Atomic Structure: A Summary

Atomic Structure
CHAPTER
Atomic Structure
Topic Covered DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

 Dalton’s atomic theory The concepts put forward by John Dalton regarding the composition of matter
are known as Dalton’s atomic theory. Its important points are as follows.
 Discovery of cathode
rays (a) Atom can neither be created nor destroyed.
 Discovery of positive (b) The atoms of different elements can combine in simple ratio to form
rays or canal rays compounds. The masses of combining elements represent the masses of
 Discovery of neutron combining atoms.
 Nucleus (c) The atoms of different elements differ from each other in their properties
 Atomic number and masses, while the atoms of the same element are identical in all
Atomic weight of mass respects.
number
(d) Atoms cannot be further subdivided.
 Kernel
(e) Every matter is composed of very minute particles, called atoms that take
 Ions part in chemical reactions.
 Isotopes
 Isobars Matter (substance)
 Isotones
 Isoelectronic Atomic
models
Molecules
 Calculation of velocity,
radius and energy Atoms
 Spectrum
 Hydrogen spectrum
 Drawbacks of Bohr’s Shell Nucleus (Protons
(Electron) and Neutrons)
atomic model
 Sommerfeld’s
expansion of Bohr’s DISCOVERY OF CATHODE RAYS (DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON)
model
 The wave theory of (Discovered by Julius Plucker in 1859)
light He took a glass diffussion tube and fitted two metal electrods both arm of the
 Planck’s qunatum glass difussion tube and these metel electrods connect with each other by
theory high voltage battery. He fitted a vaccum pump to produce low pressure in glass
 Quantum mechanical difussion tube.
theory of atom After this arrangement he passed electricity in glass difussion tube, after few
 Quantum numbers seconds a beam of rays emit from the cathode. These rays are called cathode
 Rules for filling the rays.
electrons.
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Atomic Structure
To vacuum pump
Cathode Cathode rays
Fluorescence
Anode +
High voltage
Production of cathode rays

Properties of Cathod Rays
(a) Cathode rays travel in a straight line. When an heavy wheel is placed in its path than shadow of heavy
wheel is formed.
Cross
Shadow –
Cathode
Anode
+
Cathode rays travel in a straight line
(b) Cathode rays formed by small particles. When a pinwheel is placed in the path of cathode rays, the
wheel starts revolving.
– +
Anode
Cathode
Cathode rays Pin wheel
Cathode rays consist of tiny particles

(c) Cathode rays negative in nature because they deviated in electrical and magnetic fields towards anode.
Electric field S
–
– + – +
Cathode Anode Cathode Anode
+
To vacuum pump N To vacuum pump
(a) Electric Field (b) Magnetic Field

(d) Cathode rays produce incandescence in at thin metal foil.
(e) Cathode rays produce X-rays when they hit a piece of tungsten or any other metal having high melting
point.
(f) Cathode rays penetrates across a thin metal foil.
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(g) Cathode rays ionize gases proving that they are charged.
(h) Cathode rays effect the photographic plate.
(i) Cathode rays produce green fluorescence on the walls of the glass tube.
(A) e/m ratio of cathode rays :
J.J. Thomson (1897) proved through experiments that.
(i) Cathode rays are composed of extremely tiny negatively charged particles.
(ii) The ratio of negative charge (e) and mass (m) for cathode ray particle is a constant. This ratio is
independent of the material used in the preparation of the electrodes of the discharge tube or the
gas filled in it. Thus, e/m of these negative particles are universal constant and the e/m of an
electron is also universal constant. So, these negative particles are called electrons.
charge on electron e 8
mass of electron = m = 1.76 × 10 Coulomb/gm
Electrostatic Fluorescence
field plate screen
Electron ray
–
Cathode X
Slitted anode Slit Y
Empty glass tube

Electromagnet
e
Determination of of an electron
m
DISCOVERY OF POSITIVE RAYS OR CANAL RAYS : DISCOVERY OF PROTON

( Discovered by Eugene Goldstein in 1886)
He took a glass diffussion tube and fitted a matel electrod as a cathode and perforated electrode as a
anode in the glass diffusion tube and these metal electrods connect with each other by high voltage
bettary. He fitted a vaccum pump to produce low pressure in glass difussion tube.
After this arrangement he passed electricity in glass difussion tube, after few seconds a beam of new type
of rays emited from the anode. These rays are called anode rays or canal rays.
To vacuum pump
Canal rays
Cathode
Anode +
High voltage
Production of canal rays
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Atomic Structure
Properties of Canal Rays

(a) Canal rays travel in a straight line.
(b) Canal rays formed by small particles.

(c) Canal rays positive in nature because they deviated in electrical and magnetic fields towards cathode.
Electric field N
+
+ – + –
Anode Cathode Anode Cathode
–
To vacuum pump S
To vacuum pump
(a) Electric Field (b) Magnetic Field
(d) Positive rays affect photographic plate.
(e) Positive rays pass across a very thin sheet of metal. But their penetrating power is less than that of
cathode rays.
(f) Positive rays produce fluorescence and phosphorescence.
(A) e/m of Canal Rays or Positive Rays :

(i) Positive rays are composed of positively charged particles.
(ii) The ratio (e/m), of positive charge (e) and mass (m) for the particles of positive rays depends on the
nature of the gas filled in the discharge tube. The value of e/m for the particles of positive rays
obtained from different gases is different. The e/m value for positive rays is not a universal
constant. Thomson and Wein found out through experiments that the maximum value of e/m is for
particles of positive rays of hydrogen gas.
(iii) Experiments proved that for a positively charged particle (H+) of the positive rays of hydrogen gas
e
= 9.578 × 104 coulomb per gram. If we suppose that the charge (e) of this particle is
m
1.602 × 10–19 coulomb unit positive charge, the mass (m) of the particle will be 1.6725 × 10–24 gram.
The particle (H+) of the positive rays of hydrogen gas having 1.602 × 10–19 coulomb positive charge
and 1.6725 × 10–24 gram mass is called a proton.
DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON
James Chadwick (in 1932) bombarded the  - particles on the elements like beryllium, boron and aluminium,
a penetrating rays are emitted. These rays are composed of very tiny elctroneutral particle, these particles
are called neutrons and denoted by 0 n1
9 4 12 1
4 Be  2 He 6 C  0 n
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Atomic Structure
CLASSIFICATION OF ATOMIC PARTICLES

(A) Stable Particles
Properties of Stable Fundamental Particles
S. Discovered Mass*
Particle Symbol Charge Mass** Spin***
No. by (amu)
Goldstein 1
1. Proton p + 1.00727 1.836
(1886) 2
J.J. 1
2. Electron e  ,  Thomson – 0.0005486 1
(1897) 2
C.D. 1
3. Positron e  ,  Anderson + 0.0005486 1
(1932) 2
Pauling 1
4. Neutrino v 0 0.000022 0.04
(1927) 2
– Segre 1
5. Antiproton p – 1.00727 1.836
(1956) 2
16
* Physical atomic weight unit 8O = 16,00,000
–28
** Mass with respect to e, where e = 9.11 × 10 gram
h
*** unit
2
(B) Unstable Particles

Properties of Some Unstable Fundamental Particles
+
S. Mass ++ +++
Particle Symbol Discovered by Charge Mass Spin
No. (amu)
James Chadwick
1
1. Neutron n (1932) 0 1.00867 1.836
2
Negative ? 1
2. ? – 0.1152 210
meason 2
Positive ? + 1
3. ? + 0.1152 210
meason 2
0
Neutral ? ? Yukawa (1935)
4. 0 0.1454 265 0
meason
Negative ?
5. ?– – 0.1514 276 0
meason
Positive ? +
6. ? + 0.1514 276 0
meason
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Atomic Structure
(C)
Distinction of ,  and  Rays
S. No. Property  - Ray  - Ray  - Ray
1. Velocity 2 × 107 m/sec 2.8 × 108 m/sec 3 × 108 m/sec
About 100 times About 1000 times

2. Penetration power Very low
to that of  rays to that of  rays
1 unit negative Magnetic

2 unit positive charge
3. Charge and mass charge and zero radiations of very
and 4 unit mass
mass high frequency
Effect of ZnS
4. Produce fluorescence No effect No effect
plate
+2
He or helium nuclei, Denoted by the Denoted by the
5. Nature denoted by the symbol 1e0 or
symbol  0
symbol 2He4. electron0
Deviation towards Deviation

6. Magnetic field No effect
cathode towards anode
 
7. Nature of product 
A 9  2 B5 44 A 9  5B
9
4 A 9  4 A
9
NUCLEUS
(A) Rutherford discovered the nucleus in an atom by a-particle scattering experiment. He showered
a-particles, 2He4 (obtained from radium) on a 0.01 mm thin gold film and allowed them to collide with a
screen coated with zinc sulphide and placed behind the gold film. He observed fluorescence on the
screen.
(i) Most of the  -particle passed through the gold film without deviating from their path.
(ii) Some particles got deviated from their path on colliding with the gold film.
(iii) A very small number of particles rebounded after colliding with the gold film.
 -Particles deviated
from their path
uneviated  -part icles
-particles Nucleus
 -particles rebounded
by the nucleus deviated
 -particles
(B) The following are the inferences derived from the above experiment.
(i) Most of the a-particles pass through the gold foil without deviation in their path, showing that most
of the part if an atom is vacant.
(ii) Whole of the mass of an atom is confined to its nucleus, which consists of positively charged
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Atomic Structure
protons and neutral neutrons. These together are termed as nucleons.

(iii) It has been found on the basis of calculation that the radius of the atomic nucleus is 1×10–13 to
1×10–12 cm or 1 × 10–15 to 1 × 10–14 meter, while radius of an atom is 1 × 10–8 cm.
Radius of atom
(iv) Magnitude of atomic nucleus =
Radius of atomic nucleus
(v) Nuclear density
Mass(M)
Density (D) =
Volume (V)
Since, the shape of atom is regarded as spherical, therefore, if radius of the nucleus is r, then
4 3
Volume of nucleus = r
3
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Example. Calculate the density of fluorine nucleus supposing that the shape of the nucleus is spherical
–13
and its radius is 5 × 10 cm. (Mass of F = 19 amu)
–24
Solution.  Mass of the nucleus of F atom = 19 × 1.66 × 10 gm
–24
(1 amu = 1.660 × 10 gm)
4 3
Volume of the nucleus of F atom = r
3
4 –13 3 –39 3
= × 3.14 (5 × 10 ) = 525 × 10 cm
3
Mass 19  1.66  10 24 gm

Density of the nucleus of F atom = =
Volume 525  10 –39 cm3
13 –3
= 6.0 × 10 gm cm
EXERCISE
+ –7 –1
1. The mass change ratio for A ion is 1.97 × 10 KgC . Calculate the mass of A atom.
–26
(Ans: 3.16 × 10 Kg)
-8 –13
2. Atomic radius is of the order of 10 Cm and nucleus radius is of the order of 10 cm. Calculate what
–15
fraction of atom is occupied by nucleus. (Ans: Vnucleus = 10 × Vatom)
8
3. 2 × 10 atoms of carbon are agganged side by side. Calculate the radius of carbon atom if the lenght
of this arrangement is 2.4 cm. (Ans: 0.06 nm)
NUCLEAR FORCES
(a) The attractive forces that keep the nucleons (protons and neutrons) glued together in an atomic nucleus,
are known as nuclear forces.
(b) According to the modern concept, the nuclear forces are generated by the exchange of mesons
between nucleons.
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(c) Exchange of electrically charged mesons takes place between protons and neutrons. When a negatively
charged  meson gets transferred from a neutron to a proton, then neutron will convert in proton. In the
same way, a proton is transformed into a neutron when a positively charged  meson gets transferred
from the proton to the neutron. The exchange forces generated due to exchange of  mesons keep the
nuclear particles glued to each other in the nucleus of an atom.
NUCLEAR STABILITY AND THE RATIO OF NEUTRONS AND PROTONS

(a) The stability of a nucleus depends on the ratio of the number of neutrons (n) and protons (p) in it.
n
(b) The nuclei having = 1 (approx.) are very stable.
p
(c) When the ration of n and p is more than 1.5, the nucleus becomes unstable and radioactive.
(d) The atoms having n = p are more stable, but with increase in the atomic number, the number of
neutrons goes on increasing in comparison to the number of protons.
n n
(e) The value of is about 1 up to atomic number 20, hence they are more stable. The value of is
p p
between 1.5 and 1.6 for the atoms having atomic number above 83, hence they are radioactive, like –
40 n 20
In 20Ca , = = 1, therefore its nucleus is stable.
p 20
235 n 143
In 92U = = 1.55, therefore its nucleus is unstable.
p 92
MASS DEFECT
The difference between the total mass of nuclear particles (proton and neutrons) present in the nucleus and
the actual mass of the nucleus is known as mass defect or mass loss.
Reason of Mass Defect
A stable nucleus is formed by combination of protons and neutrons, some amount of the mass disappears
due to its conversion into energy. This results in decrease in the mass of the atomic nucleus in comparison
to the total mass of those nuclear particles that combine to form the nucleus.
Formula –
Mass defect = (total mass of nuclear particles) – (actual mass of the nucleus)
SOLVED EXAMPLE
16
Example. 8O is composed of 8p and 8n. Calculate the value of mass defect in amu.
(1) 0.10266 (2) 0.12320
(3) 0.13640 (4) 0.14750
Solution. 8p + 8n  8p
8n + energy (= 127 Mev)
16
Total mass of nuclear particles (8p + 8n) in 8O
= (8 × 1.00757) + (8 × 1.00893) = 16.1320 amu
16
Actual mass of nucleus of 8O = 15.9956 amu
16
 Mass defect in formation the nucleus of 8O = 16.1320 – 15.9956 = 0.1364 amu
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Atomic Structure
BINDING ENERGY OF NUCLEUS

The amount of energy release in the formation of nucleus is called binding energy of that nucleus.
Binding energy of the nucleus = mass defect × 931 MeV
BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON

It is defined as a ratio of binding energy and number of nucleons (protons + neutrons).
Binding energy per nucleon (BEn)
Binding energy
BEn =
Number of nucleons, (A  n  p)
EXERCISE
1. Atomic mass of an isotope of lithium is 6.01865. Calculating binding energy per nucleon (BEn) in
MeV/nucleon. (Ans: 5.04)
2. The binding energy of an element is 8 MeV per nucleon. If the total binding energy of the element is
128 MeV, calculate the number of nucleons in its nucleus. (Ans: 16)
THE IMPORTANCE OF BINDING ENERGY

(a) Greater the binding energy of a nucleus in comparison to that of another nucleus having same mass
number, more stable is that nucleus.
(b) The binding energy of a nucleus is the measurement of its stability.
(c) The stability of two nuclei having different mass numbers cannot be compared on the basis of their
binding energy, because the nuclei having more number of nucleons will have higher binding energy.
(d) The binding energy of the nuclei increases with increase in their mass number, but the rate of increase
goes on decreasing in case of nuclei having high mass numbers.
ATOMIC NUMBER
(a) The number of protons or electrons present in a nucleus of an atom is called atomic number.
Atomic number = number of protons in the atom or number of electrons in the atom.
(b) The number of protons present in a nucleus of an ion (cation or anion) is called atomic number of that
ion.
ATOMIC WEIGHT OR MASS NUMBER

