple, single celled
(unicellular) organisms.
 Under the DOMAIN: PROKARYOTA OR
PROKARYOTES; because their genetic material is
not enclosed in a special nuclear membrane
Bacterial cells generally appear in one of several
shapes. Ex. Bacillus (rodlike), coccus (spherical or
ovoid), spiralis (corkscrew or curved).
Individual bacteria may form pairs, chains,
clusters, or other groupings; such formations are
usually characteristic of a particular genus or
species of bacteria.
Bacterial cell are enclosed in cell walls that are
largely composed of a carbohydrate and protein
complex called PEPTIDOGLYCAN.
Reproduce by dividing into two equal cells;
BINARY FISSION.
Obtain nutrition: organic chemicals from dead and
living organisms and some are photosynthetic
(photoautotrophs).
Many bacteria can “swim” by using moving
appendages called flagella or cilia an extension to
its plasma membrane.
ARCHAEA
Like bacteria, archaea consist of prokaryotic
cells, but if they have cell walls, the walls lack
peptidoglycan.
NOT KNOWN TO CAUSE DISEASE IN HUMANS
Archaea, often found in extreme environments,
are divided into three main groups.
 methanogens produce methane as a waste
product from respiration
 extreme halophiles (halo = salt; philic =
loving) live in extremely salty environments such as
the Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea
 extreme thermophiles (therm = heat) live in
hot sulfurous water, such as hot springs at
Yellowstone National Park.
FUNGI
Fungi (singular: fungus) are eukaryotes
organisms whose cells have a distinct nucleus
containing the cell’s genetic material (DNA),
surrounded by a special envelope called the
nuclear membrane.
MAYBE UNICELLULAR OR MULTICELLULAR
 Cell Walls: composed of substance called chitin
UNICELLULAR FORM: YEAST; larger than
bacteria
MULTICELLULAR OR MASSES: MOLDS; which
are composed of long filaments (hyphae), that
branch and intertwine.
REPRODUCTION: ASEXUAL OR SEXUAL
OBTAIN NOURISHMENT: absorbing organic
material from their environment whether soil,
seawater, freshwater, or an animal or plant host.
Pneumocystis jirovecii = a fungus with great
medical importance, particularly among
immunocompromised patients.
Protozoa
UNICELLULAR EUKARYOTIC MICROBES
LOCOMOTORY MECHANISM: PSEUDOPODS,
FLAGELLA, OR CILIA.
Protozoa have a variety of shapes and live either
as free entities or as parasites.
Some: Photosynthetic such as Euglena
REPRODUCTION: SEXUALLY OR ASEXUALLY
Algae
Photosynthetic eukaryotes with a wide variety of
shapes and both sexual and asexual reproductive
forms.
CELL WALL: Made up of carbohydrate called
cellulose
Abundant in freshwater and saltwater, in soil, and
in association with plants.
Viruses
Much smaller and simpler in structure. Lacking
the structures and metabolic machinery found in a
cell.
Comes from the Latin root word means
“poison”
Infectious particle consisting of little more than
genes packaged in a protein coat. Most biologist
studying viruses today would probably agree that
they are not alive but exist in a shady area between
life-forms and chemicals.
VIRUS: a kind of borrowed life.  
CLASSIFIED AS:
1.) DOUBLE STRANDED DNA (dsDNA)
Ex. Adenovirus = Cause Respiratory Disease in
humans.
2.) SINGLE-STRANDED DNA (ssDNA)
Ex. Parvovirus = Causes rashes (mild rash)
3.) DOUBLE-STRANDED RNA (dsRNA)
Ex. Reovirus = Colorado tick fever virus
4.) SINGLE-STRANDED RNA (ssRNA)
Ex. Coronaviruses = Severe acute respiratory
syndrome (SARS), MERSCoV
5.) SINGLE-STRANDED RNA (ssRNA); Serve as
Template for mRNA synthesis
Ex. Rhabdovirus = Rabies virus
6.) SINGLE-STRANDED RNA (ssRNA); Serve as
Template for DNA synthesis.
Ex. Retrovirus = HIV/AIDS ( Human
Immunodeficiency virus); RNA tumor viruses
(leukemia)
The Debate over Spontaneous
Generation
Until the second half of the nineteenth century,
many scientists and philosophers believed that
some forms of life could arise spontaneously from
nonliving matter; they called this hypothetical
process spontaneous generation.

