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 PHYSICS
GENERAL FORMULAE BOOK
**************************************************************************************************
I PUC
INTRODUCTION
SI prefix
Multiplication factor  Power Prefix  Symbol 
12
1 000 000 000 000  10 tera  T 
1 000 000 000  10 9 giga  G 
6
1 000 000  10 mega  M 
1 000  10 3 kilo  k 
–3
0.001  10 milli  m 
0.000 001  10 –6 micro  

0.000 000 001  10 –9 nano  n 

–12
0.000 000 000 001  10 pico  p 
Energy unit conversions
1 electron-volt (eV) = 1.6  1019 joule  1.6  1012 ergs

1 MeV  106 eV  1.6  1013 joule

1 BeV  109 eV  1.6  10 10 joule
1 calorie  4.18 joule
1 Ki lo calorie  4.18  103 joule.
1 Btu  778 ft  lb  252 calorie  1060 joules
Length unit conversions
1 Fermi (F)  1015 meter


1 Angstrom  A   1010 meter
 
1 millimicron (m)  109 meter

1 micron ()  106 m  104 A
1 meter  39.4 inch  3.28 ft
1 mile  5280 ft  1.61 km
1 Angstrom unit (Au)  1.496  1011 meter
1 light year  9.46  1015 meter
1 par  sec  3.26 light years
Pressure unit conversions
1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2
1 bare = 1 x 105 N/m2
1 tor = 1mm Hg pressure
Time unit conversions
1 shake = 10–8 sec.
1 day = 86,400 sec.
1 year = 365 days = 3.16 x 107 sec.
1
Velocity unit conversions
1 mile/hr = 1.47 ft/sesc. = 0.447 m/s
1 mach number = velocity of sound = 332 m/s = 1195.2 km/h
1 knot = 1.852 km/hr
Radioactivity unit conversions
1 Becquerel = 1 Bq = 1 distintegration/sec.
1 Curie = 3.7 x 1011 disintegration/sec.
1 Rutherford = 1 x 106 disintegration/sec
Miscellaneous unit conversions
1 barn = 10–28 m2
1 Chandrashekhar limit = 1.4 x solar mass
1 Cuses = 1 cubic ft/sec
1 litre = 10–3 m
1 slug = 32.2 lb (mass) = 14.6 kg.
1 pound (mass) = 0.454 kg
1 horse power = 746 watts.
1 weber/m2 =1 tesla = 104 gauss.
Some of physical properties
1. Atmospheric pressure  1.01 105 newton/m2
2. Density of air at N.T.P. = 1.29 kg/m3
3. Density of mercury  13.6  103 kg / m3
4. Density of water  1.00  103 kg / m3
5. Acceleration due to gravity (g)  9.80m / sec 2 = 9.80 newton/kg = 981 cm/sec2
6
6. Mean radius of the earth  R E   6.37  10 m
24
7. Mass of the earth  M E   5.98 10 kg
8. Latent heat of steam = 539 calorie/gm = 5.39 kilocalorie/kg = 2.25 x 106 joule/kg
9. Latent heat of ice = 80 calorie/gm = 80 kilocalorie/kg = 3.34 x 105 joule/kg
Selected physcial constants and their units
1. Electronic charge (e)  1.6  1019 coulomb.
31
2. Electronic mass  me   9.110 kg
11
3. Electron charge-to-mass ratio  e / m e   1.76 10 C / kg

4.   27
Proton rest mas m p  1.67  10 kg
24
5. Electron magnetic moment  e   9.27 10 joule
6. Speed of light (C)  3  108 m / sec
12
7. Permittivity of free space  0   8.86 10 farad / m
7
8. Permeability of free space   0   4 10 henry / m
11 2 2
9. Gravitational consrtant (G)   0   6.67  10 Nm / kg

10. Planck’s constant (h)  6.63  1034 joule  sec

11. Avogadro’s Number (N)  6.02  1023 per gm atom

 1  9 2 2
12. Coulomb force constant    9.0 10 N  m / C
 4 0 
2
13. Ideal gas constant (R) = 8.31 joule/(mole-J) or 1.99 calorie/(mole-K)
4 1
14. Faraday’s constant  q F   9.56  10 C.mol
8 2 4
15. Stefan’s constant     5.67 10 W  m K
7 1
16. Rydberg’s constant  R H   1.097  10 m

S.No. Theory Name S.No. Theory Name

1 Ampere’s law Ampere 22 Law of gravitation Newton
(regarding current)
2 Atomic Theory Dalton 23 Law of Inertia Galileo
3 Avogadro Hypothesis A. Avogadro 24 Law of photo Lenard
emission
4 Big-Bang theory of Gamow 25 Laws of Planetary Kepler
universe motion
5 Boyle’s law Robert Boyle 26 Magnetic effect of Oersted
current
6 Bernoulli’s equation Daniel Bernoulli 27 Matter waves (wave de Broglie
particle duality)
7 Charle’s Law Jacques Charles 28 Neutrino theory Pauli
8 Doppler’s effect Doppler 29 Newton’s law Newton
9 Electromagnetic Faraday 30 Nuclear fission Otto Hahn and
10 Induction of
Explanation Fresnel 31 Nuclear fusion Strassmann
Bathe
diffraction
11 Exclusion principle Pauli 32 Origin and Hoyle and
composition of star Chandrashekhar
12 Explanation of Bohr 33 Quantum theory of Max Planck
Hydrogenspectrum radiation
13 Explanation of photo- Einstein 34 Relation for the Biot-Savart
electric effect magnetic field
14 Explanation of Rutherford and 35 Produced by a Kelvin Planck and
exponential decay soddy current Second law Clausius
of thermodynamics
15 Electromagnetic wave Maxwell 36 Theory of Relativity Einstein
theory
16 Equation of state for Vaan der waals 37 Theory of Bardeen, Cooper and
real gases Superconductivity Schriffer
17 First law of Joule 38 Uncertainty Principle Heisenberg
thermodynamics
18 Fourth power law of Stefans 39 Value of gravitational L.C. Cavendish
Radiation constant (G)

19 Hooke’s law of Hooke 40 Wave Theory of Light Huygen

elasticity
20 Law of cooling Newton 41 Working of Shockley, Bardeen and
Transistor Brante
21 Law of floatation Archimedies - - -

3
 23
17. Boltzmann’s constant  K   1.38  10 joule / K

18. Mass-Energy Relation (C2 = E/m) = 931 MeV/amu  8.99  1016 joule / Kg
2
19. Solar constant  s   1340joule / m  sec

20. Triple Point of water  Ttr   273.16K .

Units and Dimensions

1. Fundamental quantities and their SI units

Fundamental units
S.No. Physical quantity Units Sign
1 Mass Kilogram kg
2 Length Meter m
3 Time Second s
4 Temperature Kelvin K
5 Electric current Ampere A
6 Luminous intensity Candela cd
7 Amount of substance Mole mol

Supplementary Units
1 Plane angle radian rad
2 Solid angle steradian sr

Quantities having the same dimenstions

Dimensional
S.No. Scalars Vectors
formual
1 Distance, wavelength Displacement M0LT0
2 Speed Velocity M0LT -1
3 - Momentum, impulse M1L1T -1
Force, Thrust Tension,
- M1L1T -2
4 Weight
5 Work, Energy, Heat Moment of force, Torque M1L2T -2
Pressure, Stress, Young's modulus, 1 -1 -2
- ML T
6 Rigidity modulus, Bulk modulus
Angular velocity, Velocity
7 Frequency, Decay constant M0L0T -1
gradient
8 Plank's constant Angular momentum M1L2T -2
9 Surface tension, Force contant - M1L0T -2
10 Gravitational potential, Latent heat - M0L2T -2
Thermal capacity, Entropy, Universal gas 1 2 -2 -1
11 - MLT K
constant
12 Specific heat, Gas constant - M0L2T -2K-1
Coefficient of Kinematic viscosity
13 Areal velocity M0L2T -1
diffustion constant

4
Sl. No. Physical quantity Definition Dimensional S.I Units / Symbol
And its symbol Formulae
1. Volume (V) length x breadth M 0L 3T 0 m3
x height
s
2. Velocity or speed (v) v M 0L1 T-1 ms –1
t
v
3. Acceleration (a) a M 0L1 T-2 ms-2
t
4. Impulse (q) q = Ft M 1 L1 T –1 newton-s or [NS] kg–ms–1
5. Momentum (P) P = mv M 1 L1 T –1 Kg-ms–1
6. Force (F) F = ma M 1 L1 T –2 newton [N]
F
7. Pressure (p) P M 1 L–1 T –2 Nm-2orpascal
A
[Pa]

8. Work (W) W = F.S M 1 L2 T –2 joule [J]

1
9. Energy (E) KE  mv 2 & PE  mgh M 1 L2 T –2 joule [J]
2

W
10. Power (P) P M 1 L2 T –3 Watt or joule
t
s–1 [Js–]

m
11. Density (d) d M 1 L–3 T 0 kgm–3
V

12. Angular velocity (  ) 
t
M 0 L0 T –1 rad s–1


13. Angular acceleration (  ) 
t
M 0 L0 T –2 rad s–2
14. Moment of inertia (I) I = mr2 M 1L 2T 0 kg–m2
  
15. Torque (  ) 1.   r  F M 1 L2 T –2 newton-meter
2.   I [Nm]

  
16. Angular momentum (J) 1. J  r  P M 1 L2 T –1 joule–sec [Js]
2. J  I
1
17. Kinetic energy of Erot  I2 M 1 L2 T –2 joule [J]
2
rotation (Erot)
I
18. Radius of gyration (K) K M 0L 1T 0 meter [m]
M

F
19. Force constant or spring k
x
M 1 L0 T –2 newton m–1
constant (k) [Nm –1 ]
20. Time period (T) Time taken by a M0 L0T1 second [s]
particle in completing
m
one oscillation T  2 
k

Fr 2
21. Gravitational constant (G) G  M –1 L3 T –2 N-m2kg –2
m2

5
 weight
W
22. Acceleration due to 1. g  mass  m M 0 L1 T –2 meter s–2 [ms–2]

GM
gravity (g) 2. g 
R2

(R  h)3/2
23. Period of revolution of T  2 M 0L 0T 1 second [s]
GM
satellite (T)
GM g
24. Orbital velocity of Vs  R M 0 L1 T –1 ms –1
r Rh
satellite (Vs)
2GM
25. Escape velocity (Ve) Ve   2Rg M 0 L1 T –1 ms –1
R

F W
26. Surface tension (T) T  M 1 L0 T –2 Nm–1 or joule m–2
I A
[Js –2 ]
F

27. Coefficient of viscosity (  )  dv  M 1 L–1 T –1 kg m–1s–1
A 
 dx 

R
28. Critical velocity (Vc) Vc  , M 0 L1 T –1 ms –1
r

R-Reynold’s number
29. Stress Force/Area M 1 L–1 T –2 Nm–2
30. Strain Change in dimension/ M 0L 0T 0 No unit
Original dimension (dimensionless)
stress
31. Modulus of elasticity (E) E
strain
M 1 L–1 T –2 Nm–2

Lateral strain
32. Poisson ratio (  ) 1.   Linear strain M 0L 0T 0 No unit


2.    (dimensionless)

r 4
33. Twisting couple per C M 1 L2 T –2 N–m
2l
unit twist (C)
34. Heat (Q) Energy M 1 L2 T –2 joule [J]
Q
35. Specific heat C or S S
mt M 0L2 T 2 K 1 Jkg –1 K–1
36. Thermal capacity 1. mass x specific heat M 1L2 T 2 K 1 JK –1

37. Molar specific heat (CM) CM = specific heat / M 1L2 T 2 K 1 J mol–1 -K–1
molecular weight
Q
38. Latent heat (L) L
M
M 0 L2 T –2 Jkg–1

Q
39. Entropy (S) S M 1L2 T 2 K 1 JK –1
T
40. Gas constant (R) 1. R  Cp  C v M 1L2 T 2 K 1 Jmol–1 -K–1
PV
2. R 
nT
E
41. Boltzmann constant (K) K M 1L2 T 2 K 1 JK –1
T

6
 42. Van der Waal constant (a) a = PV2, M 1 L5 T –2 N–m4
P = pressure correction
43. Van der Waal constant (b) b = V = Volume M 0L 3T 0 m3
correction
C MP
44. Thermodynamic constant (  )  M 0L 0T 0 Unitless
C MV

d
45. Temperature gradient (Tg) Tg 
dx M 0L1T 0 K 1 Km –1

Q
K
46. Coefficient of thermal d Jm –1 s –1 K –1
A t M1L1T 3K 1
dx
conductivity (K)
t
47. Thermal resistance (RH) RH  M 1L2 T 3K 1 K-s-J–1
Q

dQ t
48. Coefficient of transmission (t) t –do– -do–
dQ

Q
49. Emissive power (e) e
At
M 1 L0 T –3 Jm –2 s –1

T 4 R 2
50. Solar constant (S) S M 1 L0 T –3 Js –1 m –2
r2
Q
51. Intensity radiation (I) I
At
M 1 L0 T –3 Wm –2

E Q
52. Stefan’s constant (  ) 1.   2.   AT 4t M1L0 T 3K4 Wm –2 K –4
T4
53. Wein’s constant (b) b  m T M0 L1T 0 K1 m-K
energy
54. Planck’s constant (h) h M 1 L2 T –1 J-s
frequency

KINEMATICS
Motion in one dimemsion
displacement
1. For a body moving along a straight line with Uniform velocity 
time
Total dis tan ce
2. Average speed of a body moving along a straight line  Total time

Total displacement
3. Average velocity of a body moving along a straight line  Total time

x 2  x1
4. The velocity of body moving along a straight line in terms of the position co-ordinates is v  t  t
2 1

x S v  u  vu 
5. The average velocity of body moving along a straight line is v  =  or S   t
t t 2  2 
vu v
6. The acceleration a  
t t
7. The velocity at the instant of time t is v  u  at
1 2
8. The displacement during an interval of time ‘t’ second is s  ut  at
2
9. Time independent equation is v 2  u2  2as
a
10. The displacement at nth intervals of time is s n  u   2n  1 
2
7
11. The acceleration interval of two successive displacement at the time successive equal interval of time
S2  S1
‘n’ seconds is a 
n2
Where u is the initial velocity, v is the velocity after time t, s is the displacement in time t, a is the
uniform acceleration and sn is the displacement in the nth second, S1 and S2 are the displacements
during the successive equal interval of time ‘n’ each.
12. The equations of motion with uniform acceleration
(a) v  u  at
1 2
(b) S  ut  at
2
(c) v 2  u 2  2 aS

1
(d) S n  u  a (2n  1) &
2
S 2  S1
(e) a =
t2
13. All the equqtion of motion are also applicable in case of freely falling body under the gravitational
attraction. The only difference being that in these cases the acceleration of the body is taken as equal
to the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’, Thus for freely falling bodies these equation becomes

(a) v  u  gt ,
1
(b) S  ut  gt 2 ,
2
2 2
(c) v  u  2 gS &
1
(d ) S n  u  g (2n  1)
2
14. If a body is thrown vertically up it moves with a retardation equal to ‘-g’. Hence a body is subjected
to equations.

(a) v  u  gt ,
1 2
(b) S  ut  gt ,
2
(c) v 2  u 2  2 gS &
1
(d ) S n  u  g (2n  1)
2
MOTION IN TWO DIMENSION
1. Equation for a projectile motion is given by y  ax  bx 2
g
where a  tan  & b  
2u cos 2 
2

2. The horizontal displacements of a body projected at an angle  is, x = (u cos  )t

1 2
3. The vertical displacements of a body projected at an angle  is y  (usin )t  gt
2
u 2 sin 
4. The Maximum height reached by the body H 
2g

u sin  u sin 
5. The Time of ascent t  & Time of decent t 
g g
8
 2usin 
6.  Time of ascent + Time of decent = Time of flight tf 
g

u 2 sin 2
7. The Maximum horizontal displacement is called range R 
g
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
1. The Force is given by F = ma
2. The momentum of a body is given by P = mv.
3. The Impulse of a force is given by F x t = m v - mu.
4. The law of conservation of momentum is given by m 1u 1  m 2 u 2  m 1 v 1  m 2 v 2
5. If two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving along the same line with velocities v1 and v2 undergo
collision, then according to law of conservation of momentum. m1v1  m 2 v 2  m1u1  m 2 u 2
(a) if the bodies were moving in the opposite directions initially m1v1  m 2 v 2  m1u1  m 2 u 2
(b) if the second body was at rest initially m1v1  m 2 v2  m1u1
(c) if the two bodies coalesce, collapse or merge into one another and move together after collision
m1u1  m2 u 2
then the common velocity v  m1  m 2
SCALARS & VECTORS
1. Dot or scalar product of two vectors is given by a . b | a | | b | cos   ab cos  .

where a and b are any two non-zero vectors. The result of the product of the two vectors is a scalar.

2. Cross product of two vectors is given by a  b  | a | | b | sin  nˆ  a b sin  nˆ .

where a and b are any two non-zero vectors & n̂ is the unit vector in the direction perpendicular

to both a and b . The result of the product of the two vectors is a vector.
3. The Rectangular components of a force is given by P  R cos  & Q  R sin 
where R is a force acting along a direction inclined at an angle  to the x– direction,
4. The magnitude of the resultant of a two vectors acting at certain angle is given by
 
R  P 2  Q 2  2PQ cos  . where  is the angle between P and Q .
5. The direction of resultantof a two vectors acting at certain angle is given by
Q sin   
tan   where ‘  ’ be the angle between R and P
P  Q cos 
Special cases:

(a) When the vectors act along the same direction i.e.,  = 0°. Then the magnitude of R = P + Q and
the direction   0

(b) When the vectors are at right angles i.e.,  = 90°, then the magnitude of R  R  P 2  Q 2 and

Q
  tan 1   , If P  Q then R  2 P
P

(c) When the vectors act along opposite direction i.e.,  = 180°, then the magnitude of R  R  P  Q .
The direction   0 or 1800 depends on the magnitude of P and Q.
(d) If   1200 & P  Q then R=P
6. Angular displacement(  ) is the angle desribed by the body at the axis of rotation.
arc AB S s
  .    s  r
radius r r
9
7. ANGULAR VELOCITY(  ) is the rate of change of angular displacement.
angular displacement   s v
  &   
time t t rt r
8. Angular acceleration(  ) is the rate of change of angular velocity.
angular velocity 2  1  d d 2 
   &  
time t t dt dt 2
9. When the angular velocity changes from 1 to 2 in time t then, The angular acceleration
2  1

t
10. The relation between linear velocity & angular velocity is given by v   r

mv 2
11. The Expression for centripetal force is given by F 
r

2 v2 42 r
12. The centripetal acceleration a c  v & a c  v   r  & a c  v   42 rf 2 .
r T2
where v is the linear velocity ,  is the angular velocity , r is radius of the circular path & the period
of revolution T.

v2
13. The angle of leaning  is given by tan  
rg

1  v2 
14. The angle of banking is given by   tan  
 rg 
15. Friction is directly proportional for the normal reaction acting on the body ie, FN or F  N
Where  is coefficient of friction.
F
16. The coefficient of friction is given by  
N
where F is the frictional force & N is the normal reaction.
Fs
17. The coefficient of static friction is given by s 
N
where Fs is the limiting friction or maximum static friction & N is the normal reaction.

Fk
18. The coefficient of kinetic friction or dynamic friction or sliding friction s given by k 
N
where Fk is the kinetic friction & N is the normal reaction

Fr
19. The coefficient of rolling frictions given by  r 
N
where Fr is the rolling friction & N is the normal reaction.
20. For any two specific surfaces  s   k   r ,  s  S.F,  k  K.F,  r  RF
 s ,  k ,  r is coefficient of static friction, kinetic friction, rolling friction respectively.
 may be less than 1, equal to 1 or greater than 1 for rough surfaces.
21. Angle of repose is the minimum angle of the rough inclined plane for which a body placed on it may
just start sliding down & is equal to angle of friction.