Mass number of an atom is the sum of number of protons and number of neutrons present in that atom.
Mass number = Number of protons (Z) + Number of neutrons (n) = number of nucleons
= Atomic number + Number of neutrons
Important Fact: - The value of mass number is always a whole number
16 14 12 17
Example : - 8O 7N 6C 9F
Protons 8 7 6 9
Neutrons 8 7 6 8
Atomic weight 16 14 12 17
Electrons 8 7 6 9
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Atomic Structure
KERNEL
The number of electrons present in the shells except the outer most shell of an atom is called kernel
electrons.
Example : 6 C12  2, 4
Carbon has two kernel electrons.
IONS
(a) Cation : When an atom loses electrons, it is converted into a cation.
Charge on Cation = number of protons – number of electrons
(b) Anion : When an atom gain the electron it convereted in to anion
Charge on anion = number of electrons – number of protons
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Example. What difference will appear in the mass number if the number of neutrons is halved number
16
of electrons is doubled in 8O .
(1) 25% decrease (2) 50% increase
(3) 150% increase (4) No difference
16
Solution. 8O Initial weight – final weight
Protons 8p  8p
Neutrons 8n  4n
Weight 16  12
Thus decrease in mass number = 25%
Example. If the atomic weight of Zn is 70 and its atomic number is 30, then what will be the atomic
+2
weight of Zn ?
(1) 70 (2) 68
(3) 72 (4) 74
+2
Solution. Two electrons are removed in the formation of Zn from Zn. The numbers of protons and
neutrons remain unchanged.
Example. The number of atoms present in 20 grams of calcium will be equal to the number of atoms
1
present in (20 gm Ca = mole Ca)
2
6.022  10 23 23
Ca = = 3.012 × 10
2
(1) 12 gm C (2) 12.15 gm Mg

(3) 24.0 gm C (4) 24.3 gm Mg
1
Solution. 24.3 gm Mg = 1 mole, therefore 12.15 gm = mole
2
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Atomic Structure
EXERCISE
1. Calculate the mass of one mole of electrons. (Ans: 0.55 mg)
2. Calculate the total number of electrons in 1 mole of methane.
3. An ion with mass number 56 contains 3 units of positive change and 30.4% more neutron than
56
electrons. Assign the symbol to this ion. (Ans: 23 Fe 3t )
ISOTOPES
The atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different atomic weights are called isotopes
Example : -
1 2 3
1H , 1H , 1H
Protons 1 1 1
Neutrons 0 1 2
Atomic weights 1 2 3
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Example. What should be the percentage of deuterium in heavy water ?
(1) 20% (2) 80%
(3) 60% (4) 40%
Solution. Deuterium in 20 parts of D2O = 4 parts
4
Deuterium in 100 parts of D2O = × 100 = 20%
20
Example. If two neutrons are added to an element X, then it will get converted to its
(1) isotope (2) isotone
(3) isobar (4) None of the above
Solution. The number of neutrons are different in the isotopes of the same element.
EXERCISE
1. Which of the following pairs consists of molecules having same mass number ?
(1) H2O and D2O (2) H2O and HTO
(3) D2O and HTO (4) D2O and HCl (Ans: 3)
2. The mass number of three isotopes of an element are 11, 12 and 13 units. Their percentage abundance
is 80, 15 and 5 respectively. Calculate the atomic weight of the element. (Ans: 11.21)
ISOBARS
The atoms of different elements having same atomic weight but have different atomic number are known as
isobars.
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Atomic Structure
Examples :
40 40 40
(i) 18Ar 19K 20Ca
Protons 18 19 20
Neutrons 22 21 20
76 76
(ii) 32Ge 34Se
Protons 32 34
Neutrons 44 42
ISOTONES
The atoms which have same number of neutrons are called isotones.
Examples
30 31 32
14Si 15P 16S
Protons 14 15 16
Neutrons 16 16 16
Atomic weight 30 31 32
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Example. In two elements Z1 A M1 and BM2 , M1 ¹ M2 and Z1 ¹ Z2 but M1 – Z1 = M2 – Z2. These elements
Z2
are
(1) isotonic (2) isotopic
(3) isobaric (4) isoprotonic
Solution. M1 = Atomic weight
Z1 = Atomic number
In isobars M1 = M2 and in isotopes Z1 = Z2
In isotones (isoneutronic elements) M1 – Z1 = M2 – Z2
EXERCISE
1. Two nuclides A and B are isoneutronic. Their mass numbers are 76 and 77 respectively. If atomic
number of A is 32. Calculate the atomic number of B (Ans: 33)
2. How many protons and neutrons are there in each of the following nucleus
31 24
(1) 15 P (2) 12 Mg
37 40
(3) 17 Cl (4) 18 Ar
40
(5) 20 Ca (Ans: (1) 15p, 16n (2) 12p, 12n (3) 17p, 20n (4) 18p, 22n (v) 20p, 20n)
ISOELECTRONIC
The chemical species in which number of electrons is same are called isoelectronic. For example
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Atomic Structure
Example
Ions Na Mg2 Al3 F O2

Electrons 10 10 10 10 10
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Example. The isoelectronic pair of 32 electron is
–3 –2 –3 –2
(1) BO3 and CO3 (2) PO4 and CO3
(3) N2 and CO (4) All of the above
BO3 3 CO3 2
Solution.
5  24  3  32 6  24  2  32
Example. The pair NH3 + BH3 is isoelectronic with
(1) B2H6 (2) C2H6
(3) C2H4 (4) CO2
NH3  BH3 C2H6

Solution. 7  3  5  3  18 6  2  6  18
Example. Which of the following is a one-electron species ?

(1) He (2) N
+
(3) H2 (4) N2
+
Solution. There is only one electron in H2
Example. A dipositive ion has 16 protons. What should be the number of electrons in its tetrapositive
ion.
(1) 16 (2) 14
(3) 12 (4) 10
+2
Solution. X has 16 protons, then In X – 16 protons and 16 electrons
+2 +4
In X – 16 protons and 14 electrons In X – 16 protons and 12 electrons
Example. If atomic weights of C and Si are 12 and 28 respectively, then what is the ratio of numbers of
neutrons in them
(1) 1 : 2 (2) 2 : 3
(3) 3 : 4 (4) 3 : 7
12 28
Solution. Number of neutrons in 6C = 12 – 6 = 6; Number of neutrons in 14Si = 28 – 14 = 14
The ratio of number of neutrons in C and Si is 6 : 14 or 3 : 7.
EXERCISE
1. The molecular weight of an oxide of nitrogen is 30. What will be the number of electrons in it ?
(Ans: 15)
3+ 2t 2+
2. Which among V , Ne, C2H6 and Mg , is iso electronic with Ca ? (Ans: C2H6)
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Atomic Structure
ATOMIC MODELS
(A) Thomson’s atomic model or water melon model : According to this model positively charge
matter is uniformly distributed in the atom and the negatively charge electrons are embedded in it just
as a seeds in water melon.
This model fails to explain the production of atomic spectrum and also can not explain rutherford’s 
paricles scattering experiments
(B) Rutherford’s atomic model
Rutherford bombarded the a-particles on a thin gold foil and observed that
(i) Most of the  -particles travelled straight without deviation in the direction of their path.
(ii) Some of the  -particles deviate from their path by different angles.
(iii) Very few  -particles get rebounded after colliding with the foil.
Rutherford gave the following conclusions : -
(i) Most of the part of atoms is empty
(ii) Positive charge present anywhere in the atom.
(iii) The part of an atom, in which positive charge present is rigid and this part present in the centre of
an atom. This rigid part is called nucleus.
Fluorescence of
light
Gold foil
ZnS screen
Slit
Source of  particles

Rutherford’s  particle scattering experiment
Failures of Rutherford’s atomic model
(i) It can not be explain the stability of an atom.
e–
An electron emitting energy and pluging into nucleus
(ii) It can not explain the line spectrum.
(C) Bohr’s atomic model of an atom
Neil Bohr in 1913 presented a quantum mechanical model of atomic structure.
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Atomic Structure
(i) When an electron in an atom falls from higher energy level to lower energy level, spectral lines are
formed.
(ii) When energy is provided to an atom, its electrons get excited by absorption of energy and jumps
to the orbits of higher energy.
Increase in energy by
absorption of photons
+
1
2
3
4
(a) Electron jumping from lower to higher energy level by absorption of energy
Decrease in energy by
emission of photons
+
1
2
3
4
(b) Electron jumping from higher to lower energy level by emission of energy
(iii) The electrons moving around the nucleus in only those circular orbits for which their angular
h
momentum (mvr) is integral multiple of . This is called the condition of quantization. The angular
2
nh
momentum (mvr) of an electron is where m is the mass of electron. r is radius of its circular
2
orbit, v is the velocity of electron, h is Planck’s constant; n is a whole number whose value may be
1, 2, 3, 4 etc, : n is called principal quantum number.
(iv) An electron moves around the nucleus in constant circular orbits.
Number of orbits
4
3 Electrons are absent
2 between two
1 successive orbits
Electron in +
circular orbits
Nucleus
Electrons moving around in circular orbits
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Atomic Structure
(v) The force of attraction on electron by the nucleus is equal to the centrifugal force of that electron.
2
mv
r
e Force of attraction
v
r
+ Ze
The electron moving in an orbit by various forces

Important Fact :
nh mv 2 Ze2
(a) mvr = ........(1) (b) = 2 ........(2)(c) En2 – En1 = h  ...(3)
2 r r
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Example. An electron has been excited from the first to the fourth energy state in an atom. Which of
the following transitions are possible when the electron comes back to the ground state ?
(1) 4  1 (2) 4  2, 2  1
(3) 4  3, 3  2m 2  1 (4) All of the above
Solution. Electron can undergo transition from higher state to all lower states by loss of energy.
Example. Which of the following is a fundamental particle
(1) Nucleus of He (2) Nucleus of H
(3) A positive atom (4) None of these
+
Solution. Fundamental particle H is the nucleus of H
EXERCISE
1. How much total energy will be released when an electron present in hydrogen atom undergoes the
following sequence of transition ?
n=4n=2n=1 (Ans: Two Quantums)
-19
2. The energy of the electron in the second and third Bohr orbits of the hdrogen atom is –5.42 × 10 J
-19
and –2.41 × 10 J, respectively. Calculate the wavelength of the emitted radiation when the electron
-7
drops from third to second orbit. (Ans: 6.604 × 10 m)
3. Calculate the longest wavelength of radiation that will be needed to remove an electron from the third
+
orbit of the He ion. (Ans: 205.5 nm)
CALCULATION OF VELOCITY OF THE ELECTRON OF BOHR’S ORBIT
mv 2 Ze2
 2 ...(1)
r r
From Bohr’s atomic model
nh
mvr = ...(2)
2
[ 56 ]
Atomic Structure
Equation. (1) divided by (2)
2Ze 2
v
nh
z
or v = K
n
Here , e and h are constants, therefore
2 e 2 8
Here K = = 2.188 × 10 cm/second
h
Z
or v  2.188 108 cm / second
n
(a) If Z is a constant, then
1 v
v
n
1/n
Therefore, velocity goes on decreasing with increase in the number of orbits.
Thus
v1 n 2 v

v2 n 1
Z
(b) If n is a constant, then
v Z
Therefore, velocity goes on increasing with increase in the atomic number.
v1 z1

v 2 z2
2r
(c) Time period T =
V
2   n 2 h2 nh
= 
4 mZe
2 2
2Ze2
n3h3
=
42mZ 2 e4
1 V
(d) Frequency 
T 2 r
[ 57 ]
Aakash - NEET
Atomic Structure
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Example. The expression for calculation of velocity is
1
 Ze2  2 2Ze2
(1) v    (2) v 
 mr  nh
nh
(3) v  (4) all of the above are correct
2mr
1
2 Ze2  Ze2  2
Solution. (1) v = v=  
mr  mr 
2Ze2
(2) v =
nh
nh nh
(3) mvr = v=
2 2mr
Example. If the velocities of first, second, third and fourth orbits of hydrogen atom are v1 , v2 , v3 and v4
respectively, then which of the following should be their increasing order
(1) v1 > v2 > v3 > v4 (2) v4 < v3 < v2 < v1
(3) v1 > v2 < v3 > v4 (4) Equal for all
1
Solution. Z is a constant, therefore v 
n
i.e. v4 < v3 < v2 < v1
+10
Example. The ratio of velocities of electrons present in Na and H should be
(1) 11 : 1 (2) 11:3
(3) 1 : 11 (4) 4 : 11
11 +10 1
Solution. Na  Na  Is
Thus, n is a constant
v1 Z1 11
Therefore v  Z  1
2 2
EXERCISE
1. What should be the velocity of the electron present in the fourth orbit of hydrogen atom, if the velocity
7 7
of the electron present in the third orbit is 7.29 × 10 cm per second ? (Ans: 5.46 × 10 cm/sec.)
2. Calculate the speed of an eletron in the third orbit of the hydrogen atom. Also calculate the number of
revolutions per secnd that this electron makes around the nucleus
-10 2 –1m 4 –1
[Given 4 0 = 1.112 × 10 CN –m] 0(Ans: –2.42 × 10 sec )
3. Neon gas is generally used in the sign boards. If it emit strongly at 616 nm, calculate (i) The frequency
of emission, (ii) distance travelled by this radiation in 305, (iii) energy of quantum (iv) number of
quanta present if it produces 2J of energy.
14 –1 9 –19 8
(Ans: (i) 4.87 × 10 Sec (ii) 9 × 10 m (iii) 3.23 × 10 J (iv) 6.19 × 10 )
[ 58 ]
Atomic Structure
RADIUS OF NTH BOHR’SS ORBIT

According to Bohr’s hypothesis
nh
put the value of v in mvr =
2
n2h2 n2
r or r K
42 mZe2 z
In the above expression h, , m and e, all are constants. therefore
 h2 
K   constant  0.529Å 
 4 me
2 2

n2
or r  0.529 Å
Z
–8
Important Fact : (a) 1Å = 10 cm
–10
(b) 1Å = 10 m
–9
(c) 1 nm = 10 m
–10
(d) 1 pm (picometer) = 10 cm
If Z is a constant, then
r  n2
(a) Thus, the radius of atoms goes on increasing as the number (n) of energy levels in the atoms goes on
increasing as shown below.
r1 n12 r

r2 n22
2
n
(b) If n is a constant, then
r1 Z2

r2 Z1
1/z
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Example. If the radius of first, second, third and fourth orbits of hydrogen atom are r1, r2, r3 and r4
respectively, then their correct increasing order will be
(1) r4 < r3 < r2 < r1 (2) r1 < r2 < r3 < r4
(3) r1 > r2 > r3 > r4 (4) Equal in all
2
Solution. r n
r1  r2  r3  r4
+ +
Example. The ratio of radius of the fifth orbits of He and Li will be
(1) 2 : 3 (2) 3 : 2
(3) 4 : 1 (4) 5 : 3
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Aakash - NEET
Atomic Structure
Solution. Here n is a constant, therefore
r1 Z 2 3
  3:2
r2 Z1 2
Example. Which of the following orbits of hydrogen atom should have the values of their radii in the ratio
of 1 : 4 ?
(1) K and L (2) L and N
(3) M and N (4) 1 and 2 both are correct
Solution. (1) Ratio of radii of orbits K and L
r1 n12 12
  = 1:4
r2 n22 22
(2) Ratio of radii of orbits L and N
r1 n12 22
  = 4 : 16 or 1 : 4
r2 n22 42
EXERCISE
h
1. If a = , then the correct expression for calculate the circumference of the first orbit of
4  me 2
2
hydrogen atom. (Ans: 2r)

8
2. 3 × 10 photons of a certain light radiation are found to produce 1.5 J of energy. Calculate the
wavelength of light radiations.
(Ans: 397Å)
3. A 100 watt bulb is emitting monochromatic light having wavelength 6000Å. Calculate the number of
22
photons emitted by the bulb in one minute. (Ans: 1.81 × 10 photons)
ENERGY OF ELECTRON IN BOHR’S NTH ORBIT