Toads, snakes, mice could be born of moist soil
Flies could emerge from manure; and that
maggots (which we now know today are the larvae
of flies) could arise from decaying corpse.
• Physician Francesco Redi set out in 1668, to
antagonize and demonstrate that maggots did not
arise spontaneously.
John Needham in 1745, strengthened the case
for spontaneous generation.
 Needham claimed that microbes developed
spontaneously from the fluids.
that even after he heated chicken broth and corn
broth before pouring them into covered flasks, the
cooled solutions were soon teeming with
microorganisms.
 Twenty years later, Lazzaro Spallanzani
suggested that microorganisms from the air
probably entered Needham’s solutions after they
were boiled.
The Theory of Biogenesis
In 1858 Rudolf Virchow challenged the case for
spontaneous generation with the concept of
biogenesis, hypothesizing that living cells arise only
from preexisting living cells.
But could offer no scientific proof
But later resolved by the French scientist Louis
Pasteur
Louis Pasteur demonstrated that microorganisms
are present in the air and can contaminate sterile
solutions, but that air itself does not create
microbes.
 This remarkable discoveries by Louis Pasteur
form the basis of aseptic techniques, procedures
that prevent contamination by unwanted
microorganisms.  
The First Golden Age of Microbiology
The period from 1857 to 1914 has been
appropriately named the FIRST GOLDEN AGE OF
MICROBIOLOGY.
 
FERMENTATION- Louis Pasteur found that
microorganisms called yeasts convert the sugars to
alcohol in the absence of air.
PASTEURIZATION – Louis Pasteur’s solution to
the spoilage problem was to heat the beer and wine
just enough to kill most of the bacteria that caused
spoilage.
THE GERM THEORY OF DISEASE - The
discovery the lead the scientist to an idea that
microorganisms might cause disease
The first proof that bacteria actually cause
disease came from Robert Koch in 1876, a German
physician.
Koch’s discovered rod-shaped bacteria now
known as Bacillus anthracis , the one that cause
anthrax, a disease that was destroying cattle and
sheep in Europe.
Koch established Koch’s postulates, a sequence
of experimental steps for directly relating a specific
microbe the specific disease.
VACCINATION – a harmless derivatives of a A Fortunate Accident—Antibiotics
specific disease that train your immune system to
• The first antibiotic was discovered by accident by
create antibodies. Just as it does when your
Alexander Fleming, a Scottish physician and
exposed to the disease.
bacteriologist, almost tossed out some culture
The protection from disease provided by plates that had been contaminated by mold.
vaccination is called immunity. Fortunately, he noticed the curious pattern of
growth on the plates—a clear area where bacterial
It was first practiced by Edward Jenner, a young
growth had been inhibited encircled the mold
British physician, embarked on an experiment to
find way to protect people from smallpox. But later Penicillium chrysogenum = the known mold
found out that during the Ancient China (1500s),
physician had immunized patients from smallpox by
removing scales from drying pustules of a person
suffering from a mild case of smallpox, grinding the
scales to fine powder, and inserting the powder into
the nose of the person to be protected.
The Second Golden Age of Microbiology began in
the 1940s, when the enormous usefulness of
penicillin became apparent and the drug came into
The Second Golden Age of common use.
Microbiology
Began in the 1940s
Chemotherapy ( The term also commonly refers
to chemical treatment of noninfectious diseases,
such as cancer) - Treatment of disease using
chemical substances.
Antibiotics – Chemicals produced naturally by
bacteria and fungi that act against other BACTERIOLOGY – The study of bacteria, began
microorganisms. with van Leeuwenhoek’s first examination of tooth
scrapings.
Synthetic drugs – Chemotherapeutic agents
prepared from chemicals in the laboratory Heide Schulz discovered a bacterium large
enough to be seen with the unaided eye (0.2 mm
 The success of chemotherapy is based on the wide).
fact that some chemicals are more poisonous to
microorganisms than to the hosts infected by the Thiomargarita namibiensis , lives in mud on the
microbes.   African coast.