22. Fs = mg sin  , N = mg cos  & tan  = Fs or  = tan–1 

N
10
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY
 
1. The Work done by a body is given by W  F  S cos θ WF . S
W FS
2. The Power is the rate of doing work is known as Power P    F. V.
t t
1 p2
3. The kinetic energy is given by K E  m v2  .
2 2m
where P is the momentum of a body , m is mass of a body & v is velocity of a body.
4. The potential energy is given by PE = mgh.
5. The Work-Energy theorem states that work done on a body is equal to change in its energy & it is
1 2 1 2
given by w  mgh 2  mgh1 & w mv2  mv1 .
2 2
6. In case of elastic collision both momentum & kinetic energy are conserved.
1 1 1 1
 m1u1  m 2 u 2  m1v1  m 2 v 2 & m1u12  m2 u 22  m1v12  m 2 v22
2 2 2 2

relative velocity of separation after collision v v

7. The coefficient of restitution is given by e  e 2 1
relative velocity of approach before collision u1  u 2
Where u1, u2 are the velocities of two bodies before collision and v1, v2 are their bodies after collision.
GRAVITATION
m1m2
1. Newton’s law of gravitation is given by F  G
r2
GM
2. The relation between g & G is given by g  or g R 2  GM
R2

1  2h 
3. The variation of gravity with height is given by g  g  1 
 R 

1  h
4. The variation of gravity with depth is given by g  g 1 
 R

GM g R 2
5. The orbital velocity of the satellite is given by V0   V0 
Rh R  h 
R  h 3
6. The time period of the satellite is given by T  2π
gR 2

2GM
7. The Escape velocity is given by ve  .
R
ROTATIONAL MOTION
arc AB S
1. The Angular displacement is given by    .
radius r
angular displacement 
2. The Angular velocity is given by   
time t
angular velocity 2  1 
3. TheAngular acceleration is given by    
time t t

11
4. The relation between linear & angular acceleration is given by a   r
5. The equation of angular motion with uniform angular acceleration is given by
2  1   t,
1
  1 t   t 2 & 2 2  12  2  
2
where 0 is the initial angular velocity,  the angular acceleration, ‘  ’ angular displacement after
t seconds and  is the final angular velocity.
6. The Angular momentum is the vector product of position vector & linear momentum of a body.
  
ie., L  P  r  P r sin   m v r sin 
  
7. The torque is a vector product of force & position vector. ie.,   F  r  F r sin  rˆ &
  m  r  r   mr 2   &  = I ,
8. The moment of inertia is given by I  MR 2
9. The moment of inertia is given by I  MK 2 where K is radius of gyration.
1 2
10. The rotational kinetic energy is given by K E  I where I is the moment of inertia about the axis
2
of rotation.
12. The Angular impulse is equal the change in angular momentum t = I2  I1 .
r12  r22  ......rn 2
13. The Radius of gyration is given by k 
n
14. The Parallel axis theorem is given by I  I g  Mr 2
where I = moment of inertia of mass M about an axis passing through a point .
Ig = moment of inertia of the M about a parallel axis passing through its centre of mass G.
M = mass of the body & r = distance between the axes
15. The Perpendicular axes theorem is given by I  I x  I y
where Ix and Iy are the moments of inertia of the lamina about the axes OX and OY respectively & I
about the axis OZ.

12
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
Restoring force F
1. The Stress is given by Stress  
area A
2. The Strain is a measure of deformation produced due to stress or Deformation per unit dimension is
called strain.
change in length l
3. The Longitudinal strain   or
originallength L

displacement x
4. The (Shearing) Tangential strainθ   .
height h

changein volume v
5. The Volumestrain  
original volume V

change in thicknessdiameter d
6. The Lateral strain   .
original thickness diameter D
stress
7. Hooke’s law states that “Within elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain”. E 
strain
normal stress F FL
8. The Young' s modulus Y    A

longitudin al strain l
L lA

tangential stress F Fh
The Rigidity modulus η  
A
9.  
tangential strain x
h xA
normal stress F A F V
10. The Bulk's modulusK    
volume strain v V v A
lateral strain d dV
11. Poison' s ratio σ    D
longitudin al strain v V v D
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Hydrostatics
1. Pressure at a point due to a liquid is P  gh
Where  is the density of the liquid, g is acceleration due to gravity, h is the height of the liquid.
2. Pascal law is given by P2  P1  gh
Where P1  gh1 , P2  gh 2 are the pressures at a depth h1 and h2 respectively.
3. Force of buoyancy F = Weight of the displaced liquid  vg
Where v is the volume of the body inside the liquid and  is the density of the liquid.
4. When the body is fully immersed in a liquid, the volume of the liquid displaced is equal to the volume
(v) of the body.
5. The Force of buoyancy  V  g ,
where V is volume,  is density of liquid, g is acceleration due to gravity.
6. Weight of the body  Vg
where  is the density of the body. V is volume of the body, g is acceleration due to gravity.
7. Apparent weight of the body = Real weight – Force of buoyancy = Vg (  –  )
8. Apparent loss of weight of the body = Real weight – Apparent weight
9. Weight of the floating body is equal to the weight of the displaced liquid
If V and  are the volume and density of the floating body and v and  are the volume and density
v 
of the displaced liquid, V  = v   
V 
13
 density of the body
10. Specific gravity of a body 
density of water

Weight of the body in air W1

11. Specific gravity of a solid body  
Loss of its weight in water W1  W2

where W1 and W2 are the weights of the body in air and water respectively.
Surface Tension

1  r
1. The capillary ascent is given by T   g r h  
2  3
where r is radius of the capillar tube, h is hieght of the liquid rises, g is acceleration due to gravity &
 is density of the liquid
Viscosity
dv
1. The rate of change of velocity of flow with distance measured is given by .
dx
2. The viscous force F acting between two layers of a liquid flowing in streamlined motion is given by
dv
F   A
dx
where  is a proportionality constant called coefficient of viscosity of the liquid. The negative sign
dv
shows that the viscous force is direction of motion of the liquid, dx
is the velocity gradient. A is the
cross-sectional area of the liquid.
F / A
3. The coefficient of viscosity is given by 
 dv / dx 

dv
Where dx
is called the velocity gradient, A is the cross-sectional area of the liquid, F is the tangential
viscous force between two adjacent layers of a liquid.
4. The Stoke’s Formula is given by F  6aV . where F is the viscous force acting on a spherical body,
 is coefficient of viscosity, v is terminal velocity and a radius of the sphere of the body.
2
2 ga     
5. The terminal Velocity is given by v t 
9 
Where  is the density of the body and  is the density of the liquid, a is the radius of the spherical
body moving in the liquid.
4 3
6. The force of buoyancy on a sphere moving in a fluid is given by FB  a g
3

4 3
7. The weight of the body is given by W  a dg
3

pr4
8. The Coefficient of viscosity is given by  
8Vl
where l is the length of the capillary tube, r is the radius of the capillary tube, p is the pressure
difference between the ends of the capillary tube, V is the volume of the liquid collected per second
through the capillary tube.

 P r4
9. Poiseuille’s formula is given by V 
8 l

14
 THERMAL EXPANSION

Lower Upper fixed

Temperature fixed point Conversion
Symbol
scale point (ice (boiling point formulae
point) of water)
Kelvin (T) 5
K –273 0K 373 0K T   273  (F  32)
(absolute)  9 
Celcius (t) C
0
00 C 1000C T  273  t
Fahrenheit 5
0 F 32 0F 212 0F C  (F  32)
(F) 9

GAS LAWS
1
1. Boyle’s Law is given by P   PV  const or P1V1  P2 V2  .....  constant.
V
Where P1, P2 , P3....... are the pressures of the gas when their volumes V1, V2, V3,........ are respectively
at a given mass and temperature.
V
2. Charles Law is given by V  T   constant.
T
where V1 and V2 are the volumes of given mass of a gas at temperatures T1 and T2 (in absolute
V1 V2
scale) at constant pressure. then T  T = constant
1 2

P
3. Gay lussac’s Law is given by P  T   constant.
T
where P1 and P2 are the pressures of given mass of a gas at temperatures T1 and T2 (in absolute scale)
P1 P2
at constant volume. then T  T = constant
1 2

4. The volume of a gas at temperature t0C is Vt  Vo 1   t  .

5. The pressure of a gas at temperature t0C is Pt  Po 1   t  .
6. The perfect gas equation for 1 mole of a gas is, PV = RT
PV
Where R   8.314Jmol1K 1 is known as universal gas constant.
T
7. The gas equation for “n” moles of gas: PV  nRT
m
8. If M is the molecular weight of the gas, and n is the Number of moles, then n 
M
R
Therefore the gas equation becomes PV  m
T
M Where P and V are the pressure and volume of a
given mass (m) of gas at temperature (absolute) T.
R
9. The gas equation for unit mass of gas is given by PV  T where M is the molecular weight
M
Vs is the volume of unit mass of a gas is also called specific volume.

R
10. The gas equation for unit mass of gas PV  rT where  r ' called gas constant. It changes from
M
gas to gas.
11. If 1 and  2 be the densities of a gas at temperatures T1 and T2 and the pressures P 1 and P2
P1 P2
respectively then  T   T .
1 1 2 2

15
 23
12. The Avogadro number N  6.023 10 atoms or molecules per gram mole & the Avogadro number
26
N  6.023 10 atoms or molecules per kg mole
R 8.31
13. The Boltzmann’s Constant is given by K    1.38 1023 JK 1
N 6.023 1023
 a 
14. The Van der waal’s equation of state for real gases is given by  P   V  b   n R T
 V2 
where n is number of moles of the gas, where a & b constants for a given gas.
15. Calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of water through 10C i.e., from
14.50C to 15.50C is equal to one Calorie. 1 Calorie = 4.186 Joule .
ABSORPTION OF HEAT
Q
1. The specific heat capacity is given by C  .
m θ 2  θ1 

Q
2. The Thermal capacity is given by T  .
θ 2  θ 1 
3. The Thermal capacity = mC where m is the mass and C is the specific heat.
4. The Principle of calorimetry is given by Heat lost by the hot substance = Heat gained by the cold
substance C1 m1 (θ1  θ)  C 2 m 2 (θ  θ 2 )

1
5. The energy associated with each degree of freedom is KT ,
2
where K is called Boltzmann’s constant & T is the temperature of the gas. This is Boltzmann law of
Equipartition of energy.
 dU 
6. The molar specific heat of the gas at constant volume CV is given by CV    for 1 mole of gas.
 dT V
 dQ 
7. The molar specific heat of the gas at constant pressure C P is given by C P    for 1 mole of gas.
 dT  P
8. The mayer’s equation is given by C P  C V  R where R is universal gas constant C P is specific heat at
constant pressure & CV is specific heat at constant volume.
Cp
9. The specific heat ratio is given by C   ,  is a constant which gives the atomicity of gas.
v

CV  1000
10. If CV is molar specific heat of a gas, the specific heat capacity cv = J kg 1K 1 is known as
M
principal specific heat at constant volume. where M is the molecular weight
11. If C P is the molar specific heat, the specific heat of the gas of constant pressure is
CP 1000
cP  J kg 1K 1 . is known as principal specific heat at constant presure. where M is the mo-
M
lecular weight
12. The number of degrees of freedom is given by n = 3N – k
Where n is number of particles and k is the independent relations
(a) For a monatomic gas molecules N  1, k  0  n  3
(b) For a diatomic gas molecules N  2,k  1  n  5
(c) For a triatomic linear molecules N  3,k  2  n  7
(d) For a triatomic nonlinear molecules N  3, k  3  n  6
2
13. Degrees of freedom (n) & ratio of specific heats (  ) are related by   1 
n
16
 CONDUCTION OF HEAT
change in temperature
1. The temperature gradient is given by .
distance
 dT 
2. The quantity of heat conducted through any section of the conductor is Q  KAt  
 dx 
dT
Where K is the coefficient of thermal conductivity, A is the cross section, is the temperature
dx
gradient, t is the time for which heat flows.
Q
3. The coefficient of thermal conductivity is K  .
 dT 
At  
 dx 

Q
K 
4. The coefficient of thermal conductivity of a material is given by θ θ 
A  1 2 t
 d 
5. Stefan’s law is given by E  T 4 E  σ T 4 where E is the energy radiated per unit area
per second, T is the absolute temperature of the body, &  is Stefan’s Boltzmann
constant   5.67  10 8 Wm 2 K 4 .
If a body is not perfectly black & has emissivity e Then stefan’s law becomes E  e σ T 4

6. 
Stefan’s Boltzmann law is given by E  σ T 41  T 4 2 
If a black body at absolute temperature T1 is surrounded by another black body at temperature T2,
the amount of energy E lost per second per unit area is given by
1
7. Wien displacement law is given by λ m   λ m T  constant b
T
Where b is called Wein’s constant & it is equal to 0.289 x 10-2 mk.
1
2
R S4
8. Temperature of the sun is given by T   2 
r σ 
e
9. Kirchoff’s law is given by a  E  = constant


where e is the emissive power & a  is the absorptive power of a body

10. The intensity of radiations emitted by a black body in the wavelength range from  to  + d  is
given by Planck’s radiation law and is planck obtained a relation for energy radiation from a black
5
8 π hc λ
E d  hc
dλ
at a temperature T. Planck’s radiation law can be written as λ kT
e 1
Where K is Boltzmann constant, h is the Planck’s constant, c - is the velocity of electromagnetic
radiation in free space, & T is the temperature of teh black body.
The total energy radited by the sun Q   4R  T
2 4
12.
where  is the Stefan’s constant and R is the radius of the sun
13. The total energy received by the surface of the spehere of radius d is 4d2S
where S is solar constant.
2
4 d S 14
14. The surface temperature of the sun T can be calculated as T    T   1108   10 3  5770K
R
  
where d  1.5  1011 m, R  6.96  10 8 m, S  1.353  10 3 Wm 2 &   5.67  10 8 Wm 2 k 4
17
 THERMODYNAMICS
1. First law of thermodynamics is given by dQ  dU  dW
dQ  dU  PdV
dQ is amount of heat given to a system, dU is change in internal energy, dW = PdV is work done.
2. Equation of state is given by PV = RT
3. Isothermal process is given by PV = constant
4. Adiabatic process is given by PV   constant, where  is constant
TV 1 = constant & T  P1  constant
Q2 Q1  Q 2
5. The efficiency of Heat engine is given by   1  Q or   Q
1 1
where Q1 is the energy observed from the source Q2 is the energy rejected for the sink
T2 T1  T2
6. The efficiency of Heat engine is given by   1  T or   T
1 1

Where T1 is the temperature of the source T2 is the temperature of the sink

Q2 Q2 T2
7. The co-efficient of performance   W  Q  Q  T  T
1 2 1 2

where Q2 is the amount of energy observe from a cold body, Q1 is amount of energy rejected to the
hot body. T1 is the temperture of the sorrounding T2 is the tempeture of the cold body. W = Q1  Q 2
is the work done.
dP L
8 Clausius clapeyron equation is given by 
dT T V2  V1 
Where dT is the change in boiling point or melting point for a change in pressure dP. T is the boiling
temperature, L is latent heat of vapourisation, V1 & V2 are the initial & final volume.
OSCILLATIONS & WAVES
Oscillations
1. For a body executing simple harmonic motion, Restoring force ( (F)   displacement (y).
2. F = –ky. Where ‘k’ is called the force constant, or stiffness constant or spring constant.
F k
3. acceleration (a)    y where ‘m’ is the mass of the body executing S.H.M.
m m
d i s p la c e m e n t
4. Time period T  2 
a c c e le r a t i o n

1 1 1
5. Frequency, f   =
T displacement m
2 2
acceleration k
6. The displacement (y) of the particle executing SHM : y  Asin(t  )
y = displacement of the particle in S.H.M in time ‘t’., A = amplitude,   angular frequency or an-
gular velocity ( 2n ), t = time to produce the displacement y,   initial phase or epoch.
dy
7. Particle velocity is given by Vp  . v p  a  cos  t  & v max  a 
dt

dv p d 2Y
8. Particle acceleration is given by A p      2 a sin  t  & Amax   a  2
dt dt 2
1
9. Energy of the SHM is E  m 2 a 2  2 2 a 2 f 2 m
2
10. The Velocity (v) of the particle executing SHM : v  Acos(t  )   A 2  y 2
11. The particle has zero velocity at the extreme positions that is when y = A.
18
12. Maximum velocity : vmax  A
13. The acceleration of the particle executing SHM, a  A2 sin(t  )  2 y
14. The particle has zero acceleration at the mean positions that is when y = 0.
15. The particle has maximum acceleration at the extreme positions that is when y = A. i.e amax  2 A


16. The phase difference between displacement and velocity is .
2

17. Phase difference between velocity and acceleration is
2
18. Phase difference between acceleration and displacement is  .
l
19. Time period (T) of the simple pendulum is given by T  2
g
20. Time period of a pendulum at the centre of the earth is infinity.

Waves
1. The relation between phase difference & path difference is given by
 2    
Phase difference    path difference or Path difference    phase difference
    2 
2. The angular frequency of the wave is given by 2 / T   .
3. the angular wave number or propagation constant of a wave is given by 2 /   k
Distance travelled 
4. Wave velocity is given by (v)   v  f 
Time taken T
where f is the frequency of wave and  is the wavelength of progressive wave
 x
5 A progressive wave represented by the following equations y  A sin   t  
 v

 x  x  t x
y  A sin   t   , y  A sin 2 f  t   y  Asin 2   
 v  v T 
2
y  A sin(t  kx) y  Asin (vt  x) y  Asin k(vt  x)

6. (a) The harmonic wave moving along +ve x direction is given by y  a sin(t  kx)
(b) The harmonic wave moving along –ve x direction is given by y  a sin(t  kx)
 2  
7. The ratio of angular frequency to the wave number is given by    v
k T 2 T
8. The average total energy per unit volume of a wave E  22 A2f 2
where ‘  ’ is the density of the medium, the amplitude of the particle ‘A’ and ‘f’ is the frequency.
9. The intensity of sound wave I = Energy density x Velocity of wave
I  22 A2 f 2
where ‘  ’ is the density of the medium, the amplitude of the particle ‘A’ and ‘f’ is the frequency  is
velocity of the wave.
Sound
E
1. The longitudinal wave velocity is v

.
Where E is elastic modulus of the medium through which the wave is transmitted and  is density.
Y
2. The velocity of sound in solids is v  .

Where Y is young modulus of the material.
19
 B
3. The velocity of sound in liquid is v  where B is Bulk modulus of the material.


P
4. According to Newton, the velocity of sound in gases is v  where P is pressure of the gas  .


P
5. According to Laplace, the velocity of sound in gases is v  where  is ratio of specific heats of gas.