(a) Kinetic Energy (EK)
This energy is produced due to the velocity of electron. If mass is m, velocity is v and radius is r then
1 1 Ze 2
Kinetic energy = mv 2 =
2 2 r
(b) Potential Energy (EP)
This energy is produced due to electrostatic attractive forces between electron and proton, and its
value is negative. If atomic number is Z. charge is e and radius is r, then
Ze2
Potential energy =
r
(c) Total Energy (ET)
Total energy = Kinetic energy + potential energy
[ 60 ]
Atomic Structure
ET = EK + EP
1 Ze 2
= mv 2 
2 r
1 Ze2
Total energy E = –
2 r
Formula
(i) Total energy = – Kinetic energy (ET = – EK)
(ii) Potential energy = 2 × Total energy) (EP = 2ET)
EXERCISE
1. What should be the kinetic energy and total energy of the electron present in hydrogen atom, if its
potential energy is –5.02 eV? (Ans: 0 2.51 ev)
–7
2. A photon of wavelength 4 × 10 m strikes on metal surface, the work function of the metal being
2.13eV. Calculate (i) The energy of the photon (ev) (ii) The kinetic energy of emission (iii) The velocity
–19 –19 5 –1
of the photoelectron (V = 1.602 × 10 J) (Ans: (i) 4.97 × 10 J (ii) 0.97eV (iii) 5.85 × 10 ms )
3. The work function for caesium atom is 1.9eV. Calculate (i) The threshold wavelength and (ii) The
threshold frequency of the radiation. If the caesium element is irradiatiated with a wavelength 500
nm, calculate the kinetic energy and the velocity of theejected photoelectron.
14 –1 –20 5 –1
(Ans: (i) 654 nm (ii) 4.59 × 10 Sec K.E = 9.4 × 10 J, v = 4.54 × 10 m Sec )
CALCULATION OF ENERGY
1 Ze2
Formula : Q E=  put the value of r
2 r
Z 2 22me 4 Z2
ET =   or = – K
n2 h2 n2
22me 4
where K = = A constant, whose values can be depicted as follows
h2
(a) = 13.60 eV per atom
–11
(b) = 2.179 × 10 ergs per atom
(c) = 313.6 kilocalories per mole
–19
(d) = 21.79 × 10 joules per atom
(e) = 1312.1 kilojoules per atom
–7
Important Fact : Units – (a) 1 erg = 10 joule
11
(b) 1 erg = 6.2419 × 10 eV
(c) 1 eV = 23.06 kilocalories
–12
(d) 1 eV = 1.602 × 10 ergs
18
(e) 1 joule = 6.2419 × 10 eV
(f) 1 kilocalorie = 4.184 kilojoule
[ 61 ]
Aakash - NEET
Atomic Structure
Z2
(i) E = – × 13.6 eV
n2
1
If Z is a constant, then E  –
n2
Therefore, the energy of electron goes on increasing as the number of orbits increases.
E1 n22
= 2 E
E2 n1
3
(ii) If n is a constant, then E  – Z 2
n
E1 Z12
= Z
2
E2 Z22
Z2 E
E= × Rhc
n2
Z2  Z2 
(1) Kinetic energy = 2 × Rhc (2) Potential energy = 2   2  Rhc 
n  n 
–1
R = Rydberg’s constant = 109677 cm
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Example. What should be the order E1, E2, E3 and E4, if these are the respective energies of the first,
second, third and fourth orbits of hydrogen atom ?
(1) E1 = E2 = E3 = E4 (2) E4 < E3 < E2 < E1
(3) E1 < E2 < E3 < E4 (4) E2 > E3 < E4 < E1
1
Solution. E  –
n2
Example. What should be kinetic energy and potential energy, respectively, of the electron in the third
orbit of hydrogen atom ?
(1) – 1.5 eV, 3.0 eV (2) 1.5 eV, – 3.0 eV
(3) 1.5 eV, 3.0 eV (4) 3.0 eV, – 3.0 eV
Solution. Total energy of the third orbit of H atom
Z2
E=– × 13.6
n2
1
=– × 13.6 = – 1.5eV
9
(1) Kinetic energy = – Total energy
= – (–1.5) = + 1.5 eV
(2) Potential energy = 2 × Total energy
= 2 × –1.5 = –3.0 eV
[ 62 ]
Atomic Structure
Example. Which of the following should be the energy of an electron present in ground state of hydrogen
atom ?
(1) – 13.6 eV (2) – 3.4 eV
(3) – 1.5 eV (4) – 0.85 eV
Solution. An electron in ground state is in n = 1 orbit. Therefore the energy of the electron = – 13.6 eV
Example. How much minimum energy should be absorbed by a hydrogen atom in ground state to
reach excites state ?
(1) + 10.2 eV (2) + 13.4 eV
(3) + 3.4 eV (4) + 1.5 eV
Solution. The electron has to go to the second orbit E2 on excitation. Therefore
E2 – E1 = – 3.4 – ( – 13.6) = 13.6 – 3.4 = 10.2 eV
Example. The maximum energy absorbed by hydrogen atom in its ground state will be
(1) 13.6 eV (2) 3.4 eV
(3) 10.2 eV (4) 0 eV
Solution. E – E1
0 – (–13.6) = 13.6 eV
+2 +3
Example. The energy required in the process He  He will be
(1) 0 eV (2) + 13.6 eV
(3) + 3.4 eV (4) + 1.5 eV
+2
Solution. He does not have any electron, therefore the ionisation energy will be 0.
EXERCISE
+10
1. What should be the ratio of energies of the electrons of the first orbits of Na and H ?(Ans. 121:1)
+2
2. What will be the energy of the second excited state of Li ? (Ans. -13.6 eV)
+ –18
3. The ionisation energy of He is 19.6 × 10 J/atom. Calculate the energy of the first stationary state
2+ –17
of Li . (Ans: 4.41 × 10 J/atom)
–25
4. The moving electron has 5 × 10 J of kinetic energy. What is the de-Broglie wavelength ?
–7
(Ans: 6.94 × 10 m)
SEPARATION ENERGY
The energy required to separate an electron from any excitation state of an atom is known as separation
energy.
For example, the first separation energy, i.e. the energy required to remove an electron from the first
excited state in hydrogen is + 3.4 eV.
SPECTRAL EVIDENCE FOR QUANTIZATION IN BOHR’S THEORY

(a) When an electron undergoes transition from lower to higher orbit, there is absorption of energy and the
spectrum obtained thereby is called absorption spectrum.
(b) When an electron undergoes transition from higher to lower orbit, there is emission of energy and the
spectrum obtained thereby is called emission spectrum.
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Atomic Structure
(c) A hydrogen atom has only one electron, yet a very large number of lines are visible in its spectrum.
(d) The wave number of spectrum can be find out using the following expression.
1  1 1 
  R  Z2  2  2 
  n1 n2 
1
where is wave number

R = Rydberg constant,
n1 = Number of lower energy level
n2 = Number of higher energy level
Derivation of formula
1 Ze2
En1 = – (r1 = radius of the first orbit)
2 r1
1 Ze2
En2 = – (r2 = radius of the second orbit)
2 r2
1 1 1
Ze  r  r 
2
En1 – En2 = –
2 1 2
According to Bohr hypothesis

En1 – En2 = h 
En1 – En2 = – h 
22mZ 2 e 4  1 – 1 
Therefore hn =  2 
h2  n1 n2 2 
22mZ 2 e 4  1 – 1 
 =  2 
h3  n1 n2 2 
22mZ2 e 4
Here is a constant, because for hydrogen atom Z = 1
ch3
22me 4 –1
Thus R= Value of R = 109678 cm
ch3
–1
If calculation, this value is 109700 cm .
1  1 1 
Formula = = RZ
2
 2 – 2
  n1 n2 
[ 64 ]
Atomic Structure
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Example. What should be the value of wave number of emitted radiation with respect to R, when the
electron present in hydrogen atom jumps from M orbit to K orbit ?
8 5
(1) R × (2) R ×
9 8
3 5
(3) R × (4) R ×
4 16
Solution. The electron jumps from M orbit (n = 3) to K orbit (n = 1). Therefore
 1 1  1 1  1 1  9  1 8
 =R  2
 2 =R  1  32  = R 1 9  = R  9  = R ×
n
 1 n2        9
EXERCISE
–19
1. What will be the energy of a photon whose wavelength is 4000 Å ? (Ans. 4.96 × 10 J)
–18 –12
2. The energy of  -rays is 6.8 × 10 J. Calculate their wavelength (Ans: 2.2 × 10 m)
3. Calculate frequency and wave number of a radiation having wavelength 600 nm.
14 –1
(Ans: υ = 5 × 10 Sec
υ = 1.67 × 106 m–1)
SPECTRUM
When a beam of white light passes through a slit or an aperture and then falls on a prism, it gets spilt into many
coloured bands. The image of colours so obtained is known as a spectrum.
Types of Spectrum
(A) Absorption spectrum
(B) Molecular spectrum
(C) Emission spectrum
(A) Absorption Spectrum
When white light emitted by glowing heat fluorescent substance is passed through another substance
e.g. sodium. This results in appearance of some black lines in the spectrum. These are present at
those places where the line spectrum of the substance i.e. sodium vapour is formed. The spectrum so
formed is known as absorption spectrum.
(B) Molecular Spectrum
Molecular spectrum is given by molecules and it is also known as band spectrum. Three types of
energy transitions are found in molecules. These are as follows.
(i) electronic transitions, (ii) vibrational transitions and (iii) rotational transitions.
Therefore, bands are obtained in the spectrum, which are actually groups of lines.
(C) Emission Spectrum
When energy is provided to any substance, it starts emitting radiations. These radiations are passed
through a spectroscope, they get split up into spectral lines producing emission spectrum. Normally a
substance can be excited by any of the following ways.
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Atomic Structure
(a) By heating the substance at high temperature

(b) By passing electric current through a discharge tube having gaseous substance at very low
pressure.
(c) By passing electric discharge through a metallic filament.
Types of Emission Spectrum :
(i) Continuous spectrum and (ii) line spectrum or atomic spectrum
(a) Continuous Spectrum
When sunlight or a glowing heat fluorescent substance like tungsten wire present in an electric
bulb, is analysed with the help of a spectroscop, the spectrum obtained on a screen is observed
as divided into bands of seven colours, which are in a continuous sequence. Such a spectrum
is called a continuous spectrum.
Ultraviolet
Violet
Indigo
Blue
Green
Yellow
Prism Orange
Red
Continuous spectrum
Continuous spectrum of white light
(b) Line spectrum or Atomic spectrum

When atoms of a substance is excited, it emits radiations. These radiations are analyzed with
the help of a spectroscope, then many fine bright lines of specific colours in a sequence are
seen in the spectrum, which is not continuous, i.e. there is dark zone in between any two
lines. Such a spectrum is called a line spectrum or atomic spectrum. For example, neon
single lamp, sodium vapour lamp, mercury vapour lamp, etc. emit light of different colours and
they give specific line spectra.
HYDROGEN SPECTRUM
Hydrogen atom gives line spectrum. When hydrogen gas is filled at low pressure in a discharge tube and
electric discharge is passed through it, a pink coloured is produced in the visible region due to the formation
of hydrogen atoms. On studying this light with the help of a spectroscop, series of lines of various wavelengths
are obtained in the spectrum.
Calculation of the frequency of spectral lines by
1  1 1 
 or =R×  2 – 2
  n1 n2 
Types of Hydrogen Spectrum series

(A) Lymen Series
When an electron undergoes transition from a higher energy level (n2), e.g. 2, 3, 4, 5, .....  to ground
state or lower energy level, the spectrum is said to belong to Lymen series. For this, n1 = 1 and n2 = 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ....... .
[ 66 ]
Atomic Structure
(B) Balmer Series

When an electron undergoes transition from a higher energy level (n2), e.g. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 .........  to
the second energy level n1 = 2, the spectrum is said to belong to Balmer series.
Explanation of line spectrum on

Regions of line spectrum of hydrogen atom the basis of Bohr's model
(C) Paschen Series
When an electron falls from a higher energy level to third orbit (n = 3). It gives a spectrum that is
associated with Paschen series. For this n1 = 3 and n2 = 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ........ .
(D) Brackett Series
When an electron falls from a higher energy level to the fourth orbit (n = 4), the spectrum obtained is
associated with Brackett series. For this n1 = 4 and n2 = 5, 6, 7, 8 ..... .
(E) Pfund Series
When an electron falls from a higher energy level to the fifth orbit (n = 5), the spectrum obtained is
associated with Pfund series. For this n1 = 5 and n2 = 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 ........ .
(F) Humphry Series
When an electron falls from a higher energy level to the sixth orbit (n = 6), Humphrey series of the
spectrum is obtained. For this n1 = 6 and n2 = 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 .... .
Spectral
S.No. Series of lines n1 n2 Wavelength
region
2, 3, 4,
1 Lymen series 1 Ultraviolet < 4000 Å
……... 
3, 4, 5,
2 Balmer series 2 Visible 4000 Å to 7000 Å
……... 
4, 5, 6,
3 Paschen series 3 Near infrared > 7000 Å
……... 
5, 6, 7,
4 Brackett series 4 Infrared > 7000 Å
……... 
6, 7, 8,
5 Pfund series 5 Far infrared > 7000 Å
……... 
7, 8, 9,
6 Humphreyseries 6 Far infrared > 7000 Å
……... 
n(n  1)
Total number of spectral lines = .
2
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Atomic Structure
DRAWBACKS OF BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

(a) Bohr model cannot explain the elements having more than one electron.Only one-electron species,
like hydrogen atom, He+ ion, Li2+ ion, Be3+ ion, etc. can be explained with the help of Bohr model.
(b) Bohr model can explain only circular orbits in the atom and not the elliptical ones.
(c) Bohr model cannot explain splitting of specral lines into finer lines in a magnetic field, which is known
as Zeeman effect.
(d) Bohr model fails to explain the splitting of spectral lines into finer lines in an electric field, which is
known as Stark effect.
(e) Bohr model cannot be used for explaining finer structure of spectrum and calculating intensity of
spectral lines.
(f) Bohr model fails to explain Hiesenberg uncertainty principle and it cannot be applied for giving any
basis to classification of elements and periodicity in their properties.
SOMMERFELD’S EXPANSION OF BOHR’S MODEL

(a) A circular orbit is a particular situation of an elliptical orbit, in which the lengths of major axis is equal
to that of the minor axis.
(b) In elliptical orbits, the orbital angular momentum is a sum of the following two vector number.
(i) towards the radius, which is called radial component Pr, and
(ii) in the perpendicular direction to radius, which is called azimuthal component Pk.
(c) Sommerfeld suggested that Bohr quantum number n is a sum of two quantum numbers, of which one
is radial quantum number nr and the other is azimuthal quantum number K, i.e.
n = nr + K
(d) In circular orbit, the distance r remains constant but angle of rotation will change. In elliptical orbit, the
nucleus is regarded as situated at the focal point.
(e) The aforesaid discovery proved that each principal quantum number (n) is composed of many suborbits.
(f) Sommerfeld suggested that electrons moves around the nucleus not only in circular orbits but also in
elliptical orbits.
h
(g) The above two momenta are separately quantized, i.e. both are multiple of .
2
(h) When an electron travels in an elliptical orbit, its distance (r) from the nucleus and its angle of rotation
both will change.
–
e
–
e– e –
e
q' r q' r
r' q r' q
THE WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT

Light, X-rays and radiation produced by a radioactive substance are some of the examples of radiation
energy. In 1856 Clark Maxwell showed that energy of radiation is of wave nature, i.e. the energy is emitted
in the form of a wave. Therefore, he called the emitted energy as electromagnetic wave or electromagnetic
radiation. Since energy is a sort of wave, it is explained as wave motion.
[ 68 ]
Atomic Structure
Following are the salient features of this wave motion.