Paul Ehrlich, was the imaginative thinker who
fired the first shot in the chemotherapy revolution.
A Medical student speculated about “magic bullet”
that could hunt down and destroy a pathogen
without harming the infected host.
1910, Found a chemotherapeutic agent called
salvarsan, an arsenic derivative effective against
syphilis. “salvation from syphilis “  In addition,
sulfonamides (sulfa drugs) were synthesized at
about the same time.
MYCOLOGY - the study of fungi, includes
medical, agricultural, and ecological branches.
Fungal infection rates have been rising during the
past decade, accounting for 10% of hospital
acquired infections.
PARASITOLOGY - the study of protozoa and
parasitic worms.
IMMUNOLOGY - is the study of immunity.
Knowledge about the immune system has
accumulated steadily and expanded rapidly.
• A major advance in immunology occurred in
1933, When Rebecca Lancefield, proposed that
streptococci be classified according to serotypes
(variants within a species) based on certain
components in the cell walls of the bacteria.
• In 1960, interferons, substances generated
by the body’s own immune system, were
discovered.
VIROLOGY - The study of viruses, virology,
originated during the First Golden Age of
Microbiology. In 1892, Dmitri Iwanowski reported
that the organism that caused mosaic disease of
tobacco was so small that it passed through filters
fine enough to stop all known bacteria.
• In 1935, Wendell Stanley demonstrated that
the organism, called tobacco mosaic virus (TMV),
was fundamentally different from other microbes
and so simple and homogeneous that it could be
crystallized like a chemical compound
MOLECULAR GENETICS – studies the
mechanisms by which microorganisms inherit traits,
and molecular biology looks at how genetic
information is carried in molecules of DNA.
1940s, George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum
demonstrated the relationship between genes and
enzymes.
Oswald Avery, established that DNA as a
hereditary material
Joshua Lederberg and Edward L. Tatum,
discovered the genetic material could be
transferred from one bacterium to another by a
process called conjugation.
In the 1950s, James Watson and Francis Crick
proposed a model for the structure and replication
of DNA.
In the early 1960s, François Jacob and Jacques
Monod discovered messenger RNA (ribonucleic
acid), a chemical involved in protein synthesis, and
later they made the first major discoveries about
the regulation of gene function in bacteria
The Third Golden Age of Microbiology
New DNA-sequencing tools and computers allow
investigators to study all the DNA in an organism,
helping them to identify genes and their functions.
Genomics, the study of all of an organism’s
genes, scientists are able to classify bacteria and
fungi according to their genetic relationships with
other bacteria, fungi, and protozoa.
Microorganisms can now be genetically modified
to manufacture large amounts of human hormones
and other urgently needed medical substances.
• Paul Berg showed that fragments of human or
animal DNA
(genes) that code for important proteins can be
attached to bacterial DNA. The resulting hybrid was
the first example of recombinant DNA.
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology inserts
recombinant DNA into bacteria (or other microbes)
to make large quantities of a desired protein.  
INFECTIOUS DISEASE
An infectious disease is a disease in which
pathogens invade a susceptible host, such as a
human or an animal. In the process, the pathogen
carries out at least part of its life cycle inside the
host, and disease frequently results
• DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane ) – an
insecticide used to eradicate mosquito, a carrier of
malaria. Malaria is far from eliminated; since 1986,
local outbreaks have been identified in New Jersey,
California, Florida, New York, and Texas, and the
disease infects over 200 million people worldwide
Emerging Infectious Diseases - recent outbreaks
point to the fact that infectious diseases are not
disappearing, but rather seem to be reemerging
and increasing.
• Some of the factors that have contributed to
the development of EIDs are evolutionary changes
in existing organisms.
• Some EIDs are the result of increased
human exposure to new, unusual infectious agents
in areas that are undergoing ecologic changes such
as deforestation and construction
(HIV, Venezuelan hemorrhagic virus)
• Some EIDs are due to changes in the
pathogen’s ecology.
• EX. EBOLA VIRUS, Vibrio cholerae,
Here in Davao Emerging Infectious Diseases also
are on the rise.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis Gram+
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Multi-drug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Streptococcus pyogenes
Clostridium tetani
Neisseria meningitidis Gram – Neisseria
gonorrhoeae
Helicobacter pylori Salmonella Gram – Vibrio
cholerae
Spirochete: Treponema pallidum Leptospira
spp.