6. The velocity of sound in air is directly proportional to square root of its absolute temperature.
(a) v  T
where T is the absolute temperature
t
(b) v  v0 1 
273
where t is the temperature in 0C
T
(c) v  v0 T
0

where T is the absolute temperature and T0 is the absolute temperature corresponding to 00C
v1 T1
(d) v  T
2 2

Where v1 and v2 are the velocities of sound in air at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively.
7. Intensity of sound is given by I  2 2f 2 A 2v
8. Intensity of sound is given by I = Energy density  velocity of wave.
9. Energy density is given by E  22f 2 A 2
10. Intensity level of sound in decibel is 10 times the intensity level in bel.
 I 
11. Intensity level in bel is given by IL  log  I  . where I0 is standard intensity.
 0

 I 
12. Intensity level in decivle is I L  10log  I 
 0
13. Intensity level of least audible sound at a frequency of 1000 Hz is 0 dB.
14. Intensity level of pain producing sound at a frequency of 1000 Hz is 120 dB.
15. The range of intensity level of audible sound at a frequency of 1000 Hz is 0 dB to 120 dB.
16. Weber Fechner equation is given by L  Klog I . Where K is constant.
 v  v w  vL 
17. The expression for the Doppler effect is given by f '   v  v  v  f
 w s 

where v, vw ,vL and vs are velocites of sound, wind, lisener and source respectively. All the velocities
are taken along positive x axis.
Special cases
(a) Source moving towards as stationary listener.
 v 
 f   f
 v  vs 
(b) Source moving away from a stautionary listener.

 v 
 f ' f
  v  v  
 s 

20
 (c) Listener moving towards a stationary source.
 v  vL 
f' f
 v 
(d) Listener moving away from a stationary source.

 v  vL 
 f ' f
 v 
(e) Source and listener moving towards each other.

 v  vL 
f ' f
 v  vs 
(f) Source and listener moving away from each other.

 v  vL 
f' f
 v  vs 
(g) Source approaching the listener and the listener moving away from the source.

 v  vL 
 f ' f
 v  vs 
(h) Listener approaching the source and the source moving away from the listener.

 v  vL 
f' f
 v  vs 
STATIONARY WAVES
1. The equation of the stationary wave y  2a cos kx sin t or 2a sin kx cos t
2. The amplitude of the stationary wave is ( 2a cos kx ) or 2a sin kx
3. The amplitude is maximum (antinode) for all points at which cos kx  1 or kx  0 ,  , 2 ....... n
2 
4. At antinodes, x  n or x  n .
 2
5. The position of antinodes are at x  0 ,  / 2 ,  , 3 / 2 .... or n / 2 where n = 0, 1, 2, 3......
6. The amplitude is zero (nodes) for all points at which kx   / 2 , 3 / 2 .... =  2n  1  / 2 ,
where n = 0, 1, 2,.....
2  
7. At nodes x   2n  1 or x   2n  1
 2 4
 3 5
8. The positions of nodes are given by, x  , , ,........
4 4 4

9. Distance between two consecutive antinodes = distance between two consecutive nodes  .
2

10. The distance between the successive node and antinode is equal to
4

11. The minimum length of the stationary wave form in the open tube is equal to .
2
where  is the wavelength.

12. The length of the tube l  or   2l
2
v
13. The frequency of the wave contained by the tube is equal to  f1 ,
2l
where l is the length of the tube & the frequency f1 is called fundamental frequency or first har-
monic.
21
14. Frequency of open pipes
v
(a) Fundamental frequency or First harmonic  f1 
2l
v
(b) First overtone or Second harmonic  2f1  2
2l
v
(c) Second overtone or Third harmonic  3f1  3
2l
15. The open tube vibrates with frequencies f, 2f, 3f,.... i.e., the harmonics are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 ... i.e.,
f1 : f 2 : f 3......  1: 2 : 3..... .
v
16. Considering the end correction (e) the fundamental frequency of an open pipe of length l is f1 
2(l  2e)

17. The minimum length of the stationary wave form in the closed tube is equal to .
4
where  is the wavelength

18. The length of the tube l     4l
4
v
19. The frequency of the wave contained by the tube is equal to  f1 , where l is the length of the tube.
4l
The frequency f1 is called fundamental frequency or first harmonic.
20. Frequency of closed pipes
v
(a) Fundamental frequency or First harmonic  f1 
4l
v
(b) First overtone or Second harmonic  3f1  3
4l
v
(c) Second overtone or Third harmonic  5f1  5
4l
v
(d) Third overtone or seventh harmonic  7f1  7
4l

21. The closed tube vibrates with frequencies f, 3f, 5f,.... i.e., the harmonics are in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5 ...
i.e., f1 : f 2 : f 3 ......  1: 3 : 5..... .
22. Considering the end correction (e) the fundamental frequency of an closed pipe of length l is
v
f1 
4(l  e)
23. When the string vibrates with nodes at both fixed ends and an antinode at the middle, the mode of
vibration is said to be fundamental.
v v
Fundamental frequency f 0  
 2L
T
24. The velocity of a wave traveling along a stretched string is given by v  ,
m
where T is the tension in the string and m is the linear density (mass per unit length).
p T
25. If the string vibrates with p loops, then f 
2L m
26. Law of length. The fundamental frequency ( f 0 ) is inversely proportional to the vibrating length (l),
1
when tension and mass per unit length are kept constant i.e., f 0  .
l
22
27. Law of tension, the fundamental frequency ( f 0 ) is directly proportional to the square root of tension
(T), when length and mass per unit length are kept constant i.e., f 0  T .
28. Law of mass. The fundamental frequency ( f 0 ) is inversely proportional to the square root of the
1
mass per unit length (m), when tension and length are kept constant i.e., f 0  .
m

1 T
29. The fundamental frequency is given by f 0 
2L m

1 T
30. Frequency in the nth harmonic: f n  n
2L m

II PUC
ELECTROSTATICS
Electro charges
q
1. q   ne or n  , where n is the number of electrons and e  1.6 1019 C is the charge of the electron.
e
q1q2
2 Coulomb’s law F  K Where k is contant of proportionality. Its value depends upon the
r2
nature of the medium in which the two charges are located. for vaccum or air Where  o is absolute
permittivity of free space 8.85  10 12 F / m
1 q1q2
 F
4 o r 2 .
 1 q1q2
3. In vector form, Coulomb’s law is written as F  rˆ
4 o r 2
 1 q1q2  1 q1q2 
F12  rˆ12 & F21  rˆ21 r
but rˆ 
4 o r 2 4 o r 2 r
 1 q1q2   1 q1q2 
F12  r12 & F21  r21  
and also rˆ12   rˆ21 & r12   r21
4 o r 3 4 o r 3
 
 F12   F21 .
Fair
4. Dielectric constant or Relative permittivity  r 
Fmedium .
Where Fa is the force between the two charges in the air or vacuum. Fm is the force between same
two charges in a given medium.

ch arg e q
5. Surface charge density is given by    .
surface area A
6. For a spherical conductor, If q be the charge on the spherical conductor of radius R, surface area
q
 4 R 2 , then the surface density 
4 R 2

or q  4 R 2  . 
q1
2
 1 4 R12  q1  R2 
     .
 q1  q2  R1 
7. For two charged spherical conductor of radii R1 & R2, then 1
4 R12
23
 2
q1  R1 
8. If two spheres of radii R1 & R2 carrying q1 & q2 have the same surface density , then   .
q2  R2 

q1 R1
9. If two spheres of radii R1 & R2 carrying q1 & q2 are raised to the same potential then 
q2 R2 .


1 R
10. If  1 &  2 are the surface densities of charge of the spheres respectively then  2.
 2 R1
ELECTROSTATIC FIELD

1. The force experienced by a test charge q in an electric field of intensity E is F = Eq


 F
2. The electric field intensity E 
q

1 q
3. Electric intensity at a point due to a point charge is E   2
40 r
  
1 q r 1 q 
4. Electric intensity in terms of vector form is E  2
ˆ
r but ˆ
r   E  r.
4 o r r 4 o r 3
5. The magnitude & direction of resultant Electric field is given by

 E2 sin  
ER  E12  E22  2 E1E2 cos  &   tan 1  
 E1  E2 cos 
i) If   00 ; ER  E1  E2

ii) If   1800 ; ER  E1  E2

iii If   900 ; ER  E12  E22 & E1  E2 then ER  2 E1

iv) If   1200 ; E1  E2 then ER  E1

   

6. Electric field due to a number of charges F  F1  F2    Fn

E
7. Electric potential at a point : V  where E is the potential energy possessed by test charge q0 .
q0

1 q
8. Electric potential due to a point charge +q is V  4  r .
0

1 q
9. Electric potential due to a point charge –q is V   4  r .
0

dV
10. Relation between electric intensity and electric potential E  
dx
where dV is the potential gradient over the distance dx.
11. The net potential due many charges at a given point is given by

1  q1 q2 q3 
V     ........
4 o  r1 r2 r3 
12. 
Work done in an electric field is given by dW  q Vi  V f 
where q is given charge to move from initial point to final point Vi & V f are the potential at initial
& final point.
24
13. Electric dipole moment P  q  2l

 1 P
14. Electric intensity due to a electric dipole E   3  1  3cos 2 
4 0 d

 1 2P
15. Electric intensity due to a dipole on the axial line E  
40 d 3

 1 P
16. Electric intensity due to a dipole on the equatorial line E   3
4 0 d
 
17. Torque on an electric dipole   pE sin   p  E
18. The electric flux through a surface element dS is d   E  dS .
19. Total flux through a surface in an electric field is
 
d  EdS cos      EdS cos  or    EdS cos    E  dS .
s s

20. The Total electric flux through a gaussian surface is

1 1
 (Algebraic sum of total charge enclosed)    q 
0 0
21. Electric intensity due to a charged spherical conductor
1 q
(a) At a point outside the spherical conductor E  2,
4 0 d
1 q
(b) At a point just on the surface of a spherical conductor E  2 ,
4 0 r
(c) At a point inside the spherical conductor E  0
Where r is radius of the conductor, d is the distance between the point p and centre of the conductor.
1 q1q2
22. Potential energy of a system of two point charges is given by is U   & U  V q 
40 r
where r is the separation between two point charges q1 and q2 .
23. Potential energy of a system of three point charges is given by
1  q1q2 q2 q3 q3 q1 
U    
40  r12 r23 r31 
24 Potential energy of the system of n point charges is given by
1 n
U  qiVi .
2 i 1
CAPACITORS
q
1. Capacitance of a conductor of capacitor is given by C  .
V
2. Capacity of a spherical conductor in air is given by C  4  o R .
3. Capacity of a spherical conductor in dielectric medium is given by C  4  o r R .
ab
4. Capacity of a spherical capacitor is given by C  4 0 r  for air  r  1 .
 a 
b

2  0  r l
5. Capacity of a cylindrical capacitor is given by C  for air  r  1 .
 b 
2 .3 0 3 lo g  
 a 

 0 r A
6. Capacity of a parallel plate capacitoris given by C  for air  r  1 .
d
7. If the medium between the plates is filled with a dielectric slab of thickenss t < d, then
25
 oA
8. Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor, C  (with free space).
 1
d  t 1  
 K
9. If the medium between the plates is filled with a conducting slab of thickenss t < d, then

10. Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor, C  o A  C  o A (with free space).

dt  t 
d 1  
 K
C d ie le c tr ic
K 
11. Dielectric constant, C a ir .

1 1 q2 1
12. Energy stored in capacitor of capacitance C & charge q with potential V is U  CV 2   qV.
2 2 C 2
1 1 1 1
13. If n number of capacitors are connected in series, then     
Cs C1 C2 Cn

C
14. If n identical capacitors each of capacitance C are connected in series, then CS  .
n
1 1 1 1 C1  C2 C1C2
15. If two capacitors of capacitance C1 & C2 in series then, C  C  C  C  C C  CS  C  C
S 1 2 S 1 2 1 2

C 2V C1V
Charge q  C1V1  C2V2  CsV & potential difference V1  C  C & V2  C  C
1 2 1 2

16. If three capacitors of capacitance C1 , C2 & C3 in series then,

1 1 1 1 C1C2C3
    CS 
CS C1 C2 C3 C1C2  C2C3  C3C1
17. If n number of capacitors are connected in parallel, then C P  C1  C2    Cn
18. If n identical capacitors each of capacitance C are connected in paralle , then CP  n C .
19. If C P & C S be the effective capacitances of two identical capacitors connected first in parallel & then

CP 2 2
 
in series respectively then, C  n or CP  n CS .
S
20. If five capacitors are connected in the form of a Wheatstones bridge then C5 is eliminated then
C1 C3
then effective capacitance is given by C  C  Ceff   C1 series C2  parallel  C3 series C4  .
2 4
21. If 12 identical capacitors each of capacitance C along the edges of the cube with terminals across
6
solid diagonal, then effective capacitance is given by C eff  C .
5
22. If 12 identical capacitors each of capacitance C along the edges of the cube with terminals across
4
face diagonal, then effective capacitance is given by C eff  C .
3
23. If 12 identical capacitors each of capacitance C along the edges of the cube with terminals across
12
any edge, then effective capacitance is given by C eff  C .
7
24. If 12 identical capacitors each of capacitance C along the edges of the cube with terminals across
5
open edge, then effective capacitance is given by C eff  C .
7

26
25. When two capacitors C1 and C 2 are charged to potentials V1 and V2 and then connected in parallel,
C 1V 1  C 2V 2  CV
their common potential difference is V  C 1  C 2 . or In general,
V  .
C
C 1C 2
26. Loss of energy due to redistribution of charges is  U  2 C  C  V1  V 2 2 .
 1 2 

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
OHM’S LAW
q ne
1. Strength of electric current I  I
t t
where q is charge, t is time, e is charge of an electron & n is number of electrons.
 q  dq
2. Instantaneous current I  lim 
t 0 t

  dt
3. The relation between the current & drift veleocity is I  neAVd .

Vd I
4. Mobility of free electron is   & 
E nAeE
I E
5. Current density J  , J  neVd J  E & J 
A 
Where  is resistivity,  is conductivity of the material of conductor.
V
6. Electric field inside the conductor E 
l
Where l is length of the conductor, V is p.d. applied between the ends of the conductor.
 eE 
7. The expression for drift velocity is Vd    
m
where  is relaxation time, E is electric field, m is mass of the electrons, e is charge of an electron

 m l  l 
8. The potential difference is given by V  R I  V   2 I & V   I
 ne  A  A

ml l
where   2 is resistivity of the material of the conductor & R  is the resistance of the con-
ne  A
ductor.
V
9. The relation between current & pd is V  RI or R 
l
l l
10. Resistance of a wire is R  R
A  r2
where r is radius of the wire, l is length of the wire &  is resistivity of the material of the conductor..
Rt  R0
11. Temperature coefficient of resistance of conductor is   R 0 t or R t  R 0 (1  t)

R2  R1
 0 0
R 1 t 2  R 2 t 1 where R1 & R2 are resistances at t1 C and t2 C.
12. The resistance of a thermistor at temperature T is R  ae b/T
13. Temperature coefficient of resistance of thermistor is
1  dR  b 2.303(log R 1  log R 2 )
  ,  &  .
R  dT  T2 T1  T2

27
 E
14. Ohm’s law applied to a circuit (a) I  & (b) V  IR .
R r R r

15. Resistors are in series R S  R 1  R 2 ........

 R1   R2 
& V1 =   V & V2 =  V
 R 1 +R 2   R1 +R 2 

1 1 1 1
16. Resistors are in parallel R  R  R  R  ......
P 1 2 3

R 1R 2
17. Two resistors are in parallel R P  R  R
1 2

R 1R 2 R 3
18. Three resistors are in parallel R P  R R  R R  R R
1 2 2 3 1 3

R 1R 2
19. If two resistors are connected in series & then parallel , R P  R  R , RS  R1  R2 & R S R P  R 1R 2
1 2

I1 R1
20. If I1 and I2 are the currents through R1 and R2 in a parallel combination of R1 and R2 then I  R
2 2

IR 2 IR 1
21. Branch current I1  & I2 
R1  R2 R1  R 2

E
22. Current through a circuit containing cell & external resistance is I  .
R r
23. The current through the external resistance R connected to multiple arc with ‘m’ rows and ‘n’ cells
nE
each I 
 nr 
R  
m

nE
24. Cells are in series I  When external resistance is greater then the internal resistance of the
R  nr
cell

E
25. Cells are in parallel I  When external resistance is lesser then the internal resistance of the cell
r
R 
n
26. In a discharging mode terminal potential difference is V  E  IR
27. In a charging mode terminal potential difference is V  E  Ir
28. Emf’s of the cells are in same direction.
(a) The effective emf = E = E1  E 2

(b) The effective internal resistance is r1  r2

(c) The resistance of the circuit is R  r1  r2

(d) The cells are said to be in conjunction
E1  E 2
(e) Current I =
R  r1  r2
28
29. If three cells of same emf & equal internal resistance r are connected then

1 1 1 1 r
(a) The effective internal resistance re is given by     re 
re r r r 3

r
(b) The total resistance in the circuit R  re  R 
3

E
(c) The current in the circuit I 
r
R
3

30. When two cells are connected in series with opposition direction such that E1  E 2
Then
(a) Total emf = E1  E 2

(b) Total resistance = R  r1  r2

E1  E 2
(c) Current in the circuit i 
R  r1  r2
E1r2  E 2 r1
(d) The common terminal voltage V 
r1  r2

31. When two cells of different emf E1 and E 2 and internal resistance r1 and r2 are connected antiparallel.

(a) Total emf = E1  E 2

(b) Total resistance r1  r2

E1  E 2
(c) Current i 
r1  r2

(d) Terminal voltage across E1 is V1  E1  I r1

(e) Terminal voltage across E 2 is V2  E2  I r2

E1r2  E 2 r1
(f) The common terminal voltage V 
r1  r2

32. Terminal pd is V  E  I r (when cell is charged) & V=E-Ir ( when cell is discharged).

33. Terminal pd is V  E (when cell is open circuit).

2 V 2t
34. Heat produced in a resistor H  I R t  VI t  .
R

2 V2
35. Power dissipated in a resistor P  V I  I R  .
R
1 1 1 1
Power is parallel Pp  p1  p2  p3  ........power in series     ......
ps p1 p2 p3

E1 l1
36. For a balanced potentiometer, 
E2 l 2 .

29
 KIRRCHOFF’S LAWS
1. Kirchoff’s current law I  0
2. Kirchoff’s voltage law  IR   E  0
P R
3. Balance condition of wheatstone bridge  if I g  0 .
Q S
(P  Q)(R  S)
4. Effective resistance of the bridge between A and C is given by R eff 
PQRS

Sl
5. Unknown resistance in terms of balancing length X 
1l

d 2 X
6. Resistivity of the wire is  
4L
where L is length of the wire, d is diameter of the wire.
MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM
 o I dl sin θ
1. Biot-Savart’s law or Laplace law is dB 
4 r2
Where I is strength of electric current , dl is length of the current element ,  is angle between
current element and line joining the point to the element & r is the distance between the point and
current element &  0 is absolute permeability of free space,  0  4 107 Hm 1
 
2.

Vector form of a Biot-Savart’s law or Laplace law is dB 
μ o I dl  r  
4π r3
3. Magnetic field on the axis of a current carrying circular coil
2 2
μo 2 π n a I μ o n a I
B  3 or B  3
4π a 2
 x 2
 2 
2 a 2
 x 2
 2

where a is radius of a coil & x is distance between the centre of the circular coil & the point.
μo  2 π n I  μo n I
4. Magnetic field at the centre of a current carrying circular coil B    B 
4π  a  2a

0 2 nr 2 I
5. When point P lies for away from the centre of the coil, X > > r, B 
4 X 3
o I
6. Magnetic field due to a straight conductor B 
2 d .
7. Magnetic dipole moment of a circular loop is M  IA  I   a 2 .  
0 nI
8. Magnetic field due to a current carrying solenoid on a point on its axis B  (cos 1  cos 2 )
2
Where n is number of turns per unit length.
(a) At its centre B  0 nI &
0 nI
(b) At its one of its edges B  .
2
9. Horizontal component of earth magnetic field BH  B cos 
10. Vertical component of earth magnetic field B V  B sin 
11. B 2  BH2  B V 2

30
 B 
12.   tan 1  V 
 BH 
13. Force on a charge in magnetic field F  qvB sin 
  
14. Vector form F  q V  B  
15. When the charged particle moves perpendicular to B, F  qVB
mv 2
16. Centripetal force= magnetic force  Bqv
r
mv
17. radius of the circular path r  Bq

2 m
18. Period of revolution T  Bq

1 Bq
19. Frequency f  
T 2m
20. Interaction of charged particle with electric and magnetic fields applied simultaneously
   

F  qE  q v  B 
21. Force on a straight conductor F  BIl sin 
 0I 1I 2
22. Force per unit length between two parallel straight conductor of infinite length F 
2 a
 C 
23. The current in a moving coil galvanometer I      K
 NBA 

 c 
24. The current sensitivity of a suspended coil galvanometer K   
 nBa 
Ig G
25. The shunt resistance for an ammeter S  I  I
g

V
26. The series resistance for an voltmeter R  I  G
g

27. The torque on a current carrying coil given by   nABI sin 

Where  is the angle made with normal to the plane of the coil & the magnetic field
28. The torque on a current carrying coil given by   nABI cos
Where  is the angle made with the plane of the coil & the magnetic field
29. The torque on a current loop   MB sin 

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION & ALTERNATING CURRENT

d  
1. The induced emf (Neumann’s relation ) is given by e    2 2
dt t
d
where e is induced emf, is rate of change of magnetic flux.
dt
e N  d 
2. The induced current is given by I     where n is number of turns & R is resistance of the coil.
R R  dt 
N
3. The induced charge is given by dQ  I dt  d 
R
31
4. Motional emf e  Blv
Blv e Blv
5. The induced current is given by I  or i  
R r R R
6. Magnetic flux linked with a loop is   AB cos  ,
where A is area of loop, B is magnetic field
7. Flux linked with the coil   NA(B cos ) where n is number of turns of the coil.
d
8. Magnitude of induced emf in a coil is e  (NAB cos )
dt
 dB 
(a) In only B is changing with time e  NA cos   
 dt 

 dA 
(b) In only A is changing with time e  NBcos   
 dt 
d
(c) If only  is changing with time e  NAB (cos )
dt
dI
9. Magnitude of emf induced in a coil due to a change in the current through it e  L
dt

0r N 2 A
10. Self inductance of a cylinder coil is L    0  r n 2lA, where  r is relative permeability of
l
the material of the core,  0 is absolute permeability.

0  r N 2 A
11. The self - inductance of a long solenoid L   0  r n 2lA,
l
N
where n  ,  r  1 , length L, area of cross-section A & N number of turns.
l
0 N 2 A
12. The self inductance of a circular coil L  r - radius of the coil.
2r
13. The mutual inductance between two long solenoids wound over one another having turns
N1 , N 2 , cross - sectional area A and common length L is given by
 0  r N1 N 2 A
M  0  r n1n2 lA.
l
 0 N P N S AS
14. Mutual inductance for a pair of co-axial coils M  . (Where R - Radius of the primary
2 RP P

coil).
dI
15. The induced emf in a mutual induction is given by e  M where M is coefficient of mutual induction
dt
1 2
16. Energy stored in a coil is given by U  LI
2
17. The instantaneous value of e.m.f. produced is given by V  N BA sin t
Where n is number of turns of the coil; A is the area of coil and  is angular frequency of rotation
of the coil inside a magnetic field strength B.
18. The instantaneous values are given by V  V0 sin  t and I  I 0 sin  t.