The aforesaid properties of a wave have the following relationship
1 
= and c = or c = 
T T
(A) Wave Length
The distance between any two successive crests (or troughs) is known as wavelength. This is
expressed as l (Lambda). The range of the wavelength associated with spectrum line is 108 to 106 cm.
Its common units are as follows. Angstrom (Å).
(B) Frequency
The number of vibrations produced in a unit time is called frequency. Here, the time is taken in seconds.
The number of wavelengths passing forward in one second from a fixed point is called frequency.
(C) Velocity of Light
The distance traveled by a light wave in a unit time (second) is called the velocity of that wave. It is
represented by c and its unit is normally cm/second or m/second. Its value is definite. For example, for
a light wave, the velocity c = 3 × 108 m/second or 3 × 1010 cm/second.
(D) Amplitude
The maximum deviation of a wave from its equilibrium point is known as its amplitude.
(E) Wave Number
The reciprocal of wavelength is called wave number. It is represented by  .
1
 =

Therefore, the unit of wave number is cm–1 or m–1
c c 
 c =  or  = or  = or  = c  or  =
  c
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Example. How many emission spectral lines would be observed, if an electron is present in the third
orbit of hydrogen atom ?
(1) 6 (2) 3
(3) 5 (4) 15
n(n  1) 3(3  1) 6
Solution. The expression of maximum number is = = =3
2 2 2
Example. Which of the following should be the expression for the last line of Paschen series ?
1 1 1  1  1 1
(1) R  – 2  (2) R  – 
 9    4 9
1 1 1  1  1 1
(3) R  –  (4) R  – 
  9 16    16  
1 1 1
Solution.  = =R  – 
 9 
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Atomic Structure
EXERCISE
1. Calculate the wavelength of an ultraviolet wave, if its frequency is 12 × 1016 cycles per seond and
c = 3 × 108 m/second ? (Ans. 25 Å)
2. A spectral line of the lyman series of hydrogen atom has a frequency of 2.466 × 1015 Sec–1. What is
the transition responsible for this spectral line ? [Rydberg constant = 1.096 × 107 m-1] (Find n)
3. Calculate the wave number for the shortest wavelength transition in the Balmer series of atomic
hydrogen. (Ans: 27, 419.25 cm–1)
PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY

If a substance emits or absorbs energy, it does not do so continuously but does it in the form of discrete
series of small packet or bundles, called quanta. This energy could be any of the quantum numbers 1, 2,
3, 4, 5 ....... n but not in the form of fractional quantum number.
c c
= Therefore E = h ×
 
THE DUEL NATURE OF MATTER (THE WAVE NATURE OF ELECTRON)

According to de-Broglie, “All material particles in motion possess wave characteristics.
According to Planck,
E = h ...(1)
According to Einstein
E = mc2 ...(2)
From Equ. (1) and (2)
h = mc2
 c = 
c


c
 h  mc 2

h

mc
This is called de-brogile equation
h

mv
 p  mv
h

p
Where p = momentum
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Atomic Structure
Justification for the Dual nature of Electrons

(A) Particle Nature: Electrons exhibhit the charecteristics of particles. They have definite mass, energy,
momentum and charge. When an electron strikes a zinc sulphide screeen, it produces a spot of light
known as Scintillation. It has been observerd that each striking electron produces only one Scintillation
point. This indicates that Scintillation and, therefore, the striking electron must be localised and not
spread out like a wave. This suggests that the electron behaves as a particle.
(B) Wave Nature: The electron was shown experimentaly to have wave light properties by Davisson and
Germer (1927) who studied the diffraction of electrons by a nickel surface and found that beam of
electrones underwent differaction by a crystal lattice in the same manner as a beam of X-rays. They
thus concluded that electrons behave more like waves than particles.
Important Fact
(1) Experiments which show particle nature of Electrons
(a) Thomson’s experiment for the determination of ratio of charge to mass.
(b) Milliken oil drop experiment for determination of charge on electron.
(2) May modern instruments like electron microscope is based on the wave nature of electrons
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
When a beam of light of sufficiently high frequency is allowed to strike a metal surface in vacuum, electrons
are ejected from the metal surface. This phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect and the ejected
electrons as photoelectrons.
(1) The energy of photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation falling upon the
metal surface.
(2) The number of photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of the intensity
of the incident radiation.
Observations of photoelectric effect
(i) Light of any frequency is not able to cause emission of electrons from the metal surface. There is
certain minimum frequency, called the threshold frequency, which can just cause the ejection of electrons.
(ii) The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident light. if
the frequency is decreased below a certain critical value (threshold frequency, v0), no electrons are
ejected at all.
(iii) An increase in the intensity of incident light does not increase the energy of the photoelectrons. It
merely increases their rate of emission.
Explanation of Photoelectric effect (Einstein’s)
1
Kinetic energy of electron = mv 2
2
1
Total energy  mv 2  w
2
Since E = h and W = h0
1
 h  mv 2  h 0
2
1  
m 2  h  h0 = h(   0 )  hc  0 
2  .0 
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Atomic Structure
where w is the energy required to remove the electron out of its nuclear attraction without giving it any
velocity. The energy, W is known as work function or threshold energy.
Black Body Radiations
The kind of object having absorptive power such that all the radiation incident on it will be completely
absorbed. For example Ferry’s Black body in which there is a spherical enclosure with a single entry for
radiation incident on it. This incident radiation is completely absorbed into the spherical enclosure after
multiple reflections such that it never comes out of the black body.
For a perfect black body -
Absorptive power = Emissive power
DERIVATION OF BOHR’S POSTULATE OF QUANTISATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM FROM
DE-BROGLIE RELATION
Consider an electron moving around the nucleus in the form of wave in a circular orbit of radius r. The wave
train of electrons may be continuously in phase or out of phase.
If the two ends of the wave meet to give a regular series of crests and troughs, the wave motion is said to
be phase.
Wave in phase Wave out of phase

If the two ends do not meet to give a regular series of crests and troughs, it is said to be out of phase.
The circumference of circular orbit must be an integral multiple of number of the wave lenght, otherwise the
wave would interfere destructively and cancel each other and thus destroy itself. Therefore, by considering
the electron as wave, we automatically impose a limit to the number of orbits.
It is clear that the circumference of the orbit must be integral multiple of the electron wave length i.e.
circumference = nh
h
 
mv
nh
2r 
mv
nh
or mvr 
2
Significance of de-Brogile relationship
h

mv
The wavelength of particle is inversely proportional to its mass and velocity. This means that the wavelength
of a particle decreases as its velocity increases.
At though the dual nature of matter is applicatble to all material objects but it significant for microscopic
bodies only. For large bodies, the wave length of the associated waves are very small and cannot be
measured by any of the available methods. Therefore, partically these bodies are said have no wave length.
Thus any material body in motion can have wavelenght but it is measurable or significant only for microscopic
bodies such as electron, proton, atom or molecule.
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Atomic Structure
EXERCISE
1. Calculate the mass of the photon of sodium light if its wavelength is 5894 Å, the velocity of light is
3 × 108 metre/second and the value of h is 6.6252 × 10–34 Kg m2/sec ? (Ans. 3.746 × 10–36 Kg)
2. What is the speed and de-Brogile wavelength of an electron that has been acelerated by a potential
difference of 300v? (Ans: 7.08 × 10–11m)
3. An electron beam can undergo diffraction by crystals. Through what potential should a beam of
electrons be accelerated so that its wavelength becomes equal to 1.54Å. (Ans: 63.75 volts)
QUANTUM MECHANICAL THEORY OF ATOM

(a) The dual nature (particle and wave) of electron led to the use of a new system of mechanics called
quantum mechanics. This system was first put forward by an Austrian physicist E. Schrodinger and a
German physicist W. Heisenberg.
(b) The two fundamental principles of quantum mechanics are given below :
(i) Heisenberg’s uncertainty principal and
(ii) Schrodinger’s wave equation
(A) Heisenbeng’s uncertainty Principle
It states that, “it is impossible to know exactly both the position and momentum of an electron or any
other small particles simultaneously and accurately.
h h
x × p  or x × m × v 
4 4
Here x is uncertainty of position, p is uncertainty of momentum and h is Planck’s constant.
The constancy of the product of uncertainities means that: -
(a) If x is small i.e. the position of the particle is measured accurately, p would be large, i.e. there
would be large uncertainity in its momentum.
(b) If p is small, the momentum of particle is measured more accurately, x would be large i.e. there
would be large uncertainity with regard to the position of the particle
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Example. What should be the uncertainty in position if uncertainty in momentum is 1 × 10–2 gm cm/
sec and value of h is 6.6253 × 10–34 Js ?
(1) 1.054 × 10–22m (2) 1.054 × 10–25m
(3) 1.054 × 10–27 m (4) 1.054 × 10 –32 m
Solution. Given that
p = 1 × 10–2 gm cm/sec. = 1 × 10–7 Kg m/sec.
h = 6.6252 × 10–34 Js
h h
x × p =  x =
2 2  p
6.6252  10 –34
or x = m = 1.054 × 10–27m
2  3.14  10 –7
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Atomic Structure
EXERCISE
1. A microscope using suitable photons is employed to locate an electron in an atom with in a distance
of 0.1Å. What is the uncertainty involved in the measurement of its velocity mass of electron =
9.11 × 10–31kg. (Ans: 5.79 × 106 m Sec-1)
2. A ping-pong ball weighing 2.5g has a speed of 20 m/s. If the speed can be measured with in acuracy
of 1%, calculate the uncertainty in the position. (Ans: 1.32 × 10–32 m)
(B) Schrondinger’s Wave Equation
Schrondinger regarded electron as having wave nature and put forward the following complex
differential equation.
8 2m
2  + (E – v)  = 0
h2
d2 d2 d2
2 = + +
dx 2 dy 2 dz 2
where m = Mass of electron, h = Planck constant,

E = Total energy of electron, v = Potential energy of electron,
 = Wave function,  = Laplacian Operator
QUANTUM NUMBERS
The set of four number which are required to specify the position, energy and shape of an electron in an
atom are called quantum numbers.
(A) Principal Quantum Number (n)
This quantum number determines the main energy level or shell in which the electron is present.
Value of n = Whole number
= 1, 2, 3, 4, .............. etc.
22me 4
En   Jper mole
n2 h2
For hydrogen atom
1.312  106
En   J per mole
n2
(B) Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)
This quantum number denotes the subshells or sub energy level in a given principle energy shell to
which an electron belongs. This is also called secondary quantum number.
Angular momentum =  i
h
µi = l(l  1) ×
2
Here  = Azimuthal quantum number and h = Planck’s constant
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Atomic Structure
The value of l for any value of n is

l = 0 to (n - 1)
(i) The total values of l are equal to the serial number of ‘n’
(ii) Principle quantum number (n) and azimuthal quantum number (l) can never have identical numerical
values.
(iii) The total number of sub shells (l) in a shell (n) is equal to the shell number.
Azimuthal quantum Maximum number of

Sub sell Shape
number electrons
Symmetrically
l=0 s 2
spherical shape
l=1 p Dumb-bell 6
l=2 d Double dumb – bell 10
l=3 f Complicated shape 14
Highly complicated
l=4 g 18
shape
(C) Magnetic Quantum Number (m)

(a) Magnetic quantum number gives information about an orbital. It is depicted by the symbol m.
(b) Magnetic quantum number gives information about orientation of orbitals.
(c) The value of m ranges from – to + .
(d) The total number of orbitals present in a sublevel is equal to the total values of magnetic quantum
number. This can be find out by the following expression.
m = 2l + 1
where m is total value of magnetic quantum number and l is the value of azimuthal quantum
number.
(i) For s sub-shell, l = 0. Thus, m = 2 × 0 + 1 = 1 and therefore s sub-shell consists of only one
orbital called s orbital.
(ii) For p sub-shell, l = 1. Thus, m = 2 × 1 + 1 = 3 and therefore p sub-shell consists of three
orbitals called px, py and pz orbitals.
(iii) For d sub-shell, l = 2. Thus, m = 2 × 2 + 1 = 5 and therefore d sub-shell consists of five orbitals
called dxy, dyz, dz2, dxz and d 2 2 orbitals.
x y
(i) For s sublevel, l = 0. Thus, for s orbital, the value of m is 0.

s
m=0
(ii) For p sub-level, l = 1. Thus, the values of m for p orbitals are as follows.
px/py pz px/py
–1 0 +1
(iii) For d sub-level, l = 2. Thus, the values of m for d orbitals are as follows.
dxy dyz dzx dx2  y2 dz2
–2 –1 0 +1 +2
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Atomic Structure
(iv) For f sub-level, l = 3. Thus, the values of m for f orbitals are as follows.
–3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3
(e) The total number of orbitals present in an energy level is determined by the formula n2 where n is
principal quantum number.
(D) Spin Quantum Number (s)
(a) Spin quantum number gives information about the spin of an electron.
(b) The value of s is 1/2 which depicts the direction of spin of the electron.
1
(c) If the electron spins in clockwise direction, s is denoted by + or a sign [-]. Anticlockwise spin
2
1
of the electron is denoted by s = – or [¯].
2
(d) One orbital can accommodate only two electrons, with opposite spins.
(e) One orbital can accommodate only two electrons, with opposite spins.
(f) The angular momentum of an electron is not only due its motion around the nucleus in an energy
level but also due to its rotation along its own axis. The angular momentum that arises due to
rotation of an electron along its axis, is called spin angular momentum and is depicted by the
symbol µs. The value of µs can be found out with the help of the following expression.
h
µs = s(s  1) × where s is spin quantum number. In this expression the value of s is always
2
1 1
taken as and not – .
2 2
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Example. Which of the following is the principal quantum number for the last electron of 11Na ?
(1) 3 (2) 2
(3) 4 (4) 1
Solution. (1) 11Na = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1
n=3
Example. Which of the following should have greater size ?
(1) 1s (2) 2s
(3) 3s (4) 4s
Solution. (4) n = 4 for 4s
Example. Which of the following should be the possible sub-shells, for n +  = 7 ?
(1) 7s, 6p, 5d, 4f (2) 4f, 5p, 6s, 4d
(3) 7s, 6p, 5d, 6d (4) 4s, 5d, 6p, 7s
Solution. (1) n + l = 7
7 + 0 = 7s ; 6 + 1 = 6p; 5 + 2 = 5d; 4 + 3 = 4f
Example. What should be the maximum number of electron in the possible sub-shells, for n + l = 4 ?
(1) 8 (2) 6
(3) 12 (4) 16
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Atomic Structure
Solution. (1) n + l = 4 Maximum number of electrons

4 + 0 = 4s  2
3 + 1 = 3p  6
8
Example. The sub-shell 2d is not possible because
(1) n  l (2) l > n
(3) n < l (4) None of these
Solution. For sub-shell 2d, n = 2 and l = 2 and the values of n and l can never be equal.
Example. What should be the maximum number of elements, if the elements above n = 4 do not exist
in nature ?
(1) 40 (2) 60
(3) 44 (4) 108
Solution. Since, n = 1, 2, 3 and 4, therefore
1s 2s,2p 3s,3p,3d 4s,4p,4d,4f

, , ,
2 8 18 32
Thus, total number of existent elements = 2 + 8 + 18 + 32 = 60
Example. Which of the following orbitals should be nearest to the nucleus ?
(1) 5s (2) 6p
(3) 3d (4) 4d
Solution. (3) n = 3 will be nearest to the nucleus.
Example. The orbital having n = 6, l = 2 and m = 0 will be designated as
(1) 6 dz2 (2) 6 d
x2 – y2
(3) 6d xy (4) 6pz
Solution. (1) For 6th of P energy level, l = 2 is for d sub-level, and m = 0 for dz2 orbital
Example. The orbital having n = 2, l = 1 and m = 0 is designated as