THE END, THANK YOU!

OBSERVING
MICROORGANISMS
THROUGH MICROSCOPY
Clark Cleo B. Badilles
LEARNING OBJETIVES
To understand the units used to measure
microorganisms
To Define total magnification and resolution
To know various types of Microscopes and to
identify their uses and limitations
Differentiate an acidic dye from a basic dye
Explain the purpose of simple staining
Why there is gram-positive and gram-negative
bacteria?
Explain why the following is used: capsule stain,
endospore stain, flagella stain
What is Microscopy?
Microscopy is the technical field of using
microscopes to view samples and objects that
cannot be seen with the unaided eye (object that
are not within the resolution range of the normal
eye).
A vital part in the field of MICROBIOLOGY
 The word MICROSCOPE is derived from
the Latin word micro (small) and Greek word
skopos (to look at)
How would you measure a microorganisms?
Metric system is used when measuring
microorganisms. A major advantage of the metric
system is that units relate to each other by factors
of 10.
 Microorganisms are measured in even
smaller units, such as micrometers and nanometers
Micrometer(μm) –equals 0.000001m or (10-6m)
 The prefix micro indicates that the unit
following it should be divided by 1 million, or 106
Nanometer (nm) – equals to 0.000000001m or
(10-9m).
Angstrom (A) was previously used for 10-10 m, or
0.1 nm.
A little background to Microscopy
The one that Anton van Leeuwenhoek used in the
seventeenth century had only one lens and was
similar to a magnifying glass (300x Magnification)
Zaccharias Janssen, the first person credited with
making the first compound microscope around
1600. (but poor quality and could not be used to
see bacteria)
Joseph Jackson Lister (The father of Joseph
Lister) – developed a significantly better
microscope during 1830, and various
improvements to his work resulted in
the development of the modern compound
microscope. (the one we used today)
MICROSCOPY
Total magnification is very important in
microscopy as it is an indicator of how many times
an image is larger than the specimen itself
We can calculate the total magnification of a
specimen by multiplying the objective lens
magnification (power) by the ocular lens
magnification (power).
MOST MICROSCOPES: 10X (low power),
40X(high power), 100x(OIL IMMERSION) Lenses
and 10X ocular lens
Resolution (also called resolving power) is the
ability of the lenses to distinguish fine detail and
structure.
DO MICROSCOPE INVERT IMAGES? 2.) DARKFIELD MICROSCOPY - used to

YES, The reason this happens is that
microscopes use two lenses (the ocular lens and
objective lens) to magnify the image. However, it is
the consequence of the of light. Under the slide on
which the object is being magnified, there is a light
source that shines up and helps you to see the
object better. This light is then refracted, or best
around the lens. Once it comes out of the other
side, the two rays converge at make an enlarge
and inverted image.
examine live microorganisms that either are
invisible in the ordinary light microscope, cannot be
stained by standard methods, or are so distorted by
staining that their characteristics are obscured
With no background light will result the specimen
to appears light against a black background.
Best use: Examination of very thin spirochetes,
such as Treponema pallidum, the causative agent
of syphilis