V0 Vrms
19. The Resistance is given by R  
I 0 I rms
32
20. The Instantaneous values are given by for pure inductor & capacitor is given by
V  V0 sin  t and I  I 0 sin  t   

2I 0 2V0
21. The mean value of current & voltage is given by Im  & Vm 
 

I0 V0
22. The rms value of current & voltage is given by I rms  & Vrms 
2 2

1 1 V V
23. The capacitive Reactance is given by X C    0  rms .
2 f C C I 0 I rms

24. Inductive reactance is given by X L  L  2 fc

25. Impedance of a LR, CR or LCR circuit is given by
2 2
2  1  V V  1 
Z  R  X L  X C 
2 2
 R   L    0  rms . OR Z  R 2   L 
 C  I 0 I rms  C 

V0
26. Peak current is given by I 0  & V  VR2  VL  VC 
2 2
R  (X L  X C )

27. phase difference  between current & voltage in a LR, CR or LCR circuit is given by
 1 
 L 
 X  XC  C 
tan    L  or
  tan 1   , tan   VL ~ VC & cos   VR  R
R  R 
  VR V Z
 

28. Resonant frequency is given by f 0 

1
2 LC
29. Band width is given by f  f2  f1

Pd across inductive I oo L o L

30. Quality factor is given by Q   
Pd across resistance Io R R .

fo f resonant frequency
31. Sharpness of resonance is given by  o  .
f 2  f1 f band width

32. The average power dissipated over a complete cycle of ac is given by P a v  V r m s I r m s cos  .

where Vr m s is the rms value of voltage across the circuit, I r m s is the rms value of current through the
circuit &  is the phase difference between the current & the voltage.

resistace R
33. Power factor  cos  
impedence Z

VS n S
34. Turn ratio T  V  n
P P

VS IP
35. For ideal transformer output power = Input power VS I S  VP I P or V  I
P S

o
P 
36. Efficiency of practical transformer      100 .
P
 i

33
 GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
speed of light in a air or vacuum c
1. Absolute refractive index is n  speed of light in a given medium

v
2. Refractive index of a medium 2 with respect to medium 1 is Refractive index is given by
1 n v 
1 n2   2  1  1
2 n1 n1 v2 2
3. Various forms of Snell’s law
sin i
n 
sin r , sin i  n sin r , cosec r  n cosec i , n  sin i cos ec r ,
n2 sin i v1 1
  
n1 sin r v2 2 ,where v1 and v2 are velocities of light in medium 1 and 2 respectively.
n1 sin i  n 2 sin r & n1 cosec r  n1cosec i ,
v2 sin i  v1 sin r ,
2 sin i  1 sin r , where 1 and  2 are wavelengths of light in medium 1 and 2 respectively.
v1 cos ec i  v2 cos ec r & 1 cos ec i  2 cos ec r
4 Lateral shift is expressed in terms of

t sin i  r  t sec r
LS   t sec r sin i  r  
cos r cos i  r 

t
Length of the path of the ray inside the glass slab is
cos r

Ls
Lateral shift per unit thickness is given by  sin i  cos i tan r
t
Lateral shift in terms of refractive index of glass slab of thickness t is

 cos i 
L s  t sin i  1  
 
 n2  sin 2 i 
 1 
Lateral shift when i is very small L s  t i  1  
 n 
5. Normal shift
(i) When an object in denser medium is viewed from rarer medium. Then normal shift is

 1
a) Ns  t 1   n is the refractive index of denser medium with respect to the rarer medium.
 n

Real depth
b) n  Apparent depth

c) If viewed through composite layers of thickness t1 ,t2 ,....... and refractive indices n1,n2,.......then the net

t1 t2
apparent depth =   ........
n1 n2
(ii) When object is in rarer medium is viewed normally from denser medium
a) Ns  t(n  1) n is the refractive index of denser medium with respect to the rarer medium.

Apparent depth
b) n  Real depth
34
 c) If viewed through composite layers of thickness t1 ,t2 ,....... and refractive indices n1,n2,.......then the net

apparent height = n 1  t 1  n 2  t 2  .......

(iii) When an object is viewed through several parallel slabs of different refractive indices the total

normal shift  NS T is the algebraic sum of the normal shifts due to different slabs.
Total normal shift =  N S 1  N S 2  N S 3 ......
 t1 t 2 t 3 
(iv) N total   t1  t 2  t 3  .....   n  n  n  ...... 
 1 2 3 

t1 t 2 t 3
(v) The apparent depth is AD  n  n  n  ......
1 2 3

(vi) A vessel is filled with two immiscible liquids of refractive index n1 and n2 . Then apparent depth
d1 d 2 d(n1  n 2 )
is given by AD   , if d1  d 2 Then AD 
n1 n 2 n1n 2
6. Various equations for critical angle
1 1
rarer ndenser   r nd 
sin C sin C
nd 1

r nd sin C  1 nr sin C

r nd  cos ec C
1
denser nrarer  sin c  denser nrarer 
cos ec C

nr n 
 sin C  C  sin 1  r 
nd  nd 

vd d v   
  sin C  C  sin 1  d  & C  sin 1  d 
vr r  vr   r 
sin C2 v1
sin1 C2   where v1 and v2 are velocities of light in the medium 1 and medium 2.
sin C1 v 2
v1 sin C 2  v 2 sin C1
7 Field of vision of a fish in water . A fish inside a water pond can only see within a cone of about 900
h r
and the radius of circular path is given by r  , r  h tan C & sin C 
2
n 1 r  h2
2

8. A fish or diver under water the outside world appears to be within a cone of vertex angle 2C(  980 )

b
9. Cauchy relation is fairly accurate relation between n & is n  a  , a and b are known as cauchy’s
2
 1
constants  ie., n   Therefore Critical angle C   2 .
 2 
10. Relation between launching angle and refractive indices of cladding and core of an optical fibre is

sin   n 22  n12

35
 REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM
 A D 
sin  
2 
n 
1.  A  where n is refractive index of a prism, A is angle of the prism & D is angle of
sin  
2
minimum deviation
 AD
sin  
n1  2 
2 n1  
2. When a prism is made of a material of RI n1 is surrounded by a medium of RI n2 n2 A
sin  
2
3. For refraction through a prism
(a) d  i1  i 2  A (b) r1  r2  A
(c) i1  r1  d1 deviation of the ray at the first face
(d) i 2  r2  d 2 deviation of the ray at the second face
(e) d  d1  d 2 net deviation produced by a prism

AD A
(f) At minimum deviation, i    & r
 2  2
4. The angle of minimum deviation D  2i  A .
5. For grazing incidence
(a) r2  A  C
(b) D  (i1  900 )  A
6. The angle of minimum deviation due to refraction through a given position is different for different
1
colours D  n  .
2
7. Deviation produced by a thin prism is d  (n  1)A , where n is refractivity of the material prism.
nv  nr
8. Refractive index of mean ray n  ,
2
Where nv and nr are refractive indices of violet and red colour respectively.
dv  dr
9. Mean deviation d  ,
2
Where dv and dr are deviation produced by violet and red colours respectively.
10. Angular dispersion   d v  d r
11. Angular dispersion   (n v  n r )A
dv  dr
12. Dispersive power   dy
Where dy is deviation produced by yellow colour.
n v  nr
13. Dispersive power   n  1
y

where nv , ny & nr are refractive indices of violet, yellow & red colour respectively.
n F  nC
14. Dispersive power of a medium for considering C, D, F lines of solar spectrum is given by   n  1
D

A
n  1 A
1

15. Condition for dispersion without deviation is

n  1
16. Net dispersion   A(n 1)(| )    d      .

36
 REFRACTION THROUGH A SPHERICAL SURFACE
R.i. of object space R.I. of image space Difference in refractive indices
1.  
Object dis tan ce Im age dis tan ce R

n o n I (n o ~ n I )
i.e.  
u v R
(n o  n I )
2. Power of spherical surface is P 
R
1 1 1
3. Lens formula  
f u v
Where u is object distance, v and f is the focal length is image distance
4. Various forms of Lensmaker’s formula

1  n2  1 1
   1  
f  n1  R1 R2 

1  v1  1 1
   1  
f  v2  R1 R2 

1  1   1 1
   1   
f  2   R1 R2 

1 1 1
p  n  1  
f  R1 R2 
R1R2
n  1
f  R1  R2 

R
5. For the focal length of equiconvex lens f 
2(n  1)

R
6. For the focal length of equiconcave lens f 
2(1  n)
R
7. For the focal length of plano convex lens f 
 1
n

R
8. For the focal length of plano concave lens f 
1  n 
9. If an equiconvex lens is made of glass of R.I. 1.5 then f = R
1 1 1 f1 f 2
10. The equivalent focal length f  f  f  f 
1 2 f1  f 2
11. Power of a lens P  P1  P2

D 2  S2
12. Focal length of a convex lens using Shift method f 
4D
Where D is distance between source and screen, S is shift in the position of object.

1 1 1  n  1 n  1
13. Power of a lens P   n  1    P  R  R  P  P1  P2
f  R1 R2  1 2

Power of a lens is the sum of the powers of the two refracting surfaces.

37
 1 1 1 d
14. Focal length of combination of two thin lenses are separated by distance d is given by F  f  f  f f
1 2 1 2

& Power of a lens P  P1  P2  dP1P2

Size height  of the image  I  Image distance  v 

15. Magnification m    &
Size height  of the object  O  object distance  u 
f v f
also m   .
u f f
PHYSICAL OPTICS
Interference
1. If a1 & a2 are the amplitudes of two interfering waves having a phase differece  , then the resultant

amplitude is given by A  a12  a2 2  2a1a2 cos .

(i) If  =0 then A  a1  a2  ,

(ii) If   1800 then A  a1  a2  a1  a2 & (iii) If   90 0 then A  a12  a2 2 .

  2 2  
2. If a1  a2  a then A  2a cos  , since Intensity  amplitude 2 thus I  4a cos  
2  2
3. If I1, I2 be the intensities of two interfering waves having a constant phase difference  , then the

resultant intensity I R  I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2 cos  .

(i) If  =0 then I max  I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2     I  a  a 

I1  I 2
2
max 1 2
2

  I  I   I  a  a 
2 2
(ii) If   1800 then I max  I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2 1 2 min 1 2

2  
(iii) If I1  I 2  I then I R  4 I cos   & also I max  4 I & I min  0
 2
2
I max  a1  a2 
4. The ratio of maximum intensity to minimum intensity is given by I  2
min  a1  a2 
I1 Area1
5. Intensity of light from a slit is proportional to the area of the slit then,  .
I 2 Area2
a1 I1 1
6. Amplitude is proportional to square root width of the slit then,  
a2 I2 2 .
7. Condition for the formation of bright (constructive interference) fringes,
Path difference   n & Phase difference   2n
8. Condition for the formation of dark (destructive interference)fringes,

Path difference   (2n  1) & Phase difference   (2n  1)
2
9. The distance of the nth bright fringe from the central bright fringe is given by
n D
xn  where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,.....
d
xn D
The condition for constructive interference the path difference x   d sin   n
d
where d is the separation between the two slits,  is the angle between the line joining the point &
the mid point of the slits & a line normal to the line joining the two slits,  is the wavelength of light
used & D is the distance of the screen from the sources.
38
10. The distance of the nth dark fringe from the central bright fringe is given by

xn 
2n  1 D
Where n =0, 1, 2, 3,......
2d
xn D 
The condition for destructive interference the path difference x   d sin   2n  1
d 2
D
11. Fringe width is given by   where D is the distance of the screen from the sources, d is the the
d
distance between two coherent sources &  is the wavelength of light used.
12. Angular fringe width is the ratio of the fringe width to the distance of the screen from the sources
 
  .
D d
13. The relation between fringe width & wavelength is given by
1  1

2  2 where 1 ,  2 are wavelengths & 1 &  2 are fringe width.
14. If the experiment is conducted in a medium of refractive index n, then the equivalent path differ-
xd D
ence becomes n & the fringe width becomes 1 
D nd
15. If  air and  medium are fringe width in air & in the medium of refractive index n respectively, then
 air
 medium 
n
16. When a thin transparent film of refractive index n and thickness ‘t’ is introduced in one of the
interfering beams.
(a) the extra path difference introduced is    1  t .
(b) the shift is equal to “n bands” if    1  t  n

D     1 t
(c) Fringe shift s is given by  S     1 t 
d 
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
1. The width of the central maximum is twice the width of secondary maxima is given by
  D  
   2    2  d   .
  
2. Conditions for seondary minima: d sin  n
where d is the width of the slit , n = 1, 2, 3,.... ,  is the angular position of the point under
consideration & l is the wave length of light used.
 2n  1  .
3. Conditions for seondary maxima: d sin  
2
If d is the width of the slit, n = 1, 2, 3,.... ,  is the angular position of the point under consideration
& l is the wave length of light used.

6. Limit of resolution of microscope is given by dx 
2n sin 
where  is wavelength of light, n is the refractive index & q is semivertical angle.
1 2n sin 
7. Resolving power of microscope is given by d  d 
dx 
1.22
8. Limit of resolution of telescope is given by d 
a
where  is wavelength of light, a diameter of the aperture of the objective lens.
1 a
9. Resolving power of telescope is given by R.P.  
d 1.22
39
 POLARISATION OF LIGHT
1. p  r  90

2. tan p  n

where p : polarising angle, n : refractive index, r : angle of refraction, c : critical angle.

1
3. n  tan p
sin c
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Photoelectric effect
1. The rest mass of a photon is zero.
2. Energy of a photon of frequency n is E  h .
E h
3. Mass of a photon of energy E is m   ,
c2 c2
h
4. Photon has a definite linear momentum p is given by p 
c

5. Einstein’s photoelectric equation is given by E  w  K E

Where E is the energy of the incident photon, w is the work function & K E is the kinetic energy of
the photon.
1 2
6. Einstein’s photoelectric equation in terms of frequency is given by h  h o  mv
2
Where  is the frequency of incident photon,  o is the threshold frequency of photon, m is the
mass of the photoelectron & v is the velocity of the electron.
hc hc 1 2
7. Einstein’s photoelectric equation in terms of wavelength is given by   mv
 o 2
Where  is the wavelength of incident photon, o is the threshold wavelength of photon, m is the
mass of the photoelectron & v is the velocity of the electron.
8. Kinetic energy of a photoelectron is Kmax = eVs where e is charge of an electron & Vs is stopping
potential,
DUAL CHARACTER OF MATTER
h h
1. The de-Broglie wavelength associated with a photon is by    .
p mv
h h
2. The de-Broglie wavelength in terms of kinetic energy of a particle is given by    .
p 2mE
h h
3. The de-Broglie wavelength in terms of potential difference is given by   p 
2qVm .
4. The de-Broglie wavelength in terms of potential difference for an electron is given by
h 12.27 o
 &  A
2meV V
h
5. The de-Broglie wavelength in terms of absolute temperature is given by   .
3mkT
Where h is planck’s constant, P is momentum of the particle, m is mass, E is the kinetic energy, q
is the charge of the particle, V is the potential difference, e is the charge of electron or proton, k is
Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature is Kelvin)

40
6. For electron, for proton, for deuteron, and  - particle it is given by
12.27 0 0.286 0 0.202 0 0.101 0
 A,   A,   A,   A.
V V V V
2 r
7. De - Broglie wavelength associated with orbital electron in the nth orbit  
n
BOHR’S THEORY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 o n2h 2
1. The Radius of n Bohr’s orbit is given by rn 
th
 m Ze 2
where  o is the permittivity in free space, h is the planck constant, n is orbit number, m is mass of
an electron, Z is atomic number & e is the charge of an electron
Ze 2
2. The Velocity of an electron in an nth Bohr’s orbit is given by v 
2 o nh

m Z 2e 4
3. The Total energy of an electron in an nth Bohr’s orbit is given by E n  
8 o2 n 2 h 2
4. The Total energy of an electron in an I, II, III Bohr’s orbit in terms of electron volt is given by
1 3 .6 1 3 .6
E 1   1 3 .6 e V , E 2     3 .4 e V , E 3     1. 5 1 e V e tc .
4 9

1  1 Ze 2 
5. th
The Kinetic energy of an electron in an n Bohr’s orbit is given by KE   . 
2  4  0 rn 

Z2 13.6 Z 2
6. The Kinetic energy in terms of electron volt is given by K .E   K .E  eV
n2 n2
 1 Ze 2 
7. th
The Potential energy of an electron in an n Bohr’s orbit is given by PE    . 
 4 0 rn 
Z2  27.2 Z 2
8. The Potential energy in terms of electron volt is given by P.E    P. E  eV
n2 n2
 1 1
9. The Wave number of emitted spectral lines of hydrogen spectrum is given by   R 2  2 
 n1 n2 
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
1. The Nuclear mass is given by ZmP  A  Zm n 
where Z is atomic number, A is the mass number, m p & mn are the mass of proton & neutron.
1
2. The nuclear radius is given by R  R o A 3 .
where R0 is a linear constant equal to 1.3 to 1.4 fermi, A is the mass number.
3. Einstein’s mass-energy relation is given by E= mc2
where E is energy, m is mass and c is speed of light.
4. The energy equivalent of mass ‘m’ is given by E = mc2
5. The mass equivalent of energy ‘E’ is given by m = E/c2
1 12 
6. The atomic mass unit in terms of kilogram is given by 1 amu   26 
 1.66  10  27 kg.
12  6.023  10 
7.  
The electron volt is given by 1eV  1.602 10 19 C 1volt   1.602 10 19 J .
41
8. The atomic mass unit in terms of megaelectron volt is given by
1.66  10 27  9 1016
1 amu  19
eV  93110 6 eV  931MeV .
1.602 10
9. The Mass defect is given by m  ZmP   A  Z mn   M .
Where Z is the atomic number, A is the mass number, M is the mass of the atom and mp , m n & m e are
the masses of proton, neutron and electron respectively.
mass defect
10. The Packing fraction is given by Packing fraction  .
mass number
11. The Binding energy in terms of joules is given by BE  mc 2  Zm P   A  Z mn   M  c 2 .
12. The Binding energy in terms of MeV is given by B.E  m  931.6 MeV .
binding energy
13. Binding energy per nucleon or specific binding energy is given by BE / n 
mass number
14. The smallest magnetic moment an atom can have is called Bohr magneton & is given by
eh
B   9.27  10 24 Am 2
4me
nE
15. The power output of a nuclear reactor is given by P  .
t
where n is number of fissions taking place in time t & E is energy released per fission
NEx
16. The power output of the nuclear reactor in terms of mass number is given by P 
At
where x is mass of a nuclear fuel, A is mass number undergo fission in a time of ‘t’ sec, & E is
energy released per fission & N is the Avagadro number.

42
 RADIOACTIVITY
1. When a radioactive nucleus undergoes α - decay, it loses two units of charge & four units of mass &
thus the daughter nucleus is displaced two columns to the left of the parent element.

z X A α 
decay
 z -2 YA-4  2 He4
eg: 92 U238 α
 decay
 90Th234  2He4
2. When a radioactive nucleus undergoes β -decay, it loses one unit of negative charge with out any
change in its mass number & thus the daughter nucleus is displaced one column to the right of the
parent element.

z X A   
 decay z 1 YA  e0
-1

eg: 90 Th234    91Pa234  -1e0

 decay

3. The number of atoms present at any instant is given by N  N o e   t

0.693
4. The half life of a radioactive substance is given by T12  .

1
5. The average life of a radioactive atom is given by Tmean  .