(1) 2pz (2) 2px
(3) 2p y (4) 3 dz2
Solution. (1) In the second or L energy level (n = 2) , l = 1 for p orbital, m = 0 for z axis, Hence, the
orbital will be designated as 2pz.
Example. The orbital having m = – 2 should not be present in the following sub-shell
(1) d (2) f
(3) g (4) p
Solution. For p sub-shell, m = – 1, 0, + 1. Therefore, m = – 2 orbital will not be present in p sub-shell.
Example. The all energy levels are called excited states when the value of principal quantum number is:
(1) n = 1 (2) n > 1
(3) n < 1 (4) n > – 1
Solution. (2) All the energy states in which n is greater than 1 are called excited states.
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Atomic Structure
EXERCISE
1. Calculate the total numbers of orbitals and electrons for m = 0, if there are 30 protons in an atom?
(Ans. 7 orbitals, 14 electrons)
2. If x is the number of electron in an atom, write the electronic configuration : (Ans. nlx)
3. Calculate the atomic number of an element, if the quantum numbers of the highest energy electron of
1
the element in ground state are n = 4, l = 1, m = – 1 s = + ? (Ans. 31)
2
4. What should be the value of spin quantum number of the last electron for d9 configuration ?
1
(Ans: – )
2
5. Why Cu2+ is more stable than Cu+. What is the magnetic character of these ions:
6. Locate the period of the elemetns with atomic number Z = 12, 19, 24 and 30 in the periodic table.
RULES FOR FILLING THE ELECTRONS

(A) Pauli’s exclusion principle : - It states that, “no two electrons in an atom can have an identical
set of all the four quantum numbers.” If three quantum numbers are same, then fourth quantum
number will definitely be different.
Example
1s2 : - For first electron n = 1, l = 0, m = 0, s = +1/2
For second electron n = 1, l = 0, m = 0, s = –1/2
(B) Shielding or Screening effect : The elctrons in the completely filled inner shells screen the outer
electrons against the attraction by the nucleus i.e. the outer electrons are not attracted by the nucleus
so effectively asthey would have been attracted had the inner shell electrons not been present. This is
known as sheilding or screening effect.
In a given shell, the decreasing order of screening effect is :
s>p>d>f
(C) Aufbau principle : It states that in the ground state of an atom, an electron enters the orbital of lowest
energy first and susequent electrons are fed in the order of increasing energies.
Orbitals in the increasing order : -
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p
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Atomic Structure
(D) Bohr Bury’s rule or (n + l) rule : - According to this rule

(i) In neutral atoms, electron enter first in the orbital which has lower value of (n + l).
(ii) If the two orbitals have same value of (n + l), than electron enter in that orbital which has lower value
of n.
Exceptions to n + l Rule
There are mainly two exceptions of n + l rule.
(a) La57 – 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d10, 4p6, 5s2, 4d10, 5p6, 6s2, 5d1
(b) Ac89 – 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d10, 4p6, 5s2, 4d10, 5p6, 6s2, 4f14, 5d10, 6s2, 7s2, 6d1
(E) Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity : - According to this rule, “ Paring of electrons in a sub-shell
starts after all the available atomic orbitals of that sub-shell are singly filled with electrons having
parallel spins.”
OR
Paring of electrons in a sub-shell is impossible in the presence of vacant atomic orbitals in that sub-
shell.
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Example. Pauli exclusion principle applies to
(1) H (2) H+
(3) H– (4) None of the above
Solution. (3) Since, H has one electron and H+ has no electron, therefore Paulie principal does not
apply to them. However, H– has two electrons, hence this principle applies on it.
Example. Which of the following statements is true ?
(1) One orbit can accommodate a maximum of two electrons
(2) One sub-shell can accommodate a maximum of two electrons
(3) One orbital can accommodate a maximum of two electrons
(4) None of the above
Solution. (3) It is an orbital that can accommodate a maximum of two electrons having opposite spins
Example. Which of the following is not according to Pauli exclusion principle ?
(1)  (2) 
(3)   (4) 1 and 2 both
Solution. (4) The set of four quantum numbers are not same for the three electrons in answer 3. In
answer 1 both of the electrons have same set of quantum numbers, while in answer 2
the first and third electrons have same set of quantum numbers.
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Atomic Structure
Example. Supposing that Pauli exclusion principle is not correct, if one orbital can accommodate three
electrons, what should be the respective atomic number of the second member of alkali
metal family and the first member of halogen family
(1) 16, 14 (2) 11, 9
(3) 16, 9 (4) 34, 17
Solution. (1) Sodium is the second member of alkali metal family
Na11 = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1
We know that the inner orbitals of sodium are fully filled and the outer most orbit has one
electron. If inner orbitals can accommodate three electrons each, the configuration will
be as follows.
1s3, 2s3, 2p9, 3s1
Therefore, three will be 16 electrons in all. Hence the atomic number will be 16.
(b) The first member of halogen family is fluorine, F9 whose configuration is 1s2, 2s2, 2p5
Halogen has one electron less than the next inert of noble gas. If inner orbitals can
accommodate three electron each, the configuration will be as follows.
1s3, 2s3, 2p8
Therefore, total number of electrons will be 14 and thus the atomic number will also be
14.
Example. Supposing that Pauli exclusion principle is nonexistent, which of the following should be the
most unacceptable configuration of Li in ground state ?
(1) 1s2, 2s1 (2) 1s3
(3) 1s1, 2s2 (4) 1s1, 2s1, 2p1
Solution. (4) As a matter of fact, the configuration given in 2, 3 and 4 are wrong, but configuration
given in 4 is most unacceptable because there is one electron in each of the three
orbitals and according to Paulis exclusion principle maximum two electrons can be
occupier in a orbital.
Example. Which of the following should be correct according to Hund’s rule ?
(1) C6 = 1s2, 2s2   (2) O8 = 1s2, 2s2   
(3) N7 = 1s2, 2s2,   (4) F9 = 1s2, 2s2   

Solution. (4) Configuration of C6 should be 2px1 2py1 instead of 2px2
Configuration of O8 should be 2px2 2py1 2pz1 instead of 2px2 2py2
Configuration of N7 should be 2px1 2py1 2pz1 instead of 2px2 2py1
Configuration of F9 2px2 2py2 2pz1 is correct because two out of the three degenerate p
orbtials are fully-filled, one is half-filled and there is no unfilled p orbital.
Example. If the value of n + l = 7, then what should be the increasing order of energy of the possible
sub-shells ?
(1) 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s (2) 7s < 6p < 5d < 4f
(3) 7s > 6p < 5d < 4p (4) 4f < 5d < 6p > 7s
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Atomic Structure
Solution. (1) n + l = 7
7 + 0 = 7s Order of energy
6 + 1 = 6p 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s
5 + 2 = 5d
4 + 3 = 4f
Example. Which of the following sub-shells will be filled by the electron after complete filling up of the
orbital of the third principal shell ?
(1) 4s (2) 4f
(3) 4d (4) 4p
Solution. (4) The electron goes to 4p after filling up to 3d.
Example. Which of the following should be the basis of entry of an electron in 4s orbital before 3d
orbital ?
(1) Energy level diagram (2) Hund’s rule
(3) Pauli’s principle (4) Shielding constant
Solution. (1) n + l of 4s = 4 + 0 = 4 and that of 3d is 3 + 2 = 5. Therefore, energy of 4s is lower than
that of 3d.
Specific Electronic Configuration or Exceptional configuration
S. No. Element Atomic Number Expected Configuration Actual Configuration

18 4 2
1. Cr 24 [Ar] 3d 4s [Ar]18 3d5 4s1
2. Cu 29 [Ar]18 3d9 4s2 [Ar]18 3d10 4s1
36 4 2
3. Mo 42 [Kr] 4d 5s [Kr]36 4d5 5s1
4. Pd 46 [Kr]36 4d8 5s2 [Kr]36 4d10 5s0
5. Ag 47 [Kr]36 4d9 5s2 [Kr]36 4d10 5s1
6. W 74 [Xe]54 4f14 5d4 6s2 [Xe]54 4f14 5d2 6s1
54 14 8 2
7. Pt 78 [Xe] 4f 5d 6s [Xe]54 4f14 5d9 6s2
8. Au 79 [Xe]54 4f14 5d9 6s2 [Xe]54 4f14 5d10 6s1
Due to greater stability of half-filled and fully-filled orbitals, the configurations d5 ns1 and d10
ns1 are written in place of d4 ns2 and d9 ns2 respectively.
EXERCISE
1. Give the electronic configuration of scandium (Z = 21) and chromium (Z = 24).
2. Write the all four quantum numbers of 3s, 4d, 5p, 4f.
3. Among the following pairs of orbitals which orbital will experience the longer effective nuclear change?
(i) 2s and 3s (ii) 4d and 4f (iii) 3d and 3p
EXTRA STABILITY OF HALF-FILLED AND FULLY-FILLED ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS

(A) Stability on the basis of symmetrical distribution of electrons : - The symmetry leads to stability.
Therefore, the electronic configurations in which all the orbitals of the same sub-shell are either completely
filled or exactly half filled are more stable because of symmetrical distribution of electrons.
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Atomic Structure
Example : - Cr (Z = 24)
Electronic configuration 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d4
Electronic configuration 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1, 3d5
(B) Stability due ot exchange energy : - The half filled and completely filled electronic congigurations
are stable due to large exchange of energy of stabilization.
(i) The first electron can exchange its position with electrons numbered 2, 3 and 4 i.e. in three ways
(ii) The second electron can exchange its postion in two ways with electrons 3 and 4 because the
exchange of positions first and second has allready will cosidered in step first.
(iii) The third electron can exchange only in one way that is with electron four.
Thus, in 3d4 arrangement, electrons can exchange in 3 + 2 + 1 = 6 ways or there 6 possible

arrangement with parrallel spin 3d4 configuration
(iv) In 3d5 configuration, the electron can exchange in 10 ways.
1 2
3 4
Since the number of exchanges in 3d5, 4s1 configuration is more than that in 3d4, 4s2 configurations,
therefore, the greater exchange is responsible for the extra stability of this configuration.
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Atomic Structure
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORBIT AND ORBITAL
S.No. Orbit Orbital

1. It is depicted by n. It is depicted by m
It has maximum electron It has maximum electron capacity of 2
2.
capacity of 2n2. in accordance with Pauli’s principle
3. It is bigger in size It is smaller in size
Sub-orbit consists of orbitals
Orbit consist of suborbits
4.  p  px,py,p2 
(s, p, d, f)  2
 d  dxy,dyz,dzx,dx ,y ,dz 
2 2
The space around the nucleus where

The path of an electron around
5. probability of finding an electron is
the nucleus is called an orbit
maximum, is called an orbital.
ORBITAL
(a) The space around the nucleus where probability of finding an electron is maximum, is called an orbital.
(b) An electron cloud is negatively charged and the nucleus is positively charged. Therefore, the probability
of finding an electron is maximum around the nucleus.
(c) The probability of finding an electron is an orbital is 95% to 98%.
(A) s-Orbital
(a) Only one s-orbital is possible in an orbit because l = 0 and m = 0 for it.
(b) It is spherical in shape and thus the electron density is uniform in all directions.
(c) The size increases with increase in the value of n. There is vacant space between 1s orbital and 2s
orbital, where the probability of finding electron is minimum, it is known as nodal surface.
(d) The nodal surface is missing inside 1s orbital because of its proximity with the nucleus.
(e) The number of nodal surfaces in an orbit is equal to (n – 1)
z z
y y
x + x +
1s Orbital 2s Orbital
(a) (b)
The shapes of s-orbital
(B) p-Orbital
(a) For p orbitals, l = 1 and m = – 1, 0, + 1. Thus, it can have three configurations, which are
distributed in x, y and z axes. Therefore, there are three p-orbitals, which are dumbbell, shaped.
(b) Each p-orbital has two lobes and the probability of finding electron inside these two lobes is equal.
The plane perpendicular to the axis two lobes and passing through the point where these two lobes
join, is the nodal plane of p-orbital, because the probability of finding electron in this plane is
negligible or minimum.
(c) The value of nodal planes for each of the px, py and pz orbitals is same and these nodal planes are
present in xy, yz and xz planes, respectively.
[ 83 ]
Aakash - NEET
Atomic Structure
(d) The three p-orbitals of a particular orbit (px, py and pz) have equal energy and therefore these are
called degenerated orbitals.
x
+
px Orbitals
+ y +
+
z
z
y
px–py–pz Orbitals py Orbitals pz Orbitals
Shape of p orbitals
(C) d-Orbitals
(a) For d orbitals, l = 2 and m = – 2, – 1, 0, +1, + 2. Therefore, there are five orientations and thus five
d-orbitals.
(b) Its shape is like a double dumbbell.
(c) The five orientations of d-orbitals are as follows :
(i) The double dumbbell of dxy orbital are situated between x and y axes.
(ii) The double dumbbell of dyz orbital are situated between y and z axes
(iii) The double dumbbell of dxz orbital are situated between x and z axes.
(iv) The double dumbbell of d 2 2 orbital are directed on x and y axes

x –y
(v) dz2 orbital is composed of one dumbbell and one ring. The dumbbell is situated on z axis and
the ring is present on its middle part.
(d) The aforesaid five d orbtials can be classified into the following two categories. (Splitting of d-
orbitals)
(i) t2g Orbitals (dxy, dxz and dyz) – In these, the electron density is concentrated in-between the
axes. These are also called grade orbitals.
(ii) eg Orbitals ( dx2  y2 and dz2 ) – In these, the electron density is concentrated on the axes.
Shape of d Orbitals
[ 84 ]
Atomic Structure
(D) f-orbitals
(i) They have complex shapes,
(ii) For these, l = 3 and m = – 3, –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, +3
(iii) These have seven orientations.
process is occurred.
SOME IMPORTANT FORMULAE

S.N0. Radius Velocity Energy Wavelength
n 2h2 n2 h 2 Ze2
22me 4
1. r= V= E=– R=
4 2mZe2 42mZe2 2r Ch3
1/ 2
n2  Ze2  22 mZ2 e 4 1 1 1
2. r= × 0.529Å V   E = R × Z2  2 – 2 
Z  rm  n2h2   n1 n2 
n2 nh z2
3. r  0.0529 nm V E  Rch  E = h?
Z 2mr n2
1 z2 h
4. r  n2 (Z const) V  (Z const) E= × 313.6 Kcal =
n n2 mc
r1 n12 V1 n2
5.  (Z const)  (Z const) E  – Z 2 (n const) c = v/t
r2 n22 V2 n1
2r E1 Z12
6. r  1/Z (n const) Time period T =  (n const) E = mc2
V E2 Z22

[ 85 ]
Aakash - NEET
Atomic Structure
IMPORTANT COMPETITION TIPS

 All lines in the visible region are of Balmer series but reverse is not true i.e., all Balmer lines will not fall
in visible region.
 A part of an atom up to penultimate shell is a kernel or atomic core.

 If the energy supplied to hydrogen atom is less than 13.6 eV it will awpt or absorb only those quanta which
can take it to a certain higher energy level i.e., all those photons having energy less than or more than a
particular energy level will not be absorbed by hydrogen atom, but if energy supplied to hydrogen atom
is more than 13.6eV then all photons are absorbed and excess energy appear as kinetic energy of emitted
photo electron.
 No of nodes in any orbital = (n – l – 1)

 No of nodal planes in an orbitals = l
 The d orbital which does not have four lobes is d z 2
 The orbital whose lobes lie along the axis is d x2  y 2
 Spin angular momentum  s ( s  1) h

2
n
 Total spin   ; where is no of unpaired e–
2
 Magnetic moment  n(n  2) B.M. (Bohr magnetron) of n unpaired e–
 Ion with unpaired electron in d or f orbital will be coloured.