TYPES OF MICROSCOPES

LIGHT MICROSCOPE 3.) Phase-Contrast Microscopy - is especially

useful because the internal structures of a cell
SCANNIG ACOUSTIC MICROSCOPE
become more sharply defined, permitting detailed
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE examination of living microorganisms.
SCANNED-PROBE MICROSCOPE
LIGHT MICROSCOPE In a phase-contrast microscope, one set of light
rays comes directly from the light source. The other
Light microscopy refers to the use of any kind of
set comes from light that is reflected or
microscope that uses visible light to observe
specimens. diffracted from a particular structure in the
specimen, BROUGHT TOGETHER FORM AN
IMAGE OF THE SPECIMEN ON THE OCULAR
There are actually several types of light
LENS,
microscopy
CONTAINING AREAS THAT ARE RELATIVELY
1.) COMPOUD LIGHT MICROSCOPE - A
LIGHT
modern compound light microscope (LM) has a
(IN PHASE), THROUGH SHADES OF GRAY, TO
series of lenses and uses visible light as its source
BLACK
of illumination
(OUT OF PHASE)

The most common microscope used in many

laboratories even in our school.
4.) DIFFERENTIAL INTERFERENCE
CONTRAST
(DIC) MICROSCOPY - similar to phase-contrast
microscopy in that it uses differences in refractive
indexes. However, a DIC microscope uses two
beams of light instead of one.
Higher resolution than phase-contrast microscope
The image is brightly colored and appears nearly
three-dimensional
5.) Fluorescence Microscopy -
takes advantage of fluorescence, the ability of
substances to absorb short wavelengths of light
(ultraviolet) and give off light at a longer wavelength
(visible).
FLUOROCHROMES – STAIN USED IF THE
SPECIMEN OR THE ORGANISMS DOES NOT
NATURALLY FLUORESCE
OBJECTS APPEAR AS LUMINESCENT,
BRIGHT OBJECTS AGAINST A DARK
BACKGROUND
Fluorochromes have special attractions
different microorganisms.
EX. Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacterium that
causes tuberculosis absorbed fluorochrome
auramine O , which glows yellow when exposed to
ultraviolet light.
The principal use of fluorescence microscopy is a
diagnostic technique called the fluorescent-
antibody (FA) technique, or immunofluorescence.
Fluorescent antibodies obtained from
humans/animals are attracted to specific foreign
substance (antigen), after combining, added to
microscope slide for further screening.
This technique can detect bacteria or other
pathogenic microorganisms, even within cells,
tissues, or other clinical specimens
Immunofluorescence is especially useful in
diagnosing syphilis and rabies
6.) Confocal microscopy is a technique in light
microscopy used to reconstruct threedimensional
images. Like fluorescent microscopy, specimens
are stained with fluorochromes so they will emit, or
return, light.
 But instead of illuminating the entire field,
one plane of a small region of a specimen is
illuminated with a short-wavelength (blue) light
which passes the returned light through an aperture
aligned with the illuminated region Most confocal
microscopes are used in conjunction with
computers to construct three-dimensional images
 Confocal microscopy can be used to
evaluate cellular physiology by monitoring the
distributions and concentrations of substances such
as ATP and calcium ions.
7.) Two-photon microscopy- uses longwavelength
(red) light, and therefore two photons, instead of
one, are needed to excite the fluorochrome to emit
light.
for
 The longer wavelength allows imaging of
living cells in tissues up to 1 mm (1000μm) deep
SPECIMENS ARE STAINED WITH
FLUOROCHROMES; AS IN CONFOCAL
MICROSCOPY
Another advantage of TPM is that it can track the
activity of cells in real time.
EX. CELLS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM ATTACKING
BACTERIA
8.) SUPER – RESOLUTION LIGHT
MICROSCOPY - one wavelength stimulates
fluorescent molecules to glow, and another
wavelength cancels out all fluorescence except for
that in one nanometer.
 Cells can be stained with fluorescent dyes that
are specific for certain molecules such as DNA or
protein
SCANNING ACOUSTIC MICROSCOPY
Scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) basically
consists of interpreting the action of a sound wave
sent through a specimen.
The resolution is about 1 μm. SAM is used to
study living cells attached to another surface, such
as cancer cells, artery plaque, and bacterial
biofilms that foul equipment
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
Objects smaller than about 0.2 μm, such as
viruses or the internal structures of cells, must be
examined with an electron microscope
A beam of electrons is used instead of light.
The better resolution of electron microscopes is
due to the shorter wavelengths of electrons; the
wavelengths of electrons are about 100,000 times
smaller than the wavelengths of visible light.
Images produced by electron microscopes are
always black and white, but they may be colored
artificially to accentuate certain details.
2 TYPES: TRANSMISSION ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE AND SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROPSCOPE
TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
a finely focused beam of electrons from an
electron gun passes through a specially prepared,
ultrathin section of the specimen.
Instead of being placed on a glass slide, as in
light microscopes, the specimen is usually placed
on a copper mesh grid.
transmission electron micrograph, the image
produced and appears as many light and dark
areas AND TWO-DIMENSIONAL
Resolve objects as close together as 10 pm, and
objects are generally magnified 10,000 to
10,000,000X.
 