6. The relation between half life & mean life is given by T12  0.693Tmean

dN
7. The Activity of a radioactive substance is given by A  N.
dt
8. The equivalent equations of N  N 0 e  t are A  A0 e  t & M  M 0 e  t
where A & M are activity & mass of the sample after time t seconds, A 0 & M 0 are the initial
activity and mass of the sample
N0 A M
9. The equation using the number of half live n are given by  2 n , 0  2n and 0  2 n
N A M
t
where n  . T is the half live & t time of observation.
T
1 N  1 M  1 A 
10. The equation for time interval is given by t  log e  0  , t  loge  0  & t  log e  0 
  N   M    A

SOLID STATE ELECTRONICS

0.406  RL
1. The Efficiency of the Half wave rectifier is given by   rf  RL  100%
where RL is load resistance & r f is the forward resistance of a diode

0.812  RL
2. The Efficiency of the Full wave rectifier is given by   rf  RL  100%
where RL is load resistance & r f is the forward resistance of a diode
 I 
 c
3. The current amplification factor in commom base mode is given by    I 
 e V CB  constant

4. The current amplification factor in commom emitter mode is given by    I c 


 I
 b  VCE constant
43
  
5. The relation between  &  is given by   & 
 1 1
6. Usually  of a transistor is slightly less than one &  of a transistor is around 200.
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
7. The Boolean equations of the logic gates can be summrised as follows:
( i) OR gate : Y  A B
(ii) AND gate : Y  A.B  AB
(iii) NOT gate :YA
(iv) NOR gate : Y  A B
(v) NAND gate : Y  A. B
(vi) EOR or XOR gate : Y  AB  A B
8. Basic rules for boolean algebra
(i) De-morgans law ABC  A  B  C_ _ _ _ _ _

A  B  C _ _ _ _ _ _  A. B. C _ _ _ _ _
9. Laws of Boolean algebra
(i) AND laws
1. A . O = O
2. A . 1 = A
3. A . A = A
4. A . A = 0
(ii) OR laws
1. A + A = A
2. A + 1 = 1
3. A + A = A
4. A + A = 1
(iii) NOT laws or laws of complementation
1. 0 = 1
2. 1 = 0
3. If A = 0, A = 1
4. If A = 1, A = 0
5. A = A
(iv) Commutative laws
1. A + B= B + A
2. AB  BA
(v) Associative laws
1. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
2. (A + B) + (C + D) = A + B + C + D
3. A.(B.C) = (A . B) . C
(vi) Distributive laws
1. A(B + C)=AB + AC
2. A + BC = (A + B) (A + C)
3. A + A .B = A + B
(vii) Absorptive laws
1. A + AB = A
2. A . (A + B) = A
3. A.( A +B) = B
***
44
 CHEMISTRY
GENERAL FORMULAE BOOK
**************************************************************************************************
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY

ATOMIC MASS & MOLECULAR MASS

Average mass of one atom of an element

1. Relative Atomic Mass = 1  mass of one atom of C  12 isotope
12

where 112  mass of one atom of C  12 isotope = 1 amu = 1.6606 10 27 kg
2.

Re lative Atomic Mass 

 RA1  A1    RA2  A2    RA3  A3 
 RA1  RA2  RA3 
where RA  Re lative Abundance &
A  Mass number of different isotopes of an element

6.4
3. Atomic mass  (only for solids )
Specific Heat (in cal g 1 )
4. Atomic mass  Equivalent mass  valency

Mass of one molecule of a subs tan ce

5. Molecular mass = 1  mass of one atom of C  12 isotope
12

6. Molecular Mass  2 Vapour Density

7. Molecular mass  mass of 22.4 L of Vapours at STP
Mass (in g )
8. Atomic mass 
Number of moles ;

Mass (in g )
Molecular mass 
Number of moles

MOLE CONCEPT
Mass (in g )
9. Number of Moles 
Gram Atomic Mass / Gram Molecular Mass

10. Number of Particles  Number of Moles  N A

Where N A is Avogadro Number  6.023 10 23

V in cm3 V in dm3
11. Number of Moles  
22, 400cm3 22.4 dm3

M  V in cm3
12. Number of Moles 
1000

1
METHODS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION

w %  weight of the component  100

13. w Total weight of the solution

v %  Volume of the component  100

14. v TotalVolume of the solution

15. w %  weight of a component present in 100 cm3 of solution

v
number of moles of solute mass (in g ) 1000
16. Molarity(M )   
Volumeof solutionin L Gram Molecular Mass Vcm3

number of moles of solute mass (in g ) 1000

17. Molality ( m)   
weight of solvent in g Gram Molecular Mass Weight of solvent in g

number of moles of a component

18. Mole Fraction( x ) 
Total number of moles
If the solution is made up of three components 1, 2 & 3 then
n1 n2 n3
x1  ; x2  ; x3 
n1  n2  n3 n1  n2  n3 n1  n2  n3 & x1  x2  x3  1

mass of a component Volume of a component

19. ppm   106  106
Total mass of solution TotalVolume of solution

VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS / TITRATION

M 1V1 M 2V2
20. 
n1 n2

M 1 ,V1 & n1  Molarity,Volume & number of moles of reac tan t 1

M 2 ,V2 & n2  Molarity,Volume & number of moles of reac tan t 2

STRUCTURE OF ATOM
ATOMIC NUMBER & MASS NUMBER
1. An element X can be represented as
A
Z X or Z X A where Z  Atomic Number ; A  Mass Number
Number of Neutrons n  ( A  Z )
2. Isotopes have same Z but different A
Isobars have same A but different Z
Isotones have same (A-Z) but different A as well as Z
Isodiaphers have same isotopic nymber (A-2Z) or (n - Z)

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

3. Relationship between wavelength(  ), frequency( ), wave number( ) and velocity(c) of light

c 1 
(i )  (ii )   (iii ) 
  c
4. Planck’s Theory: E  h

where h is Planck ' s cons tan t  6.626  10 34 Js  6.626  1027 erg s

2
BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL
h
5. mvr  n
2
6. Energy of electronin " nth " orbit of H & H  like Species
18 2
13.6Z 2 1 2.17210 Z 1 Z2
En  eV atom  eV atom ; En
n2 n2 n2
Energy of electronin " nth " orbit of H  like species

En  Z 2 En where En is the energy of electron in H  atom

7. Radius of " nth " orbit of H & H  like Species
5.29  10 11 n 2 n2
rn  m ; rn 
Z Z
8. Velocity of electron in " nth " orbit of H & H  like Species
2.188  106 Z Z
vn  m / s ; vn 
n n
9. Velocity of electron in 1st Orbit is = c/137
Velocity of electronin nth orbit v
10. th
Number of revolutions made per sec ond in " n " orbit  th
 n
Circumference of the n orbit 2 rn

PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT

1 2  0   
11. Kinetic energy of Photoelectrons  2 mv  hv  hv0  hc   . 
 0 
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
h
12. x  p  ; where x  uncerta int y in position , p  uncerta int y in momentum
4

de-Broglie Hypothesis
h h
13.  
mv P
QUANTUM NUMBERS
14. Principal quantum number: n = 1,2,3,.....
Maximum no. of electrons in a shell 2n 2
15. Azimuthal quantum number: l  0,1, 2,........( n  1)
h
Orbital angular momentum  l (l  1)
2
16. Magnetic quantum number(m): m   l ,....0,.....  l
Totally there are (2l  1) values i.e., (2l  1) orbitals
Number of Orbitals is also given by n 2

17. Spin quantum number (s): s   1 2

h
Spin angular momentum S  s ( s  1)
2
Spin Only magnetic moment,  s  n(n  2) B.M
3
18. Number of spherical nodes in an Orbital  n  l  1
Total number of nodes = n
Number of nodal planes in an orbital = l

Schrodinger Wave Equation

 2  2  2 8 2 m 2 8 2 m
19.    ( E  V )  0 or    ( E  V )  0
x 2 y 2 z 2 h2 h2

THERMODYNAMICS
HEAT & MECHANICAL WORKDONE
1. w H ; w  J  H where J is mechanical equivalent of heat
which is  4.184  107 erg  4.184J
2. First Law of thermodynamics U  q  w
3. Sign convention for workdone and heat
w   ve  workdone on the system; w   ve  workdone by the system
q   ve  Heat is absorbed by the system;
q   ve  Heat is given out by the system
4. Isothermal irreversible expansion wirr   Pext V
5. Workdone during Isothermal reversible process

V  P
wrev  2.303nRT log  2   2.303nRT log  1 
 V1   P2 
6. Workdone during Adiabatic reversible process wrev  nCv T
INTERNAL ENERGY & ENTHALPY
7. H  U  PV ; H  U  P  V ; H   U  n g RT

8. At cons tan t V , qv  U ; At cons tan t P, q p  H

q
9. Heat Capacity C  ; C p  Cv  R
T2  T1
0 0 0
10. H Re action  H f (Pr oducts )  H f (Re ac tan ts )

11. Determination of internal energy by Bomb caloriemeter

M
U  C  T 
m
where M  molecular mass & m  mass of subs tan ce
12. Efficiency of Heat Engine
W q2  q1 T2  T1
  
q2 q2 T2
ENTROPY
qrev
13. Entropy Change, S 
T
14. II law of thermodynamics: S system  S surr  0

H fusion HVapourization
15. S fusion  ; SVapourization 
T fusion Tvapourization
4
GIBB’S FREE ENERGY
16. G  H  TS ; G  H  T S ; G  Wusefull
0 0 0
17. GRe action  G f (Pr oducts )  G f (Re ac tan ts )

18. G 0   nFEcell
0
; G 0   RT ln K

EQUILIBRIUM
PHYSICAL EQUILIBRIUM
1. Henry’s Law: p  K H x
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
a b
2. Law of Mass Action: For the reaction aA  bB  cC  dD; r  k  A  B  at cons tan t T
3. Law of Chemical equilibrium for the reaction
aA( g )  bB( g )  cC ( g )  dD( g )
c d
C  D
Kc  a b KP 
pCc  pDd
 A  B pAa  pBb

nc
where C   ; pC  xC  Ptotal
V in L
4. Relationship between K C & K P :
n g
K P  K C ( RT ) ; where ng  ngaseous products  ngaseous reac tan ts
5. Reaction coefficient (Q)
c d

Q
C   D  at any stage of reversible reaction
a b
 A  B 
At equilibrium Q  K
6. For a reversible reaction aA  bB  cC  dD , let the equilibrium constant be K. Then
(i)for the reaction , 2aA  2bB  2cC  2dD, the equilibrium constant is K   K 2
a b c d
(ii) for the reaction A  B  C  D, the equilibrium constant is K   K 12  K
2 2 2 2

(iii) for the reaction cC  dD  aA  bB, the equilibrium constant is K   1 K

G o
7. K e RT ; G 0   RT ln K  2.303RT log K
IONIC EQUILIBRIUM
C 2
9. Ostwald’s Dilution Law: K ;  K
1  C

Ka
For weak monobasic acids  
C
Kb
For weak mono acidic base  
C
10. Relative strengh of two weak monobasic acids

strength of weak acid HA1 K a1


strength of weak acid HA2 K a2
   14
11. Ionic Product of water K w   H   OH   10 at 298 K
5
pH & pOH
12.  H   or OH    nC ;  H    K a C ; OH    K b C

13. pH   log  H   ; pOH   log OH   ; pH  pOH  pK w  14 at 298K

14. Henderson’s Equation
 Salt 
(i) pH of acidic buffer: pH  pK a  log
 Acid 
 Salt 
(ii) pOH of basic buffer: pOH  pK b  log
 Base 
15. Buffer Capacity
No. of moles of acid or base added to1 L of buffer solution n

Changein pH pH
Hydrolysis of salts
16. For salts of weak acid and strong base

Kw Kh
Hydrolysis cons tan t , K h  ; Degree of Hydrolysis, h 
Ka C
1 1
pH   pK w  pK a  log C   7   pK a  log C 
2 2
17. For salts of strong acid and weak base

Kw Kh
Hydrolysis cons tan t , K h  ; Degree of Hydrolysis, h 
Kb C
1 1
pH   pK w  pK b  log C   7   pK b  log C 
2 2
18. For salts of weak acid and weak base
Kw
Hydrolysis cons tan t , K h  ; Degree of Hydrolysis, h  K h
K a Kb
1 1
pH   pK w  pK b  pK b   7   pK a  pK b 
2 2
Solubility(S) & Solubility Product(Ksp)
x y
19. For a salt of type Ax By ; K sp   A y    B x  
  2
20. For a salt of type AB; K sp   A   B   ( S )( S )  S ; S  K sp

K sp
21. For a salt of type A2 B and AB2 : K sp  4S 3 ; S  3
4

STATES OF MATTER
Gas Laws
1
2. Boyle’s law equation: Vα or PV=constant or P1V1 =P2 P2
P
V V V
3. Charle’s law Equation: VαT or =constant or 1  2
T T1 T2

6
4. Pressure law (Amonto’s law equation):
P P P
P T or  cons tan t or 1  2
T T1 T2
5. Avogadro’s law: V  n
6. Equation of state (Ideal gas): PV  nRT
7. Valves of R: 0.0821 L-tm K 1mol 1  0.314  107 ergs K 1mol 1

 8.314 JK 1mol 1  1.987   2  cal K 1mol 1

PV
1 1 PV
8. General gas Equation:  2 2
T1 T2
1
9. Kinetic gas equation: PV  mNu 2
3

r1 M2 d2
10. Graham’s law of Diffusion:  
r2 M1 d1

11. Dalton’s law of Partial pressures: P  p1  p2  p3  ....

12. Partial pressure of any component (say A), PA  x A .P
Where x A is mole fraction of A and P is total pressure.

PM
13. Molar mass and density: d=
RT
3
15. Average kinetic energy of gas: KE= kT
2
R
where k 
N 0 is known as Boltzmann constant.

3RT
16. Root mean square velocity: urms 
M

2RT
17. Most probable velocity:  
M

8RT
18. Average Velocity: v 
M

8
19. Relationship between velocities: u : v :   3 : : 2  1.224 :1.128 :1

PV
20. Compressibility factor: Z 
nRT
1
21. Collision frequency: Z   2vN 2
2
1
22. Mean free path:  
2 2 n
a
23. Critical temperature: Pc 
27 Rb

7
24. Critical volume: Vc  3b

3
25. c c 
Relation between critical constants PV RTc
8
a
26. Boyles’ temperature: TB 
Rb
C p  Cv  R...... for 1 mole gas

Cp Cp
   1.66    1.66  for monoatomic gas 
Cv Cv
=1.40(for diatomic gas) =1.30(for triatomic gas)

 an 2 
26. van der Waal equation of state:  P   V  nb   nRT
 V2 

STATES OF MATTER(SOLID STATE)

2. Calculation of number of particles per unit cell
Contribution of each atom at the corner= 1/8
Contribution of each atom at the face center=1/2
Contribution of each atom at the edge center=1/4
Contribution of each atom at the body centre=1
3. Relationship between radius (r) of a void and the radius (R) of the spheres in the close packing
For a tetrahedral void: r  0.225R
For an octrahedral void: r  0.414 R
4. Radius ratio rules:
Co-ordination
Radius ratio  r / r  Structural arrangement
number
0.155-0.225 3 Planar triangular
0.225-0.414 4 Tetrahedral
0.414-0.732 6 Octahedral
0.732-1.000 8 Body centered cubic

5. Relation between number of voids and spheres in close packing of n spheres

Number of octahedral voids=n Number of tetrahedral voids=2n
6. Relation between nearest neighbours distance (d) and edge length (a) of cubic unit cell

3a
Simple cubic Body-centred cubic Face-centred cubic d a d  0.866a
2
a
d  0.707a
2
7. Relatin between atomic radius ( r) and edge length (a) in case of pure elements having cubic unit cell
d
For pure elements: r 
2
a
Simple cubic Body-centred cubic Face-centred cubic r  r  3a / 4  0.433a
2
r  a / 2 2  0.3535a
8
8. Calculation of density    of a cubic crystal from its edge length  a 

ZM
 3
Density,  in g cm   a  N 0  1030
3

where
Z= number of atoms per uit cell ( For elements)
= number of formula units per unit cell (For ionic compounds)
M= atomic mass of the elements/formula mass of the ionic compound
a= edge length in pm.

CHEMICAL KINETICS
Rate/Velocity of Reaction
1. For a hypothetical chemical reaction, aA  bB  aC  dD
Instantaneous rate expression:
1 d  A 1 d  B  1 d C  1 d  D
Rate     
a dt b dt c dt d dt
x y
Rate law: Rate  k  A  B   k  rate constant 
The rate law is determined by experiments and connot be written from the balanced equation.
 x  y  may be or may not be equal to  a  b  .
where  x  y  = Order of reaction
(a+b) = Molecularity of reaction
3. Unit of rate and rate constant
Rate of reaction : mol L1s 1
Rate constant (k)
Order of reaction Units
Zero order mol L1time 1
1st order time 1
2nd order mol 1 Ltime 1
2rd order mol 2 L2time 1
1 n
nth order  mol L  1
time 1
4. Intergrated rate equations

k
 A0   A  x and t 
a
 For a zero order reaction: 1/ 2
t t 2k

2.303  A0 2.303 a

 For a first order reaction: k  log  log
t  A t ax

t1/ 2  0.693 / k

 A0
Amount of substance left after n half lives of a first reaction 
2n
1 1 1  1 x 
 For a second order reaction: k       
t   A  A0  t  a  a  x  
1
t1/ 2 
ka
9
 For a third order reaction:

1 1 1  1  x  2a  x  
k  2   
t   A  A2  2t  a 2  a  x  2 
 0   

3
t1/ 2 
2ka 2
Time taken to complete 75% of the reaction, t0.75  2  t0.50 , where t0.50 is the time taken to complete
50% of reaction i.e., t1/ 2
 General expression for integrated rete equation of an nth order reaction and its t1/ 2 .

d  A n
  k  A  n  1
dt
On integrating

1  1 1 
k  n 1  n 1

t  n  1   A  0 
A


1  1 1 
t  n 1  n 1

k  n  1   A  A  
 0 

2n 1  1
t1/ 2   For n  1
k  n  1 a n 1
These equation are not valid for first order reaction.
5. Arrhenius equation
 k  Ae  Ea / RT where k is rate constant A is frequency constant, Ea is activation energy, R is universal
gas constant and T is temperature
Ea  1 
log k      log A
2.303R  T 
1 Ea
When a graph is plotted by taking log k v/s , we get straight line with a negative slope = 
T 2.303R
and y- inetrcept = log A

k2 Ea  1 1 
 log      R  8.314 JK 1mol 1 
k1 2.303R  T1 T2  

SOLUTIONS
wB
1. mass%   100
wA  wB

wB  g 
2. Molarity 
V L M B

wB  g 
3. Molality 
wA  kg   M B

10
 wB
4. ppm   106
wA  wB
nA
5. Mole fraction of A, x A 
n A  nB
nA
mole fraction of B, xB 
n A  nB
x A  xB  1
wA
mass fraction of A 
wA  wB
wB
mass fraction B 
wA  wB

8. Raoults’s law
 If both components are volatile
PA  x A p 0 A and PB  xB P 0 B
PTotal  PA  PB  x A P 0 A  xB p 0 B

 1  xB  p 0 A  xB P 0 B  1  xB  p 0 A  xB p 0 B   P 0 B  p 0 A  xB  p 0 A
If only solvent (A) is volatile
Vapour pressure of solution, ps  x A p 0 A

1 pA
Mole fraction of A in vapour phase, x A 
p A  pB
9. Relative lowering of vapour pressure:
wB M A
p A p 0 A  ps MB 
  xB ;  P0  p 
p0 A p0 A wA  A 0 s 
 p A 
10. Elevation in boiling point
RTb2 K b  wB  1000
Tb  K b m; kb  ; MB 
1000 Lvap Tb  wA
11. Depression in freezing point
RT f2 K f  wB  1000
T f  K f m; K f  ; MB 
1000 L f T f  wA
12. Osmotic pressure
n w RT
  CRT  RT ; M B  B
V V
R  0.0821 L atm K 1 (when P is atm and V is in L)
 8.314 jK 1mol 1 ( when P is Nm 2 or pascals and V is in m3 ) For isotomic solutions  1   2
13. Van’t Hoff factor
Van’t Hoff factor,
Observed value colligative property Calculated mol.mass
i= =
Calculated value of colligative property Observed mol.mass
11
 For dissociation i>1; For association i<1.
For solution undergoing association or dissociation,
p A inB

p A inB  n A ,
0

Tb  i  kb  m ,
T f  i  k f  m ,
n
 i RT
V
i 1
14. Degree of dissociation   
n 1
n
15. Degree of association    1  i 
n 1
In the above expressions:
A refers to
wA = mass of solvent (g)
V= Volume of solution (L)
T f =Freezing point depresion
K f = Cryoscopic or molal depression constant
T f = Freezing point of pure solvent
Lvap = Latent heat of vaporisation of solvent
GEM = Gram equivalent mass of solute
x A = Mole fraction of solvent
nA = No. of moles of A
B refers to solute
wB = mass of solute (g)
M B = Molecular mass of solute
Tb =Boiling point Elevation
K b = Ebuilioscopic constant or molal elevation constant
Tb = Boiling point of pure solvent
L f =Latent heat of fusion of solvent
xB = Mole fraction of solute
nB = No. of moles of B.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Electrolytic Conductance
1
1. R    cell cons tan t
a
where R is the resistance in ohms    , a is the area of cross-section of electrodes in cm 2 , l is the

distance between electrodes in cm and  is the specific resistance or resistivity in ohm cm  cm  .
Unit of the cell constant is cm 1 .
12
2. Specific conductance  (kappa) is reciprocal of specific resistance R.
1 1
 and C 
 R
1
 C  C  cell cons tan t
a
units of conductance (C) are ohm 1 . ohm 1 is also known as mho.