 Exception of E.C. are Cr(24), Cu(29), Mo(42), Ag(47), W(74), Au(79).
2r h
 No. of waves n  (where   )
 mv
 No. of revolutions of e– per second is  v .

2r
 The solution of schrodinger wave equation gives principal, azimuthal and magnetic quantum numbers
but not the spin quantum number.
 In the Rydberg formula, when n2 =  the line produced is called the limiting line of that series.
 Among various forms of visible light, violet colour has shortest wavelength, highest frequency and highest
energy.
 Red coloured light has largest wavelength, least frequency and lowest energy in visible light.
 Elements give line spectra. The line spectrum is characteristic of the excited atom producing it. No two
elements have identical line spectrum.
[ 86 ]
Atomic Structure
 The line spectrum results from the emission of radiations from the atoms of the elements and is therefore
called as atomic spectrum.
 Atoms give line spectra (known as atomic spectrum) and the molecules give band spectra (known as
molecular spectrum).
 The negative potential at which the photoelectric current becomes zero is called cut off potential or
stopping potential.
 When energy or frequency of scattered ray is lesser than the incident ray, it is known as Compton effect.
 The instrument used to record solar spectrum is called spectrometer or spectrograph developed by Bunsen
and Kirchoff in 1859.
 The intensities of spectral lines decreases with increase in the value of n. For example, the intensity of first
Lyman line is greater than second line and so on.
 In Balmer series of hydrogen spectrum the first line is also known as L line. The second line is L line. The
line from infinity energy shell is called limiting line.

[ 87 ]
Aakash - NEET
Atomic Structure
EXERCISE - 1
Only one option is correct
1. An atom has an atomic weight of W and atomic 7. Krypton (36Kr) has the electronic configuration
number N then : (18Ar) 4s2 3d10 4p6. The 37th electron will go into
which of the following sub levels :
(1) Number of electrons = W – N
(1) 4f (2) 4d
(2) Number of protons = W – N
(3) 3p (4) 5s
(3) Number of neutrons = W – N
8. Which of the following statements is false :
(4) Number of neutrons = N
(1) The energy of red photon is more than the
2. When an electron of charge e and mass m
energy of violet photon
moves with velocity v about the nuclear charge
Ze in the circular orbit of radius r, then the (2) The momentum of photon is inversely
potential energy of the electron in given by : proportional to its wave length
(1) Ze2/r (2) –Ze2/r (3) The energy of a photon is inversely
proportional to its wave length
(3) Ze2/r2 (4) mv2/r
(4) The particle nature of electromagnetic
3. The number of electrons shared by each atom
radiations is able to explain the photoelectric
of nitrogen in nitrogen molecule is :
effect
(1) 2 (2) 6
9. Calculate the de-Broglie wave length of the
(3) 3 (4) 4 electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom,
given that its kinetic energy is 13.6 eV :
4. If uncertainty in position of electron is zero, then
(1eV = 1.602 × 10–19 J)
the uncertainty in its momentum would be :
(1) 3.328 × 10–10 m (2) 2.338 × 10–10 m
(1) Zero (2) h/2
(3) 3.328 × 1010 m (4) 2.338 × 10 m
(3) 3h/2 (4) Infinity
10. Which of the following pair having same number
5. It is known that atoms contain protons, neutrons
of orbitals :
and electrons. If the mass of neutron is
assumed to be half of its original value whereas (A) N, O (B) O, F
that of electron is assumed to be twice to this
(C) Na, K (D) S, Cl
original value. The atomic mass of 6C12 will be :
The correct answer is :
(1) Twice
(1) A, B, C (2) B, C, D
(2) 75% less
(3) C, D, A (4) A, B, D
(3) 25% less
11. The speed of a proton is one hundredth of the
(4) One half of its original value
speed of light in vacuum. What is its de-Broglie
6. If the energy of an electron in hydrogen atom is wavelength? Assume that one mole of protons
given by expression, –1312/n2 kJ mol–1, then has a mass equal to one gram
the energy required to excite the electron from [h = 6.626 × 10–27 erg sec] :
ground state to second orbit is :
(1) 13.31 × 10–3 Å (2) 1.33 × 10–3 Å
(1) 328 kJ/mol (2) 656 kJ/mol
(3) 13.13 × 10–2 Å (4) 1.31 × 10–2 Å
(3) 984 kJ/mol (4) 1312 kJ/mol
[ 88 ] st
Atomic Structure
12. The value of charge on the oil droplets 19. The value of : [2p(energy) – 1s(energy)] for H-
experimentally observed were – 1.6 × 10–19 and atom would be :
–4 × 10–19 coulomb. The value of the electronic
(1) 10.2 eV (2) 13.6 eV
charge, indicated by these results is :
(3) 3.4 eV (4) None of these
(1) 1.6 × 10–19 (2) –2.4 × 10–19
20. In hydrogen atom, If an electron jumps from n =
(3) –4 × 10–19 (4) –0.8 × 10–19
6 to n = 2, how many possible spectral lines
13. The ratio of ionization energy of H and Be+3 is : are obtained:
(1) 1 : 1 (2) 1 : 3 (1) 15 (2) 10
(3) 1 : 9 (4) 1 : 16 (3) 6 (4) 12
14. Hydrogen spectrum consists of : 21. If Hund’s rule is followed, magnetic moment of
Fe2+, Mn+ and Cr all having 24 electrons will be
(1) An intense line
in order:
(2) Six series of lines
(1) Fe2+ < Mn+ < Cr (2) Fe2+ < Cr = Mn+
(3) Three series of lines
(3) Fe2+ = Mn+ < Cr (4) Mn2+ = Cr < Fe2+
(4) Four series of lines
22. The speed of the electron in the 1st orbit of the
15. Which of the following salt has isoelectronic hydrogen atom in the ground state is–
cation and anion :
(1) c/1.37 (2) c/1370
(1) KF (2) NaCl
(3) c/13.7 (4) c/137
(3) SrCl2 (4) MgF2
23. Five ionization energy values in kJ mol–1 are
16. Which set of quantum numbers is possible for 834, 869, 1008, 1170, 376 shows :
the last electron of Mg+ ion :
(1) Successive ionization energies for the
1 element of atomic number 5
(1) n = 3, l = 2, m = 0, s = +
2 (2) The first ionization energies for successive
1 elements in Groups 5, 6, 7, 0 and 1
(2) n = 2, l = 3, m = 0, s = +
2 (3) The first ionization energies for elements
with atomic number 1–5
1
(3) n = 1, l = 0, m = 0, s = +
2 (4) Successive ionization energies for transition
element with 4 electron in the d-subshell
1
(4) n = 3, l = 0, m = 0, s = + 24. If n and l are respectively the principal and
2
azimuthal quantum numbers, then the
17. The discovery of neutron became very late expression for calculating the total number of
because : electrons in any energy level is :
(1) Neutrons are present in nucleus l n l n–1
(2) Neutrons are fundamental particles (1)  2(2l  1)

l 0
(2) l 1
2(2l  1)
(3) Neutrons are charge less l n 1 l n–1
(4) All of these (3) l 0

2(2l  1) (4) l 0
2(2l  1)
18. If E1, E2 and E3 represent respectively the kinetic 25. If 10–17J of light energy is needed by the interior
energies of an electron, an alpha particle and a of human eye to see an object. The photons of
proton each having same de Broglie wavelength green light ( = 550 nm) needed to see the
then : object are :
(1) E1 > E3 > E2 (2) E2 > E3 > E1 (1) 27 (2) 28
(3) E1 > E2 > E3 (4) E1 = E2 = E3 (3) 29 (4) 30
[ 89 ]
Aakash - NEET
Atomic Structure
26. The potential energy of the electron present in 32. An electron in a hydrogen atom in its ground
the ground state of Li2+ ion is represent by : state absorbs 1.50 times as much energy as
the minimum required for it to escape from the
3e2 3e atom. What is the wavelength of the emitted
(1) (2) – electron :
40r 40 r
(1) 4.70 Å (2) 4.70 nm
3e
(3) – (4) None of these (3) 9.4 Å (4) 9.40 nm
40 r
33. For an electron in a hydrogen atom, the wave
27. For the energy levels in an atom which one of function,  is proportional to exp–(r/a0), where
the following statements is correct : a0 is the Bohr’s radius. What is the ratio of the
probability of finding the electron at the nucleus
(1) The 4s sub-energy level is at a higher energy to the probability of finding it at a0.
than the 3d sub-energy level
(1) e (2) e2
(2) The second principal energy level can have
four orbitals and contain a maximum of 8 (3) 1/e2 (4) Zero
electrons
34. Energy levels A, B, C of a certain atom
(3) The M-energy level can have maximum of corresponds to increasing values of energy, i.e.,
32 electrons EA < EB < EC. If 1, 2 and 3 are the wavelengths
of radiations corresponding to the transitions C
(4) None of these to B, B to A and C to A respectively, which of
28. 13.5 g of Aluminium when changes to Al+3 ion the following statement is correct :
in solution, will lose : (1) 3 = 1 + 2
(1) 18.0 × 10 electrons
23 C
1 2 1
(2) 6.022 × 1023 electrons B
(2) 3 =   
1 2
(3) 3.01 × 1023 electrons 2  3
(3) 1 + 2 + 3 = 0 A
(4) 9.1 × 1023 electrons
29. Assume that the nucleus of the F-atom is a (4)  32 =  12 +  22
sphere of radius 5 × 10–13 cm. What is the
35. The energy difference between two electronic
density of matter in F–nucleus :
states is 46.12 kcal/mole. What will be the
(1) 6.02 × 1011 g/ml (2) 6.02 × 1013 g/ml frequency of the light emitted when an electron
drops from the higher to the lower energy state
(3) 6.02 × 1018 g/ml (4) None of these (Planck constant = 9.52 × 10–14 kcal sec mole–1)
30. The ionization energy of a hydrogen atom is (1) 4.84 × 1015 cycles sec–1
13.6eV. The energy of the third-lowest electronic
level in doubly ionized lithium (Z = 3) is : (2) 4.84 × 10–5 cycles sec–1
(1) –28.7 eV (2) –54.4 eV (3) 4.84 × 10–12 cycles sec–1
(3) –122.4 eV (4) –13.6 eV (4) 4.84 × 1014 cycles sec–1
31. Assuming the nucleus and an atom to be 36. Which of the following curves may represent
spherical, the radius of the nucleus of mass the speed of the electron in a hydrogen atom
number a is given by 1.25 × 10–13 × A1/3 cm. The as a function of the principal quantum number
atomic radius of atom is 1Å. If the mass number n:
is 64, the fraction of the atomic volume that is a
(1) a d
occupied by the nucleus is : b
v c
(2) b
(1) 1.25 × 10–13 (2) 2.50 × 10–13
(3) c n
(3) 5 × 10–5 (4) None of these
(4) d
[ 90 ]
Atomic Structure
37. The uncertainty in the position of an electron 44. Which of the following statementsis wrong :
(mass 9.1 × 10–28 gm) moving with a velocity of 3
× 104 cm sec–1, Accurate upto 0.011% will be: (1) Kinetic energy of an electron is halfof the
magnitude of its potential energy
(1) 1.92 cm (2) 7.68 cm
(2) Kietic energy of an electron is negative of
(3) 0.175 cm (4) 3.84 cm
total energy of electron
38. A–1 kW radio transmitter operates at a
frequency of 880 Hz. How many photons per (3) Energy of an electron decreases with
second does it emit: increases in the value of principal quantum
number
(1) 1.71 × 1021 (2) 1.71 × 1033
(4) All of these
(3) 6.02 × 1023 (4) 2.85 × 1026
39. Two particles A and B are in motion. It the 45. If each hydrogen atom is excited by giving
wavelength associated with the particle A is 8.4eV energy, then the number of spectral lines
5.0 × 10–8 m, the wavelength of particle B having emitted is equal to:
momentum half of A is : (1) none (2) 2
(1) 2.5 × 10–8 m (2) 1.25 × 10–8 m
(3) 3 (4) 4
(3) 1.0 × 10–7 m (4) 1.0 × 10–8 m
46. The orbital cylindrically symmetrical about x-
40. A particle A moving with a certain velocity has axis is :
de Broglie wavelength of 1 Å. If particle B has
mass 25% of that A and velocity 75% of that of (1) pz (2) py
A, the de Broglie wavelength of B will be (3) px (4) dxz
approximately :
(1) 1 Å (2) 5.3 Å 47. Which of the d-orbital lies in the xy-plane :
(3) 3 Å (4) 0.2 Å (1) dxz only (2) dxy only

41. Energy required to pull out an electron from 1st
(3) dx2  y2 only (4) dxy & dx2  y2 only
orbit of hydrogen atom to infinity is 100 units.
The amount of energy needed to pull out the
48. The probability of finding an electron residing in
electron from 2nd orbit to infinity is :
a px orbital is zero in the :
(1) 50 units (2) 100 units
(1) xy plane (2) yz plane
(3) 25 units (4) Zero
(3) y direction (4) z direction
42. The graphical representation of energy of e– and
atomic number is : 49. If the series limit of wavelength of the Lyman
series for the hydrogen atoms is 912Å, then
the series limit of wavelength for the Balmer
series of the hydrogen atom is :
E E
(1) (2) (1) 912 Å (2) 912 × 2 Å
2 2
Z Z
(3) 912 × 4 Å (4) 912/2 Å
50. An element of atomic weight Z consist of two
E Z
2
E isotopes of mass number Z – 1 and Z + 2.