Scanning Electron Microscopy
It provides striking three-dimensional views of
specimens
The image is called a scanning electron
micrograph. This microscope is especially useful in
studying the surface structures of intact cells and
viruses
resolve objects as close together as 10 nm, and
objects are generally magnified 1000 to 500,000*.
SCANNED-PROBED MICROSCOPY
Developed in the early 1980s
Use various kinds of probes to examine the
surface of a specimen using electric current
Do not damaged or modify the specimen
Used to map atomic and molecular shapes
SCANNING TUNNELING
MICROSCOPY – USES A THING TUNGSTEN
PROBE, that scans a specimen and produces an
image that reveals bumps and depression of the
atoms on the surface of the specimen
PRODUCE MUCH GREATER RESOLVING
POWER THAN ELECTRON MICROSCOPE: IT
CAN RESOLVE FEATURES THAT ARE ONLY
ABOUT 1/100 THE SIZE OF AN ATOM.
ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY – a metaland-
diamond probe is gently forced down onto a
specimen. As the probe moves along the surface of
the specimen, its movements are recorded, and a
threedimensional image is produced
DOES NOT REQUIRE SPECIAL SPECIMEN
PREPERATION
BOTH BIOLOGICAL SUBSTANCES (NEARLY
ATOMIC DETAIL AND MOLECULAR
PROCESSES
PREPERATION OF SPECIMENS FOR LIGHT
MICROSCOPY
 Most microorganisms appear almost colorless
when viewed through brightfield microscopy, so we
must prepare them for observation. One way is to
stain (color) the specimen.
PREPARE SMEARS FOR STAINING
Staining simply means coloring the
microorganisms with a dye that emphasizes certain
structures
Before staining, THEY MUST BE FIXED FIXED
(ATTACHED) to the microscope slide
When a specimen is to be fixed, a thin film of
material containing the microorganisms is spread
over the surface of the slide. This film, called a
smear, is allowed to air dry.
Stain is applied and then washed off with water;
then the slide is blotted with absorbent paper.
Without fixing, the stain might wash the microbes
off the slide.
The stained microorganisms are now ready for
microscopic examination.
STAINS are salts composed of a positive and
negative ion, one of which is colored and is known
as the chromophore
BASIC DYES: CATION(+); INCLUDES
CRYSTAL VIOLET,
METHYLENE BLUE, MALACHITE GREEN, AND
SAFRANANIN
ACIDIC DYES: ANION(-);INCLUDES: EOSIN,
ACID FUCHSIN, NIGROSIN
REPEL BECAUSE MOST BACTERIAL
SURFACES ARE NEGATIVELY CHARGED
BACTERIA: Slightly NEGATIVE CHARGED AT
PH7. Thus, the colored CATION in a basic dye is
attracted to the negatively charged bacterial cell.
 NEGATIVE STAINING – Preparing
colorless bacteria against a colored background is
called negative staining. THE CONTRASTING
BACKGROUND MADE THE BACTERIA VISIBLE
SIMPLE STAIN – IS AN AQUEOUS OR
ALCOHOL SOLUTION of a single basic dye
 Methylene blue, carbolfuchsin, crystal violet,
and safranin
PURPOSE: HIGHLIGHT the entire organism so
that cellular shapes and basic structures are visible
DIFFERENTIAL STAINS - react
differently with different kinds of bacteria and thus
can be used to distinguish them.
MOST FREQUENTLY USED FOR BACTERIA
ARE THE GRAM STRAIN AND THE ACID-FAST
STAIN.  
GRAM STRAIN:
The Gram stain was developed in 1884 by the
Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram. It is
one of the most useful staining procedures because
it classifies bacteria into two large groups: gram-
positive and gram-negative.
PROCEDURE:
1.) A heat-fixed smear is covered with a basic