Units of specific conductance    are ohm 1cm 1 or cm 1

1 R Observed resistance
3. Cell constant   
a  Specific resistance
 Specific conductance
Cell cons tan t  
C Observed conductance

   1000cm3 L1
4. Molar conductance ^ m  
Cm Molarity
where  is specific conductance and Cm is the molar concentration of solution in mol cm 3 .
Units of molarity are molL1 or M .
Units of specific conductance or molar conductivity are ohm1cm 2 mol 1 or
mho cm 2 mol 1 or S cm 2 mol 1 .
Before substituting the value of Cm in the formula, change its units to mol cm 3 .

6. According to Kohlraush’s Law, molar conductance at infinite dilution

  
^ 0m  Ax By   x 0 m A y   y 0 m B x  
Where x and y are the number of cations and anions furnished by one formula unit of the electrolyte
on complete dissociation.
m0  A y   and m0  B x   are the molar conductivities of cation A y  and anion B x  respectively at infi-
nite dilution or zero concentration.
8. Units of molar conductance are  1cm 2 mol 1

Molar conductance at given concentration ^ cm 

9. Degree of dissociation,  
Molar conductance at infinite dilution  ^ 
0
c

C 2
10. Dissociation constant, K c  (only for weak electrolytes of type A B  )
1 
11. Units of ^ 0m are  1cm 2 mol 1 . Units of concentration C, are generally mol L1 .
Electrolytic Phenomenom
12. Q=nF,where Faraday cons tan t , F  96, 500Cmol 1
13. Quantity of electricity passed in coulombs = current ( in amperes ) x Time ( in seconds)
14. Electrochemical equivalent, Z=E/96500.
where E is the equivalent mass of the substance.
15. Mass of the substance liberated, W=I×t×Z
where I= current passed in amperes
t= time for which current is passed in seconds
Z= electrochemical equivalent of the substance liberated .
13
16. If same quantity of electricity is passed though different electrolystes, then the masses of different
substances liberated are in the ratio of their equivalent masses.
Mass of A liberated Eq.mass of A

Mass of B liberated Eq.mass of B

Electrochemical Phenomenon
17. 1 L = 1L  103 cm3 ,1 1  1mho  1S
0 0 0 0 0
18. Standard EMF of a cell, Ecell  Ecathode  Eanode  ERight  ELeft
19. Units of electrode potential and EMF are volt or V.
20. Nernst Equation. For the reduction reaction
M n   ne  M
n
Electrode potential at 298K, for molar concetration of  M 

0.0591V 1
E M n  E 0 n   log
M
M
M
n  M n  

E M0 n 
where is the standard potential, n is the number of electrons gained by one cation M n .
M

21. EMF of a cell involving the following reaction aA  bB  xX  yY

Nernst equation at 298K is
x y

Ecell  E 0

0.0591V
log
 X  Y 
cell a b
n  A  B 
where  X  ,  Y  ,  A  ,  B are the molar concentration of X, Y, A and B respectively, n is the number
of electrons involved in the cell reaction.
22. For a cell reaction in equilibrium at 298K
0.0591V
E 0cell  log K c
n
where K c is the equilibrium constant for the reaction and n is the number of electrons involved in
the electrochemical cell reaction.
23. Standard free energy charge G 0   nE 0 F , where n is the number of electrons transferred in the
0
redox reaction of the cell, Ecell is the standard emf of the cell. F stands for 1 faraday i.e., 96500 C mol  (
charge on one mole of electron).
24. Standard free energy charge, G 0  2.303 RT log K c
0
where K c is the equilibrium constant at TK and it can be calculated from Ecell by using the relation

0 0.0591V
Ecell  log K c
n
20. 0
Ecell is in volts V  , G is in joule or kilojoule (J or kJ) and F is 96500 C mol 1 .

1J=1Cx1V i.e., J=CV or C=JV -1 or V=JC-1

***

14
 2ND PUC BOTANY CDF MATERIAL
Chapter 1
Reproduction in organisms
1. Life span: The period of birth to the natural death of an organism represents its life span
Life span of some organisms:
Elephant : 70 – 90 years ; Dog : 20 – 30 years
Crow : 15 years ; Parrot : 140 years
Crocodile : 60 years ; Tortoise : 100 – 150 years
Horse : 30 – 40 years ; Banyan tree : 250 – 300 years
2. Reproduction: It is defined as a biological process in which an organism gives rise to
young ones or offspring’s similar to itself. It enables the continuity of
the species, generation after generation.
3. Asexual reproduction: It is that type of reproduction in which there is no formation
and fusion of gametes. Here, off springs produced are identical and represent the exact
copies of their parents. Such morpho logically similar individuals are called clones.
4. In protests and monerans, the organism or the parent cell divides into two to give rise to new
individuals, thus in these organisms cell division is itself a mode of reproduction.
5. Binary fission: It is division of adult parental body into two nearly equal daughter cell during
favorable conditions. Eg: Amoeba, Paramecium.
6. In yeast, the division is unequal and small buds are produced that remain attached initially to
the parent cell which eventually gets separated and mature into new yeast organisms. In Hydra
also budding is common.
7. Zoospores: These are asexual reproductive structures usually microscopic and motile.
Motility is due to presence of flagella. Eg: Algae (Chlamydomonos), Fungi (Albugo)
8. The other common asexual reproductive structures are conidia (Penicillium), buds (Hydra),
gemmules (sponges).
9. Vegetative reproduction: It is a type of asexual reproduction in which formation of new
individual takes place from any vegetative part of parent plant.
10. In plants the units of vegetative propagation such as
Runner – Oxalis ; Rhizome – ginger
Sucker – Chrysanthemum ; Stem tuber – Potato
Offset – Pistia, water hyacinth ; Bulb – Onion, garlic
Bulbils – Agave ; Leaf buds – Bryophyllum
The above structures are called vegetative propogules
11. Sexual reproduction: Process involves the formation of male and female gametes either
by the same individual or by different individuals of the opposite sex.
2ND PUC BOTANY CDF MATERIAL

12. Juvenile phase: All organisms have to reach a certain stage of growth and maturity in
their life, before they can reproduce sexually. This period of growth is called juvenile
phase or vegetative phase.
13. Reproductive phase: In plants it is represented by appearance of flowers. In animals the
end of juvenile phase is indicated by many of them showing morphological and
physiological changes prior to active reproductive behavior.
14. Senescent phase: The end of reproductive is one of the parameters of senescence or old
stage. At this stage body metabolism is slowed down and ultimately this stage leads to
death.
15. Gametogenesis: It refers to the process of formation of two types of gametes, i.e male
and female, these are haploid (n) cells.
16. Isogamets Or Homogametes: Gametes that involve in the process of fertilization are
structurally and functionally similar are called isogametes or homogametes.
Eg: Chlamydomonos
17. Heterogametes : In majority of sexually reproducing organisms gametes produced are of
two morphologically distinct types. In such organisms the male gametes are called
sperms or antherzoids and the female gamete is called egg or ovum.
18. Homothallic and monoecious are the terms used to refer to denote bisexual condition
19. Heterothallic and dioecious are the terms used to refer to denote the unisexual
condition, male organism and female organism are dioecious.
20. Staminate flower: Flower with only stamens is called staminate flower. Stamens are the
units of androecium (male reproductive organ)
21. Pistillate flower: Flower with only Gynoecium or pistil is called pistillate flower.
22. Hermaphrodites: Bisexual animals that possess both male and female reproductive
organs. Eg: Earth worm, Leech, sponge.
23. Meiocyte: It is the gamete mother cell (2n) which under goes meiosis or reduction
division before the formation of gametes (n) during gametogenesis.
24. Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains to stigma by various agents is called pollination.
25. Syngamy: Fusion of male and female gametes(n) is called syngamy. It results
zygote(2n).
26. Parthenogenesis: It is the phenomenon of the formation of new individual from gametes
without the process of fertilization. Eg: Rotifers, Honey bees, Lizards, Turkey birds.
27. External fertilization: In most of aquatic organisms, such as majority of algae and fishes
as well as amphibians, syngamy occurs in the external medium (water) i.e., out side the
body. This type of gametic fusion is called external fertilization.
28. Internal fertilization: In many terrestrial organisms, belonging to fungi, higher animals
such as reptiles, birds, mammals, and majority of plants like bryophytes, pteridophytes,
gymnosperms and angiosperms, syngamy occurs inside the body of organism, hence the
process is called internal fertilization.
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29. Embryogenesis: It refers to the process of development of embryo form zygote. During
this process zygote divides mitotically in to mass of tissue is called embryo.
30. Oviparous animals: In these animals, eggs are laid outside and whole of the period of
embryonic development is exposed to environment factors. Eg: Birds, reptiles.
31. Viviparous animals: Animals in which zygote develops in to young one inside the body
of the female organism. After attaining certain stage of growth, the young ones are
delivered out of the body of the female organism. Eg: Mammals,
32. Fruit: It the resultant product of fertilization from ovary. Its wall is called pericarp. It
encloses the whole seeds. Eg: Angiosperms.
Chapter 2
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Flower – A Fascinating organ of angiosperms
1. Flower : Condensed modified shoot for sexual reproduction in
angiosperms is called flower.
2. Androecium : Male reproductive organ of the flower. It consists of one or
more stamens. It is the third whorl of complete flower.
3. Gynoecium : Female reproductive organ of the flower. It consists of one or
more carpels. It is the central or fourth whorl of the flower.
4. Stamen : It is the unit of male reproductive organ androecium.
It contains long and slender stalk called filament and terminal
bilobed structure called anther.
5. A typical angiosperm anther is bilobed with each lobe having two theca, i.e. they are
dithecous.
6. Microsporangia : These are the sac like structures which produces microspores or
pollen grains. They found in corners of anther. They develop
further and become pollen sacs.
7. Tapetum : It is the innermost layer of anther wall. It nourishes the developing
pollen grains. Cells of tapetum possess dense cytoplasm and gener
ally have more than one nucleus. Or Nutritive layer of cells around
pollen sacs in anter.
8. Sporogenous tissue : A group of compactly arranged homogenous cells occupies
the centre of each microsporangium.
9. Microsporogenesis : Generation of formation of microspores in microsporangium is
called microsporogenesis. Cells of sporogenous tissue undergo
meiotic divisions to form microspore tetrad.
10. Pollen grain : They represent the male gametophytes. They carry the male
gametes to embryo sac for double fertilization.
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11. Exine : The hard outer layer in pollen grain is called exine. It is
made up of sporopollenin which is one of the most resistant
organic material.
12. Intine : The thin inner layer of pollen grain is called intine. It is thin
and continuous layer made up of cellulose and pectin.
13. Germ pores : These are the prominent apertures found in the wall of
pollen grain. These are considered as areas on pollen wall
where exine is found absent. Through these areas intine
grows further to form pollen tube.
14. Parts of Pisil : It processes swelled base called ovary, tube like style, tip of
style called stigma.
15. Syncarpus : When more than one carpel may be fused together, such
condition in that Gynoecium is called syncarpus.
16. Apocarpus : When more than one carpel are free, then such condition is
called aporacpus.
17. Placenta : It is the cushion like tissue in ovary on which ovules
develop. Arrangement of ovules on placenta is called
Placentation.
18. Megasporangium : The ovule is called megasporanium. The stalk of ovule is
called funicle.
19. Parts of ovule :
Hilum : The body of ovule fuses with funicle in the region called
hilum. Hilum represents the junction between ovule and
funicle. Each ovule has one or two protective envelopes
Integuments : Each ovule has one or two protective envelopes called
integuments.
Micropyle : It is the small opening formed at the tip of ovule.
Integuments encircle the ovule except at the tip where a
small opening called micropyle.
Chalaza : opposite the micropylar end is called chalaza, it represents
the basal part of the ovule.
Nucellus : It is the mass of tissue enclosed within the integuments.
20. Megasporogenesis : Process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore
mother cell is called megasporogenesis.
21. Embryo sac : It is the female gametophyte formed from the functional
megaspore. It consists of egg apparatus, central cell with
secondary nucleus, antipodals.
22. Egg apparatus : Generally three cells are grouped together at micropyle
end constitute egg apparatus. It consists of two synergids
and one egg cell or female gamete.
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23. Filiform apparatus : It is the special cellular thickenings at the micropylar tip
which play an important role in guiding the pollen tubes
into the synergid.
24. Antipodals : Three cells at the chalazal end in embryosac are called
antipodals.
25. Pollination : Transfer of pollen grains to the stigma of a pistil is termed
as pollination.
26. Kinds of pollination : Depending on the source of pollen, pollination can be
divided into three types
I. Autogamy (Self – pollination) : Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
of the same flower. It is further two kinds ;
a) Chasmogamy: Self pollination that occurs in opened flowers.
b) Cleistogamy : Self pollination that occurs in always closed flowers.
Eg: Viola, Oxalis, Commalina
II. Geitonogamy : Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
of another flower of the same plant. Or Cross pollination
in between two flowers of the same plant.
III. Xenogamy : Transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a
another plant of the same species Or Cross pollination in
between two different plants of same species.
Agents of pollination:
Pollinating agents and types of pollination
Nature Pollinating agents Types of pollination
Abiotic 1.Wind Anemophily
2.Water Hydrophily
Biotic 3.Animals Zoophily
4.Insects Entamophily
5.Bats Chiropterophily
6.Snails and slugs Malacophily
7.Birds Ornithophily
8.Ants Myrmacophily

27. Vallisneria and Hydrilla are water pollinated plants.

28. Majority of insect pollinated flowers are large, colourful, fragrant and rich in nectar.
When flowers are small, a number of flowers are clustered into an inflorescence to make
them conspicuous.
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29. Yucca is pollinated by Pronuba yuccasella which passes its larval stage inside ripening
ovary of flowers.
30. Out breeding devices: Continued self pollination result in inbreeding depression.
Flowering plants have developed many devices to discourage self pollination and to
encourage cross pollination.
i) Dicliny or Unisexuality : The flowers are unisexual having one sex only. These
unisexual flowers are present on different plants thus promoting cross-pollination.
ii) Dichogamy : In bisexual flowers, anther and stigma mature at different times. It is of
two types;
a) Protandry (Protos = first; andry = male): Here anthers mature earlier than the stigma of
the same flower and hence the pollen grains are carried over to the stigma of another
flower.
b) Protogyny (Protos = first; gyny = female): Here the Gynoecium matures earlier than
the anthers of the same flower, and in such cases, the stigma receives the pollen grains
brought from another flower and thus cross pollination becomes indispensible.
iii) Self – incompatibility or Self sterility: Pollen grains of a flower are incapable of
effecting fertilization even if they are placed on the stigma of the same flower due to
mutual inhibition.
31. Pollen – Pistil interactions: The pistil has the ability to recognize the pollen, whether it
is of the right type (Compatible) or of the wrong type (incompatible). If it is the right
type, the pistil accepts the pollen and promotes post – pollination events that lead to
fertilization. If the pollen is wrong type, the pistil rejects the pollen germination on the
stigma or pollen tube growth in the style.
Artificial hybridization:
32. Emasculation: Removal of anthers from the bisexual flower to avoid natural pollination.
33. Bagging: Emasculated flowers have to be covered with a bag of suitable size, generally
made up of butter paper, to prevent contamination of its stigma with unwanted pollen.
This process is called bagging.
Double fertilization:
34. Process of fertilization which occurs in two places of the same embryo sac at a time by
two male gametes (syngamy and triple fusion)
35. Syngamy: Fusion of male gamete (n) that comes from pollen tube with egg cell or female
gamete(n) is called syngamy. It results zygote (2n). Zygote on mitotic divisions produces
embryo.
36. Triple fusion: Fusion of male gamete (n) with secondary nucleus (2n) of the central cell
is called triple fusion. It results primary secondary nucleus (3n).
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Post – fertilization: Structure and events

37. Embryo: It is the mass of tissue formed by mitotic divisions of zygote (2n).
38. Endosperm: It is the tissue formed from primary endosperm nucleus (3n). Cells of this
tissue are filled with reserve food materials and are used for the nutrition of the
developing embryo.
39. Seeds are two types, based on the presence of endosperm at maturity of seed:
i) Endospermic seeds: Seeds show endosperm even at maturity.
Eg: cereals (Wheat, rice and maize)
ii) Non-endospermic seeds: In these seeds endosperm is completely consumed by the
developing embryo before maturation.
Eg: pea, ground nuts, beans
40. Structure of embryo:
Embryogeny: Development of embryo at the micropylar end of the embryo sac where
the zygote is situated.
Dicot embryo:
1. It consists of an embryonal axis and two cotyledons. The portion of embryonal
axis above the level of cotyledons is the epicotyls, which terminates with plumule
or stem tip.
2. The cylindrical portion below the level of cotyledons is hypotocyl that teminates
at its lower end in the radical or root tip.
Monocot embryo:
1. It possesses only one cotyledon. In the grass family the cotyledon is called
scutellum and is situated towards one side of the embryonal axis.
2. Coleorrhiza: At the lower end, the embryonal axis has the radical and root cap
enclosed in an undifferentiated sheath called coleorrhiza.
3. Coleoptile:The portion of embryonal axis above the level of attachment of
scutellum is the epicotyls. Epicotyle has a shoot apex and a few leaf primordia
enclosed in a hallow foliar structure called coleoptiles.
SEED
41. i) Non-endospermic or non – albuminous seeds: In these seeds endosperm is completely
consumed by the developing embryo before maturation. Eg: pea, ground nuts, beans
i) Endospermic or Albuminous seeds: Seeds retain a part of endosperm as it is not
completely used up during embryo development. Eg: wheat, Maize, Barley,
castor, sunflower.
42. Perisperm : Persistant nucellus is called perisperm. Eg: Black pepper
43. Dormancy: It is the state of inactivity in the seed for germination Or Failure of seed in
the process of germination.
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44. Pericarp: The wall of ovary develops in the wall of fruit is called pericarp. In fleshy
fruits it can be differentiated into epicarp, mesocarp, endocarp. Eg: Guava, Orange,
Mango.
45. False fruit: Fruit that is formed from the part other than ovary is called false fruit.
Eg: Apple (Thallamus (Edible fruit )
Cashew nut (Pedicil) (Fruit)
46. True fruit: Fruit that is formed from ovary is called true fruit.
Eg: Mango, Tomato, Brinjal etc.,
47. Parthenocarpic fruits: Fruits which develop without fertilization are called
parthenocarpic fruit.
Eg: Banana
48. Apomixis (apo = without; mixis = mingling): It is the formation of new individuals
through asexual reproduction without involving the formation and fusion of gametes. It is
a form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction.
Eg: Citrus, Mango
49. Amphimixis : It is the formation of new individuals through the normal process of sexual
reproduction by meiotic formation of gametes and their subsequent fusion during
fertilization.
50. Polyembryony: Occurrence of more than one embryo in the seed is known as
polyembryony.
CHAPTER-9
STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCEMENT IN FOOD PRODUCTION
1. With ever-increasing population of the world enhancement of food production is a major
necessity.
2. Biological principles as applied to animal husbandry and plant breeding have a major role in our
effort to increase food production.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
3. Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock.
4. Animal husbandry deals with the care and breeding of live stock like buffaloes, cow, pigs,
horses, cattle, sheep, camels, goats, etc., that are useful to humans. It includes poultry farming
and fisheries.
5. Fisheries include rearing, catching, selling, etc., of fish. Mollusks (shell-fish)and crustaceans
(prawns, crabs, etc.,)
MANAGEMENT FARMS AND FARM ANIMALS
6. A professional approach to what have been traditional practices of farm a management gives the
much needed boost to our food production.
7. Some of the management produces, employed in various animal farm systems are
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DAIRY FARM MANAGEMENT