(3) (4) Percentage of abundanc of the heavier isotope
Z
2
is:
43. At atom has x energy level then total number of
lines in its spectrum are : 1
(1) 25 (2) 33
3
(1) 1 + 2 + 3 ................ (x + 1)
(2) 1 + 2 + 3 ................. (x)2 2
(3) 66 (4) 75
(3) 1 + 2 + 3 ................. (x – 1) 3
(4) (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 4)
[ 91 ]
Aakash - NEET
Atomic Structure
EXERCISE - 2
PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS

1. The size of nucleus is measured in : (3) 2s (4) 1s
[CPMT 1994] 10. Aufbau principle is not satisfied by :
(1) amu (2) Angstrom [MP PMT 1997]
(3) Fermi (4) cm (1) Cr and Cl (2) Cu and Ag
2. If n = 3, then the value of ‘l’ which is incorrect : (3) Cr and Mg (4) Cu and Na
[CPMT 1994] 11. In an element going away from nucleus, the
(1) 0 (2) 1 energy of particle : [RPMT 1997]
(3) 2 (4) 3 (1) Decreases (2) Unchanged
3. For n = 3 energy level, the number of possible (3) Increases (4) None of these
orbitals are : [MP PMT 1995] 12. In neutral atom, which particles are equivalent :
(1) 1 (2) 3 [RPMT 1997]
(3) 4 (4) 9 (1) p+, e+ (2) e–, e+
4. Which statement is not correct for n = 5, (3) e–, p+ (4) p+, n0
m = 3: [CPMT 1996] 13. If n + l = 6, then total possible number of
(1) l = 4 subshells would be : [RPMT 1997]
(2) l = 0, 1, 2, 3 ; s = + 1/2 (1) 3 (2) 4
(3) l = 3 (3) 2 (4) 5
(4) All are correct 14. The configuration 1s 2s2 2p5 3s1 shows :
2
5. 1s2, 2s2 2p5 3s2 shows configuration of : [AIIMS 1997]

[CPMT 1996] (1) Ground state of fluorine atom
(1) Al in ground state
+3
(2) Excited state of fluorine atom
(2) Ne in excited state (3) Excited state of neon atom
(3) Mg+1 in excited stated (4) Excited state of ion O2– ion
(4) All are correct 15. In the ground state configuration of Cr24 how
6. The shape of an orbital is given by the quantum many orbitals are present having paired and
number : [MP PMT 1996] unpaired electrons : [RPMT 1997]
(1) n (2) l (1) 10 (2) 12
(3) m (4) s (3) 15 (4) 16
7. Which of the following metal ions will have 16. Discoverer of positron : [RPMT 1997]
maximum number of unpaired electrons : (1) Paulling (2) Anderson
[CPMT 1996] (3) Yukawa (4) Segre
(1) Fe +2
(2) Co +2
17. Which of the following species not contains
(3) Ni+2 (4) Mn+2 neurtrons : [RPMT 1997]
8. The total number of orbital in an energy level (1) H (2) Li+2
designated by principal quantum number n, is (3) C (4) O
equal to : [AIIMS 1997]
18. Which of the following explain the sequence of
(1) 2n (2) 2n 2
filling the electrons in different orbitals :
(3) n (4) n2 [AIIMS 1998]
9. Which electronic level would allow the hydrogen (1) Hund’s rule (2) Octet rule
atom to absorb a photon but not to emit a (3) Aufbau principle (4) All of these
photon: [CPMT 1997]
19. Number of orbitals having paired electrons for
(1) 3s (2) 2p gaseous Fe are : [RPMT 1998]
[ 92 ]
Atomic Structure
(1) 4 (2) 11 27. Which quantum number will determine the

(3) 15 (4) 19 shape of the subshell : [CPMT 1999]
20. [Ar] 3d6 is the configuration of the following ion: (1) Principal quantum number
[RPMT 1998] (2) Azimuthal quantum number
(1) Fe +2
(2) Ti +3
(3) Magnetic quantum number
(3) Co+2 (4) Cr+3 (4) Spin quantum number
21. Which triad of quantum number [n, l, m] is not 28. A metal in its di positive state has the electronic
applicable for 3d-electron : [RPMT 1998] configuration 2, 8, 14 and has the atomic weight
(1) 3, 2, 0 (2) 3, 1 –1 equal to 56. Number of neutrons in its nucleus
(3) 3, 2, – 2 (4) 3, 2, +1 would be : [RPMT 1999]
22. Which of the following configuration follows the (1) 30 (2) 32
Hund’s rule : [RPMT 1998] (3) 34 (4) 28
2s 2p 29. Which set of quantum number for an electron
(1) [He]    of an atom is not possible : [RPMT 1999]
2s 2p 1
(2) [He]    (1) n = 1, l = 0, m = 0, s = +
2
2s 2p
(3) [He]    1
(2) n = 1, l = 1, m = 1, s = +
2s 2p 2
(4) [He]   
1
23. The ratio of radii of 3rd and 2nd Bohr’s orbit of (3) n = 1, l = 0, m = 0, s = –
2
hydrogen atom is : [RPMT 1998]
(1) 3 : 2 (2) 4 : 9 1
(4) n = 2, l = 1, m = – 1, s = +
(3) 9 : 4 (4) 9 : 1 2
24. The four quantum number for the valence shell 30. Outer electronic configuration of the element of
electron or last electron of sodium is : atomic number 24 is : [RPMT 1999]
[MP PMT 1999] (1) 3s 3p 3d 4s
2 6 5 1
(2) 3s 3p6 3d4 4s2
2
(1) n = 2, l = 1, m = – 1, s = – 1/2 (3) 3s2 3p6 3d6 (4) None

(2) n = 3, l = 0, m = 0, s = + 1/2 31. The basis of three unpaired electrons in the
(3) n = 3, l = 2, m = – 2, s = – 1/2 configuration of nitrogen is : [RPMT 1999]
(4) n = 3, l = 2, m = 2, s = + 1/2 (1) Aufbau principle
25. Which of the following set of quantum numbers (2) Pauli’s principle
belong to highest energy : [CPMT 1999] (3) Hund’s principle
1 (4) Uncertainty principle
(1) n = 4, l = 0, m = 0, s = + 32. Correct order of size is : [RPMT 1999]
2
(1) I > I+ > I– (2) I > I– > I+
1 (3) I– > I > I+ (4) I+ > I > I–
(2) n = 3, l = 0, m = 0, s = +
2 33. Which is not electromagnetic radiation :
1 [RPMT 2000]
(3) n = 3, l = 1, m = 1, s = + (1) Infrared rays (2) X–ray
2
(3) Cathode rays (4) Gamma rays
1 34. Which of the following pair of orbitals posses
(4) n = 3, l = 2, m = 1, s = +
2 two nodal planes : [RPMT 2000]
26. Which of the following are isoelectronic species: (1) pxy, dx2 – y2 (2) dxy, dzx
[CPMT 1999]
I – CH 3, II – NH2 , III – NH 4, IV – NH3
+ – +
(3) pyz, dzx (4) dz2 , dx2 – y2
(1) I, II, III (2) II, III, IV
35. The mass of a neutron is of the order of :
(3) I, II, IV (4) I and II
[ 93 ]
Aakash - NEET
Atomic Structure
[RPMT 2000] 45. Rutherford a-particle dispersion experiment

(1) 10 kg
–23
(2) 10 kg –24 concludes : [RPMT 2002]
(3) 10–26 kg (4) 10–27 kg (1) All positive ions are deposited at small part
36. Smallest cation is : [RPMT 2000] (2) All negative ions are deposited at small part
(1) Na+ (2) Mg2+ (3) Protons moves around the electrons
(3) Ca2+ (4) Al3+ (4) Neutrons are charged particles
37. Electron enters the sub-shell for which (n + l) 46. Which of the following element outermost orbit’s
value is minium. This is enunciated as : last electron has magnetic quantum number
[RPMT 2000] m=0? [RPMT 2002]
(1) Hund’s rule (1) Na (2) O
(2) Aufbau principle (3) Cl (4) N
(3) Heisenberg uncertainty principle 47. The value of Planck’s constant is 6.63 × 10–34
(4) Pauli’s exclusion principle Js. The velocity of light is 3.0 × 108 m s–1.
Which value is closest to the wavelength in
38. The minium real charge on any particle which
nanometers of a quantum of light with frequency
can exist is : [RPMT 2000]
of 8 × 1015 s–1 ? [CPMT 2003]
(1) 1.6 × 10–19 coulomb
(1) 5 × 10 –18
(2) 4 × 101
(2) 1.6 × 10–10 coulomb
(3) 3 × 107 (4) 2 × 10–25
(3) 4.8 × 10–10 coulomb
48. The frequency of radiation emitted when the
(4) Zero electron falls from n = 4 to n = 1 in a hydrogen
39. Which sub-shell is not permissible : atom will be (Given ionization energy of
[RPMT 2000] H = 2.18 × 10 –18 s –1 atom –1 and
(1) 2d (2) 4f h = 6.625 × 10–34 Js). [CBSE-PMT 2004]
(3) 6p (4) 3s (1) 1.54 × 1015 s–1 (2) 1.03 × 1015 s–1
40. Sub-shell designated by azimuthal quantum (3) 3.08 × 1015 s–1 (4) 2.00 × 1015 s–1
number l = 3 can have maximum number of 49. Given : The mass of electron is
electrons: [RPMT 2000] [CBSE-PMT 2006]
(1) 14 (2) 6 (1) 5.79 × 10–31 ms–1 (2) 5.79 × 106 ms–1
(3) 10 (4) 0 (3) 5.79 × 107 ms–1 (4) 5.79 × 108 ms–1
41. Quantum number n = 3, l = 2, m = + 2 shows 50. If uncertainty in position and momentum are
how many orbitals : [CPMT 2001] equal then uncertainty in velocity is
(1) 1 (2) 2 [CBSE-PMT 2008]
(3) 3 (4) 4
1 h h
42. Which is isoelectronic with sulphide ion : (1) (2)
m  
[RPMT 2001]
(1) Cl (2) Ne 1 h h
(3) Ar (4) Kr (3) (4)
2m  2
43. Ground state electronic configuration of nitrogen
51. The measurement of the electron position is
is : [RPMT 2001]
associated with an uncertainty in momentum,
(1) 1s2, 2s2, 2p 1x , 2p 1y , 2p 1z which is equal to 1 × 10–18 g cm s–1. The
uncertainty in electron velocity is (mass of an
(2) 1s2, 2s2, 2px2, 2p 1y electron is (9 × 10–28 g). [CBSE-PMT 2008]
(3) 1s2, 2s2, 2px2, 2pz1 (1) 1 × 105 cm s–1 (2) 1 × 1011 cm s–1
(4) 1s2, 2s2, 2px3 (3) 1 × 109 cm s–1 (4) 1 × 106 cm s–1
44. In the Bohr’s orbit, what is the ratio of total 52. Maximum number of electron in a subshell of
kinetic energy and total energy of electron : an atom is determined by the following:
[RPMT 2002] [CBSE-PMT 2009]
(1) – 1 (2) – 2 (1) 2l + 1 (2) 4l – 2
(3) 1 (4) + 2 (3) 2n2 (4) 4l + 2
[ 94 ]
Atomic Structure
53. Which of the following is not permissible 61. What is the maximum number of electrons taht
arrangement of electrons in an atom? can be associated with the following set of
[CBSE-PMT 2009] quantum numbers ?
(1) n = 5, l = 3, m = 0, s = +1/2 [NEET-UG 2013]
(2) n = 3, l = 2, m = –3, s = –1/2 (1) 10 (2) 6
(3) n = 3, l = 2, m = –2, s = –1/2 (3) 4 (4) 2
(4) n = 4, l = 0, m = 0, s = –1/2
54. A 0.66 kg ball is moving with a speed of 100 m/  Z2 
62. Based on equation E = – 2.178 × 10 –18 J  2 ,
s. The associated wavelength will be n 
(h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js)[CBSE-PMT (Mains) 2010]
certain consusions are writen. Which of them is
(1) 6.6 × 10–32 m (2) 6.6 × 10–34 m not correct ?
(3) 1.0 × 10 m
–35
(4) 1.0 × 10–32 m
[NEET-UG 2013]
55. The total number of atomic orbitals in fourth
(1) The negative sing in equation simpliy means
energy level of an atom is [CBSE-PMT 2011]
that the energy of electron bound to the
(1) 8 (2) 16
nuclear is lower than it would be if the
(3) 32 (4) 4 electrons were at the infinite distance from
56. The energies E1 and E2 of two radiations are 25 the nucleus
eV and 50 eV respectively. The relation between
(2) Larger the value of n, the larger is the orbit
their wavelengths i.e., 1 and 2 will be
radius.
[CBSE-PMT 2011]
(3) Equation can be used to calculate the charge
(1) 1 = 2 (2) 1 = 22
in energy when the electron cherges orbit
1 (4) For n = 1, the electron has a more negative
(3) 1 = 42 (4) 1  2
2 energy then it does from n = 6 which means
57. If n = 6, correct sequence for filling of electrons that the electron is more loosely bound in
will be [CBSE-PMT 2011] the smallest allowed orbit.
(1) ns  (n – 2) f  (n –1) d  np
(2) ns  (n – 1) d  (n –2) f  np
(3) ns  (n – 2) f  np  (n –1)d
(4) ns  np(n – 1) d  (n – 2)f
58. Maximum number of electrons in a subshell with :
l = 3 and n = 4 is :
[CBSE-PMT 2012]
(1) 14 (2) 16
(3) 10 (4) 12
59. The correct set of four quantum numbers for the
valence electron of rubidium atom (Z = 37) is :
[CBSE-PMT 2012]
(1) 5, 1, + 1/2 (2) 6, 0, 0 + 1/2
(3) 5, 0, 0 + 1/2 (4) 5, 1, 0 + 1/2
60. The value of Planck’s constant is 6.63 × 10–34
Is. The speed of light is 3 × 1017 mm s–1. Which
value is closest to the wavelength in nanometerr
of quantum of light with frequency of 6 × 1015s–
1 ?
[NEET-UG 2013]
(1) 10 (2) 25
(3) 50 (4) 75
[ 95 ]
Aakash - NEET
Atomic Structure
AIIMS SPECIAL
ASSERTION REASON TYPE QUESTIONS Reason : The sum of protons and neutrons, in
the isobars is always different [AIIMS 2000]
These questions consist of two statements each,
printed as Assertion and Reason. While answer- 6. Assertion : Two electrons in an atom can have
ing these questions, you are required to choose the same values of four quantum numbers.
any one of the following four responses :
Reason : Two electrons in an atom can be
1. If both Assertion and Reason are true and present in the same shell, sub-shell and orbital
Reason is correct explanation of and have the same spin [AIIMS 2001]
Assertion.
7. Assertion : The value of n for a line in Balmer
2. If both Assertion and Reason are true but series of hydrogen spectrum having the highest
Reason is not correct explanation of wave length is 4 and 6.
Assertion.
Reason : For Balmer series of hydrogen
3. If both Assertion and Reason are false. spectrum, the value n1 = 2 and n2 = 3, 4, 5.
4. If Assertion is true but Reason is false. [AIIMS 1992]
5. If Assertion is false but Reason is true.
8. Assertion : Absorption spectrum conists of
1. Assertion : The position of an electron can be some bright lines separated by dark spaces.
determined exactly with the help of an electron
Reason : Emission spectrum consists of dark
microscope.
lines. [AIIMS 2002]
Reason : The product of uncertainty in the
measurement of its momentum and the 9. Assertion : A resonance hybrid is always more
uncertainty in the measurement of the position stable than any of its canonical structures.
cannot be less than a finite limit. [NDA 1999] Reason : This stability is due to delocalization
2. Assertion : A spectral line will be seen for a of electrons. [AIIMS 1999]
2px – 2py transition. 10. Assertion : Cathode rays do not travel in
Reason : Energy is released in the form of straight lines.
wave of light when the electron drops from 2px Reason : Cathode rays penetrate through thick
– 2py orbital. [AIIMS 1996]
sheets [AIIMS 1996]
3. Assertion : The cation energy of an electron
11. Assertion : Electrons revolving around the
is largely determined by its principal quantum
nucleus do not fall into the nucleus because of
number.
centrifugal force.
Reason : The principal quantum number n is
a measure of the most probable distance of Reason : Revolving electrons are planetary
finding the electron around the nucleus. electrons. [AIIMS 1994]
[AIIMS 1996] 12. Assertion : Threshold frequency is a
characteristic for a metal.
4. Assertion : Nuclide 30Al13 is less stable than
40
Ca20 Reason : Threshold frequency is a maximum
Reason : Nuclides having odd number of frequency required for the ejection of electron
protons and neutrons are generally unstable from the metal surface.
[IIT 1998] 13. Assertion : The radius of the first orbit of
5. Assertion : The atoms of different elements hydrogen atom is 0.529Å.
having same mass number but different atomic Reason : Radius for each circular orbit
number are known as isobars
(yx = 0.529Å (n2 / Z), where n = 1,2,3 and
Z = atomic number.
[ 96 ]
Atomic Structure
19. Assertion : Thomson’s atomic model is known

14. Assertion : 3dz2 orbital is spherically
as ‘raisin pudding’ model.
symmetrical.
Reason : The atom is visualized as a pudding
Reason : 3dz2 orbital is the only -orbital which of positive charge with electrons (raisins)
embedded in it.
is spherical in shape.
20. Assertion : Atomic orbital in an atom is
15. Assertion : Spin quantum number can have
designated by and .
the value +1/2 or –1/2.
Reason : These are helpful in designating
Reason : (+) sign here signifies the wave
electron present in an orbital.
function.
21. Assertion : The transition of electrons n3  n2
16. Assertion : Total number of orbitals associated
in H atom will emit greater energy than
with principal quantum number n = 3 is 6.
n4  n3.
Reason : Number of orbitals in a shell equals
Reason : n3 and n2 are closer to nucleus tan
to 2n.
n4.
17. Assertion : Energy of the orbitals increases
22. Assertion : Cathode rays are a stream of -
as 1s  2s  2p  3s  3p  3d  4s  4p particles.
 4d  4f  ...... Reason : They are generated under high
Reason : Energy of the electron depends pressure and high voltage.
completely on principal quantum number. 23. Assertion : In case of isoelectronic ions the
18. Assertion : Splitting of the spectral lines in ionic size increases with the increase in atomic
the presence of magnetic field is known as number.
stark effect. Reason : The greater the attraction of nucleus,
Reason : Line spectrum is simplest for greater is the ionic radius.
hydrogen atom.