purple dye, usually crystal violet. Because the
purple stain imparts its color to all cells, it is
referred to as a primary stain.
2.) After a short time, the purple dye is washed
off, and the smear is covered with iodine, a
mordant. When the iodine is washed off, both
gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria appear
dark violet or purple.
3.) Next, the slide is washed with alcohol or an
alcohol acetone solution. This solution is a
decolorizing agent, which removes the purple from
the cells of some species but not from others.
4.) The alcohol is rinsed off, and the slide is
then stained with safranin, a basic red dye. The
smear is washed again, blotted dry, and examined
microscopically.
TAKE NOTE: Bacteria that retain this color after the
alcohol has attempted to decolorize them are
classified as gram-positive bacteria (STEP 3)
 BACTERIA THAT LOSE: the dark violet or
purple color after decolorization are classified as
GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA
gram-positive bacteria have a thicker
peptidoglycan cell wall (disaccharides and amino
acids) than gram-negative bacteria.; CV-I readily
enter the thick cell walls
 gram-negative bacteria contain a layer of
lipopolysaccharide (lipids and polysaccharides) as
part of their cell wall; THE ALCOHOL WASH
DISRUPTS
THE OUTER LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE LAYER,
AND THE
CV-1 (CRYSTAL VIOLET-IODINE COMPLEX) IS
WASHED OUT, AS A RESULT, GRAM-NEGATIVE
BACTERIAS ARE COLORLESS UNTIL
COUNTERSTAINED WITH SAFRANIN WHICH IS
RED/PINK.
Acid-Fast Stain
binds strongly only to bacteria that have a waxy
material in their cell walls.
Microbiologists use this stain to identify all
bacteria in the genus Mycobacterium including the
two important pathogens Mycobacterium
tuberculosis,
the causative agent of tuberculosis, and
Mycobacterium leprae the causative agent of
leprosy
 In non–acid-fast bacteria, whose cell walls lack
the lipid components, the carbolfuchsin is rapidly
removed during decolorization, leaving the cells
colorless.
SPECIAL STAINS
Special stains are used to color parts of
microorganisms, such as endospores, flagella, or
capsules
Negative Staining for Capsules
• In medical microbiology, demonstrating the
presence of a capsule is a means of determining
the organism’s virulence, the degree to which a
pathogen can cause disease
Capsule staining is more difficult than other types
of staining procedures because capsular materials
are water soluble and may be dislodged or
removed during rigorous washing
 USED COLORED PARTICLES: INDIA INK OR
NIGROSIN (FOR BACKGROUND) AND THEN
STAIN WITH A SIMPLE STAIN, SUCH AS
SAFRANIN

APPEAR AS HALOS, BECAUSE CAPSULE

DO NOT ACCEPT MOST CHEMICAL
COMPOSITIONS

ENDOSPORE (SPORE) STAINING

An endospore is a special resistant, dormant
structure formed within a cell that protects a
bacterium from adverse environmental conditions
Schaeffer-Fulton endospore stain – the most
commonly used endospore stain

Malachite green, the primary stain, is applied to a

heat-fixed smear and heated to steaming for about
5 minutes. The heat helps the stain penetrate the
endospore wall.
COUNTERSTAIN BY SAFRANIN AFTER
FLAGELLA STAINING

• A tedious and delicate staining procedure uses a

mordant and the stain carbolfuchsin to build up the
diameters of the flagella until they become visible
under the light microscope

THE END, THANK YOU!