8. It deal with processes and systems that increase yield and improve quality of milk .
9. Selection of good breeds having high yielding potential combined with resistance to diseases is
very important for the yield potential to be realized the cattle have to be well looked after they
have to be housed well should have water and be maintained diseases free.
10. The feeding of cattle should be carried out in a scientific manner with special emphasis on the
quality and quantity of fodder, stringent cleanliness and hygiene ( both of cattle and the handlers)
are of paramount importance while milking storage and transport of the milk and it is product .
11. Now a days much of these processes have become mechanized which reduces chance of direct
contact of the produce with the handler.
12. Ensuring these stringent measures require regular inspections, with proper record keeping.
Regular visits by a veterinary doctor would be mandatory.
POULTRY FARM MANAGEMENT
13. Poultry is the class of domesticated fowl used for food or for their eggs .
14. They typically include chicken and ducks and turkey and geese.
15. Selection of disease free and suitable breeds, proper safe farm conditions, proper feed and water,
and hygiene and health care are important .
ANIMAL BREEDING
16. Animal breeding aims at increasing the yield of animals and improving the desirable qualities.
17. The term breed is group of animals related by descent and similar in most characters like general
appearance, features, size, configuration.
18. Breeding is of different types :-
Inbreeding: - Refers to the mating of more closely related individuals within the same breed for
four to six generations
19. The breeding strategy is as follows:
20. Superior males and superior females of the same breed are identified and mated in pairs.
21. The progeny obtained from such mating are evaluated and superior male and females among
them are identified for the mating.
22. In breeding increases homozygocity.
23. In breeding is necessary to evolve a pure line in any animal. It exposes harmful recessive genes
that are eliminated by selection. It also helps in accumulation of superior genes and elimination of
less desirable genes.
24. Continued in breeding especially close inbreeding reduces fertility and productivity. This is called
inbreeding depression.
25. Out breeding: - Refers to the breeding of unrelated animals which may be between individuals
of the same breed but having no common ancestors for 4 to 6 generations. The off springs of such
mating is known as an out cross.
26. It is the best breeding method for animals that are below average in production of milk, growth
rate in beef cattle.
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27. Cross breeding:- In this method superior males of one breed are mated with superior females of
another breed.
28. It allows the desirable qualities of two different breeds to be combined.
29. The progeny high breed animals can be used for commercial production.
30. Example: Hisardale is new breed sheep developed in Punjab by crossing Bikaneri ewes and
Marino rams.
31. Interspecific hybridization : In this method male and female animals of two different related
species are mated .
The progeny may combine desirable feature of both the parents and may be of considerable economic
value.
Eg: mule.
Controlled breeding experiments are carried out using artificial insemination.
The semen is collected from the male chosen as the parent and injected in to the reproductive tract of
the selected female by the breeder.
The semen may be used immediately or can be frozen and used at later date.
It can also be transported in a frozen form to where the female is housed. Artificial insemination helps
to overcome problems of normal matings.
To improve chances of successful production of hybrids MOET- multiple ovulation embryo transfer
technology is followed.
In this method a cow is injected with hormones with FSH activity, to induce follicular maturation and
super ovulation.
The cow is mated with and elite bull or is artificially inseminated.
The fertilized eggs at 8 to 32 cells stages are recovered non surgically and transferred to surrogate
mothers.
The genetic mother is available for another round of super ovulation. This has been demonstrated in
sheep, rabbits, buffaloes, mares, etc.
Bee-keeping/Apiculture
The maintenance of hives of honeybees for the production of honey .it has been an age-old cottage
industry.
Honey is a food of high nutritive value and also finds use in the indigenous system of medicine.
Honeybee also produce beeswax. It is used in the preparation cosmetics and polishes.
Bee keeping can be practiced in any area where there are sufficient bee pastures of some wild shrubs,
fruit orchards and cultivated crops.
The most common species is Apis indica.
Beehives can be kept in one’s courtyard, on the verandah of the house or even on the roof, bee-keeping is
not labour - intensive.
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The following points are important for successful bee-keeping:

i) Knowledge of the nature and habits of bees,
ii) Selection of suitable location for keeping the beeves.
iii) Catching and hiving swarms (group of bees)
iv) Management of beehives during different seasons , and
v) Handling and collection of honey and of beeswax.
Keeping beehives in crop fields during flowering period increases pollination efficiency and improves the
yield.
Fisheries/ Pisciculture
Is an industry devoted to the catching, processing or selling of fish, shellfish or other aquatic animals .
Freshwater fishes, catla, rohu and common carp, marine fishes include hilsa,sardines, mickererel and
pomfrets .
Our population is dependent on fish, fish products and other aquatic animals such as prawn ,crab,lobster,
edible oyster, etc.
Fisheries provides income and employment to millions of fisherman and farmers. in the coastal states.
PLANT BREEDING
Green revolution was dependent to a large extent on plant breeding techniques for development of high –
yielding and disease resistant varieties in wheat ,rice ,maize, etc
Plant breeding is the purposeful manipulation of plant species in order to create desired plant type that
are better suited for cultivation. give better yields and are disease resistant.
Many present –day crops are the derived from domestication in ancient times.
All our major food crops are derived from domesticated varieties ,classical plant breeding involves
crossing or hybridization of pure lines followed by artificial selection to produce plants with desirable
traits of higher yield, nutrition and nutrition diseases.
Traits or charteristics that the breeders have tried to incorporate into crop plants are increased tolerance to
environmental stresses (salinity, extreme temperature, droughts) resistance to pathogens (viruses,fungi and
bacterial) and increased tolerance to insect pests
The main steps in breeding a new genetic variety of a crop are
1. Collection of variability
Collection and preservation of all different wild varities, species and relatives of the cultivated species is
pre –requisite for effective exploitation of natural genes available in the populations.
The entire collection (of plants/seeds)having all the diverse alleles for all genes in a given crop is called
germplasm collection .
2. Evaluation and selection of parents
The germ plasm is evaluated to identify plants with desirable combination of characters .the selected plants
are multiplied and used in the process of hybridization. Purelines are created wherever desirable and
possible.
3. Cross hybridization among the selected parents
This is possible by cross hybridizing the two parents to produce hybrids that generally combine the
desired characters in one plant.
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This is a very time –consuming and tedious process since the pollen grains from the desirable plant
chosen as male parent have to be collected and placed on the stigma of the female parent.
4. Selection and testing of superior recombinants
This step consists of selecting among the progeny of the hybrids, those plants that have the desired
character combination.
This step yields that are superior to both of the parents.
These are self-pollinated for several generations till they reach a state of uniformity, so that the characters
will not segregate in the progeny.
5. Testing, release and commercialization of new cultivars
The newly selected lines are evaluated for their yield and other agronomic traits of quality, diseases,
resistance etc.
This evaluation is done by growing these in the research fields and recording their performance under
ideal fertilizer application, irrigation and other crop management practices.
The evolution in research field is followed by testing in farmer’s fields, for at least three growing seasons
at several locations in the country, representing all the agro climatic zones
The material is evaluated in comparison to the best available local crop cultivar reference cultivar.
India is mainly an agricultural country.
As only limited land is fit for cultivation Indian has development of several high yielding varities of
wheat and rice in the mid -1960s, as a result of various plants breeding techniques led increase in food
production in our country.
This phases is often referred to as to as the green revolution.
Some of the Indian hybrid crops of high yielding varieties:-
Wheat and rice
Nobel laureate Norman E. Borlaug at international centre for wheat and maize improvement in Mexico,
developed semi –dwarf wheat. in 1963 ,several varieties such as Sonalika and Kalyan sona, which were
high yielding and disease resistant ,were introduced all over the wheat growing belt of India.
Semi-dwarf rice varieties were derived from IR-8(developed at international rice research institute (IRRI),
Philippines) and Taichung native-1(from Taiwan)
Sugar cane
Saccharum barberi grown in north India but had poor sugar content and yield.
In south India saccharum officinarum had thicker stems and higher sugar content but did not grow well in
north India.
These two species were successfully crossed to get sugar cane varieties combining the desirable qualities
of high yield, thick stems, high sugar and ability to grow in the sugar cane areas of north India.
Millets
Hybrid maize, jowar and bajra have been successfully developed in India. High yielding varieties resistant
to water stress.
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PLANT BREEDING AND DISEASES RESISTANCE

This helps to reduce the dependences on use of fungicides and bacteriocides.
Resistance of the host plant is the ability to prevent the pathogen from causing disease and is determined
by the genetic constitution of the host plant.
Before breeding is undertaken it is important to know about the causative organisms and the mode of
transmission.
Diseases caused by fungi are rusts, by bacteria-black rot of crucifers
Viruses –tobacco mosaic turnip mosaic etc.
Methods of breeding for the diseases resistance
Breeding is carried out by the conventional breeding techniques or by mutation breeding.
The various sequential steps are: Screening germplasm for resistance sources. Hybridization of
selected parents, selection and evaluation of the hybrids and testing and releases of new varieties.
Mutation
Is the process of by which genetic variations are created through changes in the sequences with in gens
resulting in the creation of a new character or trait not found in the parental type.
It is possible to introduce mutations artificially through use of chemicals or radiations(like gamma
radiations) and selecting and using the plants that have the desirable character as a source in breeding –
this process is called mutation breeding.
Eg: - In mung bean, resistance to yellow mosaic virus and powdery mildew were induced by mutations.
Plant breeding for developing resistance to insect pests
Insect resistance in host crop plants may be due to morphological ,bio chemical or physiological
characteristics.
Hairy leaves in several plants are associated with resistance to insect pests.eg: resistance to jassid in
cotton and cereal leaf beetle in wheat.
High aspartic acid, low nitrogen and sugar content in maize leads to resistance to maize stem borers.
Plant breeding for improved food quality
Biofotification
Breeding crops with higher levels of vitamins and minerals or higher protein and healthier fats is improve
public health.
Breeding for improved nutritional quality is undertaken with the objectives of improving:
i) Protein content and quality
ii) Oil content and quality
iii) Vitamin content and
iv) Micronutrient and mineral content
The Indian agricultural research institute ,New Delhi has also released several vegetable crops that are
rich in vitamins and minerals.eg: vitamin a enriched carrots, spinach ,pumpkin : vitamin C enriched bitter
gourd, bathua, mustard, tomato; iron and calcium enriched spinach and bathua; and proteins enriched
beans –broad ,lablab ,French and garden peas.
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SINGLE CELL PROTEINS(SCP)

Microbes are being grown on an industrial scale as source of good protein.
Microbes like Spirulina can be grown easily on materials like waste water from potato processing plants
(containing starch), strew ,molasses animal manure and even sewage , to produce large quantities and can
serve as food rich in protein ,minerals fats, carbohydrate and vitamins.
Such utilization also reduces environmental pollution.
TISSUE CULTURE
Is the process of growing of a cell or tissue or an organ in an artificial, aspetic, neutritive medium
Prerequisites for tissue culture
Explants, any part of plant taken out and grown in a test tube, under sterile conditions in special nutrient
media.
Totipotency: - This capacity to generate a whole plant from any cell/explants is called totipotency.
The nutrient medium must provide a carbon source such as sucrose and also inorganic salts, vitamins,
amino acids and growth regulators like auxins cytokinins etc.
By application of these methods it is possible to achieve propagation of a large number of plants in very
short durations.
This method of producing thousands of plants through tissue culture is called micro-propagation.
Each of these plants will be generally identical to the original plant from which they were grown-they are
soma clones.
An importance application of tissue culture is the recovery of healthy plants from diseased plants.
Although the plant is infected with a virus, the meristem (apical and auxiliary) is free of virus. Hence,
one can remove the meristem and grow it in vitro to obtain virus –free plants.
Scientists have even isolated single cells from plants and after digesting their cell walls have been able to
isolate naked protoplasts.
Isolated protoplast from two different varieties of plants. Each having a desirable character can be fused
to get hybrid protoplasts, which can be further grown to form a new plant.
These hybrids are called somatic hybrids while the process is called somatic hybridization.

MICROBS IN HUMAN WELFARE

1. Microbes: are the major components of biological systems on earth
2. Microbes are diverse eg protozoa, bacteria, fungi, Microscopic plant viruses, viroids &
prions.
3. Microbes like bacteria, and many fungi, can be grown on nutritive media to form colonies.
4. Micro-organisms such as lactobacillus [lactic acid bacteria] convert milk to curd.
5. Bread is fermented using baker’s yeast [ saccharomyces cerevisiae ]
6. ‘Toddy’ a traditional drink is made by fermenting sap from palms.
7. ‘Swiss cheese’ is formed by a bacterium named Propioni bacterium sharmanii
8. The ‘ Rogue fort cheese ‘ are ripened by fungi
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MICROBES IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS

9. Production on an industrial scale, requires growing microbes in very large vessels
called fermenters
10. Brewer’s yeast is used for fermenting matted cereals and fruit juices to produce
ethanol
11. Antibiotics are chemical substances, which are produced by some microbes and can
kill or retard the growth of other microbes [disease-causing]
12. Penicillin notatum was first antibiotic discovered by Alexander Fleming.
13. Aspergillus Niger (a fungus) produces citric acid.
14. Acetobacter acetic (a bacterium) produces acetic acid.
15. Clostridium butylicum (a bacterium) produces butyric acid.
16. Lactobacillus (a bacterium) produces lactic acid.
17. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (a fungus) produces ethanol.
18. Enzyme lipases are used in detergent formulations and are helpful in removing oily
stains (laundry).
19. Enzyme strepto kinase produced by streptococcus and modified by genetic
engineering is used as a ‘clot buster’
20. CyclosporinA, an immune-suppressive agent used in organ transplant patients is
produced by the fungus Trichoderma polysporum.
21. Statins produced by Monascus purpureus (yeast) used as blood cholesterol lowering
agents.

MICROBES IN SEWAGE TREATEMENT

22. The municipal waste-water is also called sewage.
23. During the primary waste-water treatment all solids that settle form the primary
sludge.
24. Flocs: these are masses of bacteria associated with fungal filaments to form mesh like
structures used in secondary or biological treatment.
25. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD): refers to the amount of the oxygen that would
be consumed if all the organic matters in one liter of water were oxidized by bacteria.
26. Once the BOD is r/d, the effluent is then passed into a settling tank where the
bacterial ‘flocs’ are allowed to sediment is called activated sludge.
27. The remaining major part of the sludge is pumped into large tanks called anaerobic
sludge digesters.
28. During biological treatment bacteria produce a mixture of gases such as methane,
hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide. These gases are called as ‘biogas’
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MICROBES IN PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS

29. Biogas is a mixture of gases produced by bacteria collectively called methanogens
Eg; Methanobacterium.
30. Methanol bacterium is also present in rumen of cattle & help in breakdown of
cellulose.
31. Dung can be used for generation of biogas[ gobargas ]
32. IARI  Indian Agricultural Research Institute
33. KVIC Khadi and village Industries Commission.

MICROBES BIOCONTROL AGENTS

34. The battle with red and blank marking the Ladybird and Dragonflies are useful to get
rid of aphids & mosquitoes.
35. The bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis [Bt] is used to control butterfly caterpillar
eg: Bt-cotton
36. Trichnoderma (a fungus) are effective bio-control agents of several plants
pathogens.
37. Baculoviruses are used as biological control agents used to attack insects and other
arthropods.
38. IPM – Integrated Pest Management

MICROBES AS BIOFERTILISERS
39. Bio-fertilizers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of the soil.
40. Bio-fertilizers are used in organic forming
41. Rhizobium shows symbiotic association with the root nodules of leguminous plants
for Nitrogen fixation.
42. Azotobacter & Azospirillum are free-living N2 fixing bacteria in the soil.
43. The fungal symbiotic absorbs phosphorus from soil & passes it to the plant.
44. Cyano bacteria serve as an important biofertiliser used in paddy fields (biological N 2
fixation).
Biotechnology: Principles and Processes
1. Sexual reproduction Provides variation in genetic setup, some of which are
beneficial to organisms and asexual reproduction preserves genetic information
2. The specific DNA sequence, Origin of replication is responsible for initiation of
replication
3. Autonomously replicating circular extra chromosomal DNA is called plasmid
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4. Cutting of DNA at specific locations is possible with molecular sissors, called

restriction enzymes
5. The ability to multiply copies of genes is called cloning
6. Large class of restriction enzyme are nuclease, which are of two types
exonucleases & endonuclease
7. The group of letters that form same word when both read backward & forward are
called palindromic nucleotide sequences eg: MALAYALAM
8. Cutting of DNA by restriction enzymes results in fragments of DNA and these
fragments can be separated by gel electro phoresis
9. Separated DNA fragments can be visualized by staining DNA with ethidium
bromide
10. Transformation is a procedure through which a piece of DNA is introduced into
host bacterium
11. The vector requires a selectable marker, which helps in identifying and eliminating
non transformats
12. Tumor inducing ti plasmid of Agro bacterium tumifaciens has been modified into
cloning vector to deliver gene of our interest into plants.
13. Micro injection is a technique to introduce alien DNA into host cells
14. By treating bacterial cells, plant cells, animal cells with enzymes like lysozyeme,
cellulose, chitinases, DNA can be isolated
15. Restriction enzyme digestions are done by incubating purified DNA with
restriction enzyme by Agarose gel electrophoresis
16. PCR stands for polymerase chain reaction
17 Multiple copies of genes are synthesized invitro with help of primers & enzyme
DNA polymerase
18. If any protein encoding is expressed in a heterogeneous host, it is called
recombinant protein
19. Ligases are enzymes to join terminals of two DNA molecules
20. Bioreactor is a steel container connected with numerous inlets and outlet pipes,
monitor appropriate factors needed for growth of microorganisms.
21. Most commonly used bioreactors are of stirring type
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Biotechnology and its applications

1. Plants, bacteria, fungi & animals whose genes have been altered by manipulation
are called genetically modified Organisms.
2. Bt toxin is produced by a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis
3. Bt toxin gene has been cloned from bacteria & expressed in plants to provide
resistance to insects
4. The toxin is coded by a gene named cry gene & usually control cotton bollworms
5. Agro bacterium vectors are used where nematode specific genes are introduced
into host plants
6. A Nematode Meloidegyne infects roots of tobacco plants & cause reduction in
yield
7. RNA interference (RNAI), a novel strategy is adopted in all eukaryotes for cellular
defense
8. Insulin consist of two polypeptide chain A and chain B which are linked together
by disulphide linkages
9. Insulin is synthesized as prohormone which consist of extra amino acids called C
peptide
10. E. coli cells with recombinant DNA produce insulin Protein with A chain and B
chain
11. Commercial name given for human insulin is humulin
12. Gene therapy is correction of gene defects that has been diagnosed in child or
embryo
13. Correction of genetic defect involves delivery of a normal gene into individual or
embryo to take over the function and compensate non functional gene
14. The first clinical gene therapy was done in 1990 to a 4 year old girl with adenosine
deaminase (ADA) deficiency
15. If gene isolated from bone marrow cells producing ADA is introduced into cells at
early embryonic stages, it gives permanent cure
16. Recombinant DNA technology, Polymerase chain reaction, Enzyme linked
immune sorbent assay (ELISA) are some of the techniques that serve the purpose
of early diagnosis
17. Animals that have their DNA manipulated to possess and express a foreign gene
are known as transgenic animals
18. Foreign gene inserted into animals is called as transgene and genetic engineering
method is called transgenesis
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19. Insertion of transgene could be done by r-DNA technology, micro injection or

electroporation techniques
20. Transgenic animals produce biological products such as human protein (alpha-a-
antitrypsisn) to treat emphysema, phenylketonuria, and cystic fibrosis.
21. The first transgenic cow, Rosie produced human enriched milk with human alpha
lactalbumin
22. Transgenic mice are being used to test safety of polio vaccine
23 Genetic engineering approval committee will make decisions regarding validity
and safety of introducing GM organisms for public services
24. Biopiracy refers to use of bioresources by multinational companies and other
organizations without proper authorization from countries & people concerned
with out compensatory payment.

Chapter – 13
ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
1. Ecology : Branch of biology that deals with the study of interaction
between organisms and their environment.
2. Population : It is defined as the total number of individuals of a species in
a specific geographical area; can interbreed under natural
conditions to produce fertile off springs.
3. Biome : It is a large regional or sub-continental bio system
Characterized by major vegetation type or other distinct
landscape characters.
4. Major biomes of India: Tropical rain forests, deciduous forest, Desert, Sea coast
5. Major Abiotic Factors :
i)Temperature:
 The average temperature on land varies seasonally, decreases
progressively from the equator towards the poles and form plains to
the mountain tops.
 It ranges from subzero levels in polar areas & high altitudes to >
500C in tropical deserts in summer.
 In thermal springs and deep-sea hydrothermal vents where average
temperatures exceed 1000C.
 It affects the kinetics of enzymes and through it the basal
metabolism, activity and other physiological functions of the
organisms.
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 On the basis of thermal tolerance, animals are divided into following

categories;
a. Eurythermal animals: These can tolerate a wide range of
temperature fluctuations.
eg. Cyclops, toad, wall lizard, man, cow, dog etc.
b. Stenothermal organisms: These can tolerate only a small range
of temperature variation.
eg. Corals, polar bear, snails and fishes
c. Mesothermal organisms: Organisms living at high summer
temperature and low winter temperature.
ii) Water:
 It is the most important factor influencing the life of organisms. It is
an important factor for photosynthesis. The productivity and distribution of
plants is also heavily dependent on water.