[ 97 ]
Aakash - NEET
Atomic Structure
CBSE SPECIAL
I. Very Short Answer Questions
1. What is the value of e/m for the particles in cathode rays?
2. Who discovered protons? What is the value of e/m for proton?
3. What are isotopes?
4. What are isotones?
5. What is uncertain in uncertaininty principle?
6. What are degenerate orbitals?
7. What is the number of d electrons in Cr3+ ion?
8. Which quantum number determine shape and size of the orbital?
9. Which of the following orbitals are not possible?
3f, 4p, 2d, 7p.
10. What subshells would be found in the shell with n = 4?
II. Short - Answer Questions

1. Why was Thomson’s model of atom discarded and replaced by Rutherford’s model? Why is Rutherford’s
model also called the nuclear model of atom?
2. What were the shortcomings of Rutherford’s model of atom?
3. (i) Give various postulates of Bohr’s atomic model. How does it explain emission spectrum of hydrogen?
(ii) What are the drawbacks of Bohr’s model?
4. What are quantum numbers? Give significance of various quantum numbers.
5. Why is de-Broglie’s relationship meaningful for submicroscopic particles such as electrons, protons and
atoms and not for macroscopic objects?
6. Draw the shapes of s and p orbitals.
7. Write the configurations of the elements with atomic number 7, 15, 18, 24, 27 and 30.
8. What is the maxium number of electrons in
(i) a principal shell (ii) s, p, d sub-shells
(iii) an orbital?
9. Account for the following:
(i) The expected electronic configuration of copper is [Ar] 3d94s2 but actually it is [Ar] 3d10 4s1.
(ii) In building up of atoms, the filling of 4s-orbitals occurs before 3d-orbitals.
10. What is wrong with the following configurations?
B : 1s2, 2s2, 3s1 C : 1s2, 2s2, 2px2 N : 1s2, 2s2, 2py2, 2py2.
Point out the rule which has been disobeyed while writing these configurations.
[ 98 ]
Atomic Structure
III. Long - Answer Questions

1. Describe the experiment which led to the discovery of the electron.
2. What experimental evidence indicates that
(i) electrons are negaively charged
(ii) electrons are universal constituent of matter.

(iii) electrons are material particles
(iv) cathode rays have considerable energy.
3. State Pauli’s exclusion principle. How does it put a limit on the accommodation of electrons in an orbital?
Explain.
4. Describe various rules of filling of orbitals. Illustrate with the help of suitable examples.
5. (a) Write short notes on:
(i) Aufbau principle
(ii) Pauli’s Principle
(iii) Magnetic quantum number.
(b) State Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity. How is it used in electronic distribution in nitrogen atom
(Z = 7) ?
6. (i) Discuss the characteristics of energy level diagram for multi-electrons atom. How does it differ from
the energy level diagram fo hydrogen atom?
(ii) Give main differences between an orbit and an orbital.
IV. Numericals
1. The charge to mass (e/m) ratio for an electron is 1.76 × 108 Coulombs per gram. The charge (e) of the
electron is 1.60 × 10-19 Coulombs. Calculate mas of the electron.
2. From what observations do you derive the follwing inferences?
(i) The most of the space inside the atom is empty.
(ii) The volume of the nucleus is very small.
(iii) Anode rays consist of positively charged particles.
3. A certain particle carries – 2.5 × 10-16 C of static electric charge. Calculate the number of electrons
present in it.
4. In Milikan’s experiment, static electric charge on the oil drops has been obtained by shining X-rays. If the
static electric charge on the oil drop is – 1.282 × 10-18 C, calculate the number of electrons present on it.
81
5. Calculate the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in 35 Br .
6. The wavelenth range of the visible spectrum extends from violet (400 nm) to red (750 nm). Express their
wavelengths in frequencies (Hz). (1 nm = 10-9m)
7. The energy of a photon is 3.98 × 10-21 J. What is its wavelength in nm?
8. The threshold frequency v0 for a metal is 7.0 × 1014 s-1. Calculate the kinetic energy of an electron emitted
when radiation of frequency v = 1.0 × 1015 s-1 hits the metal.
9. Calculate the energy of one mole photons of radiation whose frequency is 5 × 1014 Hz.
[ 99 ]
Aakash - NEET
Atomic Structure
10. What is the wavelength of a photon (in nm) emitted during a transition from the n2 = 5 state to the n1 = 2
state in the hydrogen atom?
11. Calculate the energy associated with the first orbit of He+. What is the radius of this orbit?
12. Calculate the wavelength of the de-Broglie wave associated with an electron having kinetic energy 3.0 ×
10-25 J. Mass of an electron = 9.1 × 10-31 kg.
13. Calculated the mass of a photon having wavelength 1 nm.
14. A microscope using suitable photons is employed to locate an electron in an atom within a distance of
0.1 Å . What is the uncertainty involved in the measurement of its velocity. Mass of electron = 9.11 × 10-
31
kg.
15. A ping-pong ball weighing 2.5 g has a speed of 20 m/s. If the speed can be measured within accuracy of
1%, calculate the uncertainty in the position.
16. From the following sets of quantum numbers, state which are possible. Explain why the others are not
permitted.
1 1
(i) n = 1, l = 0, m1 = + 1, ms = + (ii) n = 1, l = – 1, m1 = 0, ms = –
2 2
1 1
(iii) n = 0, l = + 1, m1 = 0, ms = + (iv) n = 0, l = 0, m1 = + 1, ms = –
2 2
1 1
(v) n = 2, l = 1, m1 = 0, ms = + (vi) n = 2, l = 2, m1 = 0, ms = –
2 2
17. (a) Using the s, p, d notation, designate the orbitals with the following quantum numbers:
(i) n = 4; l = 2 (ii) n = 4; l = 3
(iii) n = 2; l = 0 (iv) n = 3; l = 1
(b) Discuss the shape of an orbital with n = 2, l = 1.
18. Is it possible to know the exact path of electron in 2p orbital? Name and state the principle you rely upon
for answering the question.
19. Which of the following orbitals are not possible? 1p, 2s, 2p, 3f.
20. (i) Can an electron have quantum numbers n = 2, l = 2, m = 2?
(ii) Write the set of quantum numbers for the highest energy electron in 11Na.
21. (a) Give possible sets of quantum numbers for an electron in
(i) second energy level (ii) 2s-orbital.
(b) What are possible values of m for an electron 2p sub-shell?
22. What is the maximum number of electrons with clockwise spin that can be accommodated in
(i) 1st main shell (ii) 3rd main shell
(iii) 4d-sub-shell ?
23. Among the following pairs of orbitals which orbital will experience the larger effective nuclear charge?
(i) 2s and 3s (ii) 4d and 4f
(iii) 3d and 3p
24. The unpaired electrons in Al and Si are present in 3p-orbital. Which electrons will experience more
effective nuclear charge from the nucleus?
25. An atom has 2K, 8L and 3M electrons. Write down its electroic configuration and indicate in it
(i) number of sub-shells (ii) number of orbitals
(iii) numbero f s-electrons, and (iv) number of unpaired electrons.
26. What is the nuclear charge of Mn2+ ion (z = 25, A = 55)? How many neutrons, protons and electrons are
present in it?
[ 100 ]
Atomic Structure
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE - 1
1. (3) 2. (2) 3. (2) 4. (4) 5. (3)
6. (3) 7. (4) 8. (1) 9. (1) 10. (4)
11. (2) 12. (1) 13. (4) 14. (2) 15. (4)
16. (4) 17. (3) 18. (4) 19. (1) 20. (2)
21. (2) 22. (4) 23. (2) 24. (4) 25. (2)
26. (3) 27. (3) 28. (4) 29. (2) 30. (4)
31. (1) 32. (1) 33. (4) 34. (2) 35. (4)
36. (3) 37. (3) 38. (2) 39. (3) 40. (2)
41. (3) 42. (4) 43. (3) 44. (3) 45. (1)
46. (3) 47. (3) 48. (2) 49. (3) 50. (2)
EXERCISE -2
Previous Year Questions
1. (3) 2. (4) 3. (4) 4. (2) 5. (3)
6. (2) 7. (4) 8. (4) 9. (4) 10. (2)
11. (3) 12. (3) 13. (1) 14. (3) 15. (3)
16. (2) 17. (1) 18. (3) 19. (2) 20. (1)
21. (2) 22. (1) 23. (3) 24. (2) 25. (4)
26. (2) 27. (2) 28. (1) 29. (2) 30. (1)
31. (3) 32. (3) 33. (3) 34. (2) 35. (4)
36. (4) 37. (2) 38. (1) 39. (1) 40. (1)
41. (1) 42. (3) 43. (1) 44. (1) 45. (1)
46. (1) 47. (2) 48. (3) 49. (2) 50. (3)
51. (3) 52. (4) 53. (2) 54. (3) 55 (2)
56. (2) 57. (1) 58. (1) 59. (3) 60. (3)
61. (4) 62. (4)
AIIMS SPECIAL
1. (2) 2. (4) 3. (1) 4. (1) 5. (3)
6. (2) 7. (2) 8. (1) 9. (3) 10 (2)
[ 101 ]
Aakash - NEET
Atomic Structure
CBSE SPECIAL
Numerical
3. Static charge on the particle = – 2.5 × 10-16 C
Charge on one electron = – 1.6 × 10-19 C
2.5  1016 C
Number of electrons in the particle =  1.56  103
–1.6  1019 C
4. The static electric charge on the oil droplet = – 1.282 × 10-18 C
Charge on one electron = – 1.602 × 10-19 C
1.282  1018 C
Number of electrons on the oil droplet = 8
–1.602  1019 C
5. Number of electrons = atomic number = 35
Number of protons = atomic number = 35
Number of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number
= 81 – 35 = 46
6. For violet light v = 7.50 × 1014 Hz
For red light v = 4.00 × 1014 Hz
7.  = 5.00 × 104 nm
8. Kinetic energy = 1.99 × 10-19 J
9. 199.5 kJ mol-1
10.  E = 4.58 × 10-19 J;  = 434 nm

11. Energy of the first orbit of He+ = – 8.72 × 10-18 J
Radius of the first orbit of He+ = 0.02645 nm
12.  = 897 nm
h 6.626  1034 kg m 2s 1
m   2.313  1033 kg
13.
 
c 1  109 m 3  108 ms 1 
h
14.    5.79  106 ms 1
4  x× m
1
15. The uncertainty in the speed = 20 ms-1 × = 0.2 ms-1
100
h
x  m 
4
[ 102 ]
Atomic Structure
h 6.626  1034 kg m 2 s 1
x   3 1
 1.32  1032 m
4  m 4  3.14  20  10 kg  0.2 ms
16. Only    is possible
17. (i) 4d (ii) 4f

(iii) 2s (iv) 3p
19. 1p and 3f
20. (i) No, because when n = 2, l cannot be 2
(ii) Highest energy electron in Na in 3s-electron. For this electron
1
n=3 l=0 ml = 0 ms = 
2
1
21. (a) (i) n = 2, l = 0, m1 = 0, ms = +
2
1
n =, 2 l = 0, m1 = 0, ms = –
2
1
n = 2, l = 1, m1 = +1, ms = +
2
1
n = 2, l = 1, m1 = + 1, ms = –
2
1
n = 2, l = 1, m1 = 0, ms = +
2
1
n = 2, l = 1, m1 = 0, ms = –
2
1
n = 2, l = 1, m1 = –1, ms = +
2
1
n = 2, l = 1, m1 = –1, ms = –
2
1
(ii)n = 2, l = 0, m1 = 0, ms = + IIT - JEE SECTION
2
1
n = 2, l = 0, m1 = 0, ms = –
2
(b) +1, 0, –1
[ 103 ]
Aakash - NEET
Atomic Structure
22. (i) 1 (ii) 9 (iii) 5

23. (i) 2s (ii) 4d (iii) 3p
24. The 3p orbital in Si will experience more effective nuclear charge due to greater positive charge on
nucleus in it.
25. (i) 5 (ii) 7
(iii) 6 (iv) 1
26. Nuclear charge = 25 Neutrons = 30
Protons = 25 Electrons = 23

[ 104 ] st

Atomic Structure: A Summary

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Atomic Structure: A Summary

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Atomic Structure

Topic Covered DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

Production of cathode rays

Cathode rays consist of tiny particles

To vacuum pump N To vacuum pump

(a) Electric Field (b) Magnetic Field

Slitted anode Slit Y

Empty glass tube

DISCOVERY OF POSITIVE RAYS OR CANAL RAYS : DISCOVERY OF PROTON

Production of canal rays

Properties of Canal Rays

(b) Canal rays formed by small particles.

(a) Electric Field (b) Magnetic Field

(d) Positive rays affect photographic plate.

(A) e/m of Canal Rays or Positive Rays :

CLASSIFICATION OF ATOMIC PARTICLES

(B) Unstable Particles

S. No. Property  - Ray  - Ray  - Ray

1. Velocity 2 × 107 m/sec 2.8 × 108 m/sec 3 × 108 m/sec

About 100 times About 1000 times

1 unit negative Magnetic

Deviation towards Deviation

protons and neutral neutrons. These together are termed as nucleons.

(v) Nuclear density

Mass 19  1.66  10 24 gm

NUCLEAR STABILITY AND THE RATIO OF NEUTRONS AND PROTONS

BINDING ENERGY OF NUCLEUS

BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON

THE IMPORTANCE OF BINDING ENERGY

ATOMIC WEIGHT OR MASS NUMBER

(1) 12 gm C (2) 12.15 gm Mg

Ions Na Mg2 Al3 F O2

NH3  BH3 C2H6

Example. Which of the following is a one-electron species ?

Electrons moving around in circular orbits

The electron moving in an orbit by various forces

CALCULATION OF VELOCITY OF THE ELECTRON OF BOHR’S ORBIT

Equation. (1) divided by (2)

(a) If Z is a constant, then

RADIUS OF NTH BOHR’SS ORBIT

In the above expression h, , m and e, all are constants. therefore

Solution. Here n is a constant, therefore

(2) Ratio of radii of orbits L and N

hydrogen atom. (Ans: 2r)

ENERGY OF ELECTRON IN BOHR’S NTH ORBIT

SPECTRAL EVIDENCE FOR QUANTIZATION IN BOHR’S THEORY

According to Bohr hypothesis

(a) By heating the substance at high temperature

(b) Line spectrum or Atomic spectrum

Types of Hydrogen Spectrum series

(B) Balmer Series

Explanation of line spectrum on

DRAWBACKS OF BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

SOMMERFELD’S EXPANSION OF BOHR’S MODEL

THE WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT

Following are the salient features of this wave motion.

PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY

THE DUEL NATURE OF MATTER (THE WAVE NATURE OF ELECTRON)

Justification for the Dual nature of Electrons

DERIVATION OF BOHR’S POSTULATE OF QUANTISATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM FROM

Wave in phase Wave out of phase

QUANTUM MECHANICAL THEORY OF ATOM

where m = Mass of electron, h = Planck constant,