 Water held in the soil is of following types:

a) Gravitational water: This is free water which percolates
downwardly through the pore spaces between soil particles and
is accumulated in the pore spaces in the form of ground water.
b) Capillary water: The amount of water present around the soil
particles and held by surface tension and attraction force of
water molecules. Capillary water remains readily available to
the roots up to a certain soil moisture tension.
c) Hygroscopic water: Water which is absorbed on the soil
particles and held on the surface of particles by forces of
attraction and cohesion of its molecules.
iii) Light
 It is the basic source of energy for photosynthetic organisms.
 It is important in that they use the diurnal and seasonal variations in
light intensity and duration as cues for timing their foraging,
reproductive and migratory activities.
 The spectral quality of solar radiation is also important for life. The
UV component of the spectrum is harmful to many organisms while
not all the colour components of the visible spectrum are available
for marine plants living at different depths of the ocean.
iv) Soil:
 It is the loose superficial layer of earth’s crust. It is formed by the
process called weathering.
 Soil profile: Vertical layered structure of soil is called the soil
profile. It develops due to weathering process, accumulation of
organic matter and leaching of mineral matter.
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The Horizon A: It is also called top soil, the upper most mineral
layer, which also contain roots and partially decomposed organic
matter.
The Horizon B: It is the sub soil laying under A-Horizon has little
organic matter, very few plant roots and a sparse micro flora and
fauna.
The Horizon C: It represents the less weathered parent rock.
 Soil types:
Clay soil: It is formed of 50% silt or sand or both also known as
cold or heavy soil. It has high water holding capacity and less water
logging.
Silt soil: It has 90% silt and 10% sand. It has good porosity and
water holding capacity. This is poor in nutrient supply.
Loam soil: It is composed of 70% sand and 30% clay and silt or
both. This is considered best soil for plant growth. It has good water
holding capacity, water infiltration and adequate aeration. Roots
penetrate deeply in to the loamy soils.
6. Response to A biotic factors:
i) REGULATE:
a. Homeostasis : Maintenance of relatively constant internal
environment is called homeostasis.
b. Regulation : It involves thermoregulation and osmo regulation.
c. Thermoregulation : Keeping the body temperature constant is called
thermoregulation. It is best observed in birds and mammals. These animals
so called warm-blooded animals.
d. Osmoregulation : It involves the regulation of osmotic concentration of
the body fluids by regulating the water level in them. All vertebrates
including humans, organs for this process are kidneys. These are flexible in
this process.
e. Humans maintain a constant body temperature of 370C. In summer, when
outside temperature is more than our body temperature, we sweat profusely.
The result of evaporative cooling brings down the temperature. In winter
when the temperature is much lower than 370C, we start shiver, a kind of
exercise which produces heat and raises the body temperature.
ii) CONFORM
Most of animals and all most all plants cannot maintain a constant internal
environment and their body temperature changes with the change in environmental
temperature.
a) Osmoconformers: These are those animals in which, the osmotic concentration
of the body fluids changes with that of the ambient water osmotic concentration.
eg. all marine vertebrates, hag fish
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b) Animals like shrews and humming birds have large surface area relative to
their volume which helps them to lose their extra heat rapidly when it is cold
outside. Heat loss or gain is the function of surface area.
c) Animals having large surface area have to spend large amount of energy to
generate body heat through metabolism. This is main reason why such small-
sized animals are rarely found in Polar Regions. These species have evolved in
the ability to regulate but only over a limited range of environmental
conditions.
iii) MIGRATE:
a) Migration involves shorter or longer journey by animals to resist the
temperature extremes so as to move away temporarily from the stressful
conditions to a more favorable area and return to their original habitat when
stressful conditions are over
eg. Birds like Arctic tern, Siberian cranes, American golden plover etc.
Every year thousands of migratory birds of Siberia and other extremely
cold northern regions reach the famous Keol Dev Ghana National Park
in Bharatpur (Rajasthan) during winter months.
iv) SUSPEND:
a) Bacteria, fungi, and lower plants form thick walled spores which help them
to survive unfavorable conditions. These spores germinate during
favorable conditions.
b) In higher plants, seeds maintain dormancy to escape unfavorable
conditions.
c) Hibernation(Winter sleep): It is the period of dormancy during winter months.
Eg: Frogs, lizards, snakes, shrews, bats, ground squirrel etc.
d) Aestivation (Summer sleep) : It is the period of dormancy during summer
months so as to escape scorching heat of sun.
E.g. lung fishes, lady-bird beetles, bugs, snails
e) Diapauses: It is a special type of aestivation in which morphological growth
and development remain suspended to avoid summer related problems. It has been
reported in many insects, crustaceans, mites, zooplanktons species.
7. Adaptations
Definition: Any change in the structure or functioning of an organism that makes
it better suited to its environment.
a) Adaptations in desert plants for reducing rate of transpiration:
i) Presence of thick cuticle on their leaves
ii) Presence of sunken stomata which is scot active type.
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iii) Crassulacean pathway of photosynthesis

iv) Leaves are modified into spines.
b) Allen’s rule: According to this rule the body appendages like snout, ears and
legs of mammals like foxes and gazels of colder regions are relatively shorter than
those of warmer region so as to reduce loss of body heat.
c) Altitude sickness: It is the sickness caused due to low atmospheric pressure of
high altitude. Its symptoms are nausea, fatigue and heart palpitations and body
does not get sufficient oxygen. But gradually you get acclimatized and stop
experiencing altitude sickness. The body compensates low oxygen availability by
increasing red blood cell production, decreasing the binding affinity of
hemoglobin and by increasing breathing rates.
d) Behavioral adaptations: Desert lizards lack the physiological ability that
mammals have to deal with the high temperatures of their habitat, but they manage
to keep their body temperature fairly constant by behavioral means. Crocodiles
bask in the sun and absorb heat when their body temperature drops below the
comfort zone, but move into shade when the ambient temperature starts
increasing.
8. Populations:
Population attributes:
Age distribution: It is an important characteristic of populations which influences
natality and mortality. Age distribution is the relative abundance of the organism
of various age groups in the population is called age distribution of population.
With regard to the age distribution, there are three kinds of populations:
a) Rapidly growing or expanding population: It has high birth rate and low
death rate, so there are more number of young individuals in the population.
b) Stable or Stationary population: It has equal birth and death rates, so
population show zero population growth.
c) Declining populations: It has higher death rate than birth rate, so the
population of young members is lower than that of old members.
9. Population growth:
a) Natality: It refers to the number of births during a given period in the
population that are added to the initial density.
b) Mortality: It is the number of deaths in the population during a given period.
c) Immigration: It is the number of individuals of the same species that have
come into the habitat from elsewhere during the time period under consideration.
d) Emigration: It is the number of individuals of the populations who left the
habitat and gone elsewhere during the time period under consideration.
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10. Growth curves or models: Growth of population can be expressed by a

mathematical expression, called growth curve.
a) Exponential growth: It is shown by small population of reindeer
experimentally reared in a natural environment with plenty of food but no
predators. It has two phases.
i) Lag phase: It is period of adaptation of animals to new environment so is
characterized by slow or no growth in population.
ii) Logarithmic or exponential phase: It is characterized by rapid growth in
population which is continues till enough food is available. But with increase in
the reindeer population, there is corresponding decrease in the availability of food
and space which finally becomes exhausted, which leads to mass starvation and
mortality. This sudden increase in mortality is called population crash. e.g. many
insect population.
It is represented by following formula: = rN
b) Sigmoid or S-shaped growth or Logistic growth: It is shown by yeast cells. It is
formed of five phases.
a) Lag phase: In which the individual adapt themselves to the new
environment, so there is no or very little increase in population.
b) Positive Acceleration phase: It is the period of slow increase in
population in the beginning.
c) Logarithmic or Exponential phase: It is the period of rapid rise in
population due to availability of food and requirements of life in plenty and there
being no competition.
d) Negative acceleration phase: In which again there is slow rise in
population as the environmental resistance increases.
e) Stationary (Plateau) phase: Finally growth rate becomes stable because
mortality and natality rates become equal to each other. So there is zero growth
rate. It is achieved when the population reaches the carrying capacity of the area,
called upper asymptote.
dN kN   N
It can be represented by the following formulae:  rN    rN 1  
dt  k   k
11. Life history variations:
Population interaction:
i) Commensalism: It is the simplest kind of inter specific positive interaction in
which smaller member, called commensal, is benefitted while the larger member,
called host, is neither benefitted nor harmed. It is also called “eating off the same
table.”
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E.g: Epiphytes (Vanda)

ii) Amensalism: It is an antagonistic interspecific interaction in which one species
is inhibited while other species is neither benefited nor harmed.
Species A = (–) called amensal
Species B = (0) called inhibitor
E.g. most common phenomenon of antibiosis is formation of antibiotics that are
antagonistic to the microbes.
E.g. Penicillium notatum releasing penicillin to inhibit the growth of variety of
bacteria especially staphylococcus griseous – produces streptomycin antibiotic
which inhibit the growth of many kinds of bacteria.
iii) Mutualism: It is a kind of positive interspecific interaction in which members
of two different species favor the growth and survival of each other and their
association is obligatory.
Species A = (+)
Species B = (+)
E.g. Pollination of flowers by insects is also a nice example of mutualism
(Pollination of yucca plant by female yucca moth – Pronuba yuccasella)
iv) Competition: It is an antagonistic interaction in which two or more members
of same species or two or more members of different species of same trophic level
compete for common resource like light, moisture, nutrients etc.,
v) Predation: It is a kind of direct food-relationship between two species of
animals called predator, attacks, kills and feeds on the smaller species, called prey.
So predation is a type of antagonistic interspecific interaction in which predator
population adversely affects the growth and survival of smaller prey population.
a) Biological control: Control of weeds and pests is largely based on predator-
prey relationship.
E.g. Control of Opuntia (Prickly pear) which spread over millions of hectares of
rangeland in Australia in the early 1920s. In Australia by using its natural
herbivore cochineal insect – Cactoblastis (a cactus feeding predator).
b) Defense mechanism of prey to lessen the impact of predation: Some species
of insects and frogs are cryptically- colored called camouflaged to avoid being
detected easily by the predator. Camouflage: It means showing colors which
match the colors of flowers, and therefore, their detection becomes difficult.
c) Some are poisonous and therefore avoided by the predators. The Monarch
butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator (bird) because of a special chemical
present in its body. In fact butterfly acquires this chemical during its caterpillar
stage by feeding on a poisonous weed.
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d) For plants, herbivores are the predators; some insects are known to be
phytophagus. Therefore plants have evolved an astonishing variety of
morphological and chemical defenses against herbivores.
E.g. 1.Thorns: In Acacia, Cactus these are the most common morphological
means of defense.
E.g.2.Calotropis produces poisonous cardiac glycosides that makes the herbivore
sick when they are eaten, inhibit feeding or digestion disrupt its
reproduction or even kill it.
vi. Competitions:-
It is defined as a process in which the fitness of one species is significantly lower
in the pressure of another species.
Evidences of competitions:-
1. In shallow South American lakes visiting flamingoes and resident fishes compete
for their food zooplankton in the lake.
2. The Abingolan tortoise in Galapagos Islands becomes extinct within a decade.
After goats were introduced on the island, apparently due to the greater browsing
efficiency of the goals.
3. Competitive release - It states that a weaker species expands its distribution at
range dramatically when the competitive superior species is removed from that
area.
Eg: - It was shown that the larger and competitively superior barnade Balanus
causes extinction of smaller Barnade chathamalus from rocky sea cost of scatland.
4. Competition exclusion principle:-
It states that when two closely related species with similar requirements occur in
same environment, they use different food or become active at different periods or
occupy, different niches to avoid completion otherwise, one of them will be
eliminated.
Vii Parasitism: - In type of antagonistic interspecific interaction in which smaller
partner derives food and shelter from the host called parasite.
A) Host specific parasitism: - Parasite that can parasitize only a single species of
host.
B) Ectoparasite: - Parasite that live on the external surface of the host organism
called Ectoparasite.
Eg. 1. Lice and humans
2. Ticks on dogs.
3. Copepods on marine fishes
4. Casucta, a paresitic plant found growing on hedge plants.
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C) Endopararites: - Parasites are those that live inside the host body at different
slides like liver, kidney, lungs, RBC etc,
Eg. Tania, Ascaris, Entamacba In intertine of man cause taeniasia, ascariasis &
amoebic desentry respectively.
viii. Commensalism
Definition: Same organisms live together so that are organism benefits by the
relationship while the other organism in neither helped nor harmed. This type of
relationship in known as commensalism.
Eg 1. Orchid growing as an epiphyte and mango branch and barnacles growing on
the back of a whale benefit while neither the mango tree nor the whale derives any
apparent benefit.
2. Interaction between sea anemone that has stinging tentacles and the clown fish
that lives among them.
ix. Mutualism
Definition: It is a positive or beneficial interspecific interaction in which both the
interacting species get benefited & favor like summer of each other.
Mutualistic relations:-
1. Lichens: - They represent and intimate mutualistic relationship between a
fungus and photosynthetic algae.
2. Mycorrhizae:- These are the associations between fungi and the roots of higher
plants.
3. Plant- animal relationship:- Plants need the help of animals for pollinating
them flowers and dispersing their seeds. Pollination of flowers by insects is
also an example of mutualism.
Eg:- Pollination of yucca plant by female yucca moth – Pronuba yuccacella)
4. Mutualism between plants and bacteria: - N2 fixing bacteria Rhizobium are
found in the nodules of roots of leguminous plants like pea, gram etc. Bacteria
obtain carbohydrates and shelters from leguminous plants, while in turn fix
atmospheric N2 as nitrites and nitrates which are used by the plants in their
growth.
5. Flowers of fig plant are pollinated by specific wasp. Female wasp lays its eggs
in the ovary of fig flower with its ovipositor. The larvae hatched out of eggs and
feed upon some of the developing seeds of the fig fruit. During this process of ovi
position. Pollens are transferred by the female wasp.
6. The Mediterranean orchid Ophrys employs sexual deceit do get pollination done
by a species of bee. One petal of its flower beans an uncanny resemblance to the
female of the bee in size, color, markings. The male bee in attracted to what it
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perceives as a female, psuedocoupulates with the flower during this process pollen
is dusted from the flower, when the same bee preudecopulates with another
flower it transform pollen to it & thus pollination in flower happen.

CHAPTER – 14
ECOSYSTEMS
1. Ecosystem: Structural and functional unit of nature is called ecosystem or a
biological community interacting with non-living environment is called
ecosystem.
2. Ecosystem – Structure and Function
Structure of ecosystem is related to species diversity. Interaction of biotic and A
biotic components results in a physical structure. The function of ecosystem is
related flow of energy and cycling of materials through structural components of
ecosystem.
3. Productivity: The amount of food energy produced or obtained or stored at a
particular tropic level per unit area in a unit time or the rate of biomass production
is called productivity.
4. Primary Productivity: It refers to productivity at the producer level. I.e. the
amount of organic matter or organic matter produced per unit area over a time
period by plants during photosynthesis.
5. Gross Primary Productivity: It refers to the rate of production of organic matter
during photosynthesis.
6. Net Primary productivity: It refers to grow production minus losses by way of
respiration and decomposition. It is also called net assimilation of apparent
photosynthesis.
NPP = GPP – R
7. Secondary productivity: It refers to production at consumer level. It indicates the
rate of assimilation of food energy at the tropic level of consumer.
8. Decomposition: Process of breaking complex organic matter into inorganic
substance like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients called decomposition. Or It is a
complex process of enzymatic reaction and involves the stepwise degradation of
detritus.
9. Detritus: It is the dead organic matter formed of excreta of animals and dead
remnants of plants such as leaves, bark, flowers. It acts as a raw material for
decomposition.
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10. Detrivores: Organisms which break down detritus into smaller particles are called
detrivores.
E.g. Bacteria, fungi, invertebrates like Earthworm.

11. Fragmentation: Process of making fragments from detritus by bacteria, fungi and
invertebrates like earthworm.
12. Leaching: It is a process by which simple and H2O soluble compounds like
simple sugars and inorganic nutrients move downwards along with percolating
gravitational water. These inorganic nutrients are precipitated to form non
available salts
13. Catabolism: It is the destructive process in which detritus breakdown into simple
organic and inorganic substances by the effect of extracellular enzymes released
by decomposers in their surroundings.
E.g. Pseudomonas decomposes proteins into ammonia and simple N2 compounds
14. Humification: It is a process by which simplified detritus is changed into dark
colored amorphous substance called humus. It acts as a reservoir of nutrients.
15. Mineralization: Process of further degradation of humus by some microbes and
releasing inorganic nutrients such as Ca++, Mg++, K++ etc. is called mineralization.

ENERGY FLOW
Producers of our ecosystem are autotrophic organisms (plants, photosynthetic
bacteria and chemosynthetic bacteria). They fix sun’s radiant energy to make food
from simple inorganic materials for herbivores. Energy from one level to next
level passes in the following way.
Producer’s Primary consumers Secondary consumers
Carnivore
Herbivores

Tertiary consumers
Top Carnivores
1. Producers: Green plants in the ecosystem terminology are called producers. They
manufacture food from natural resources like CO 2, Water, and Light with the help
of chlorophyll by process photosynthesis.
2. Consumers: Animals depend on plants directly or indirectly for their food needs
called consumers.
E.g. Goats, Cattle etc.
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3. Herbivores: Animals which feed on producers are called herbivores also referred
as primary consumers.
E.g. Zooplanktons, Grasshopper, Cow
4. Secondary consumers: Animals that feed on the primary carnivores for food are
secondary carnivores.
E.g. Birds, fishes etc.
5. Tertiary consumers or Top carnivores: Animals that feed on secondary
consumers for food are called tertiary consumers.
E.g: man, Lion etc.,
6. Omnivores: Animals that feed on both producers and consumers. e.g Humans
7. Detritus Food Chain: Food chain that begins with dead organic matter is detritus
food chain. Here decomposers like fungi, bacteria, derive their nutrients from
degrading dead organic matter.
8. Saprotrophs (Sapro = to decompose): Microbes that decompose i.e degrading
complex organic food into simple nutrients for their nutrition to survive are called
decomposers. They are also called natural scavengers.
9. Food web:
A network of food chain which become interconnected at various trophic levels so
as to form a number of feeding connections amongst different organisms of biotic
community.
10. Trophic level:
It is a specific place in the food chain where organisms occupied for the source of
nutrition or food. In any ecosystem producers represent the first trophic level,
herbivores represent second trophic level, primary carnivores represent the third
trophic and top carnivores represent last trophic level.
11. Standing crop: It is a mass of living material at a particular time is called standing
crop. It is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass).
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Idea of ecological pyramids was developed by Charles Elton, so also called
Eltonian Pyramids.
It is defined as a graphical representation of an ecological parameter, like number
or biomass of accumulated energy at different trophic levels in a food chain in an
ecosystem.
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1. Pyramid of number:
It is a graphic representation showing the arrangement of number of individuals of
different trophic levels in a food chain in an ecosystem.
 Food chain in grass land or pond ecosystem, pyramid of number is upright or
straight.
 Food chain in tree and forest ecosystem, pyramid of number is spindle shaped.
 In parasitic food chain, the pyramid of number is inverted.
2. Pyramid of biomass:
It is a graphical representation of biomass present per unit area in different trophic
levels.
 Pyramid of biomass is straight or upright in terrestrial habitat.
 In aquatic habitats pyramid of biomass is inverted or spindle shaped.
3. Pyramid of energy:
It is a graphical representation of amount of energy trapped per unit time and area
in different tropic levels of food chain. Pyramid of energy is always upright or
straight.
Ecological succession:
1. Succession: Occurrence of relatively definite, gradual and predictable sequence
of communities over a long period of time in the same area resulting in
establishment of stable or climax community, known as ecological succession of
biotic succession.
2. Sere: Entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given area is
called sere.
3. Primary succession: Succession that starts no living organisms area on bare rock,
newly cooled lava, or newly created pond is called Primary succession.
4. Secondary succession: Succession which starts from previously unit up substrata
with already existing living matter.
5. Climax community: Community that is more or less stable for a long period of
time which can be maintained itself in equilibrium with climate of the area. This
final community is called climax community.
6. Succession in plants:
1. Hydrarch or Hydro sere succession:
It is an ecological succession that begins in the newly formed pond of lake i.e. in
what areas and successional series progress from hydric to the mesic conditions.
2ND PUC BOTANY CDF MATERIAL

2. Xerosere or Xerarch succession: Succession that begins on bare rock surface.

Rocky surface is characterized by
a) Deficiency of water.
b) Surface temperatures are very high.
c) Absence of organic matter.
3. Pioneer species: Species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species.
E.g. Lichens
Hydro sere:
Stages of hydro sere:
1. Plankton stage: It is the pioneer community of hydrosere and is formed by the
germination of encysted spores in the newly formed water body. Death and
decomposition of planktons produce organic matter which mixes with the silt and
form a soft mud at the bottom of pond which favors the growth of next stage.
2. Rooted – submerged stage: It is formed of rooted submerged hydrophytes like
Hydrilla, Potamogeton, Vallisnaria, etc. Due to death and decay of these plants,
and sand and silt deposited around the plants, the bottom level of the pond rises
slowly. The older plants buried parts of other plants form humus which favors the
growth of next stage.
3. Rooted – floating stage: It is formed of rooted hydrophytes like Nymphaea,.
Limnantheum, Trapa etc. Some free floating species like Azola, Pistia, Eichornea,
Lemna, Wolffia, Salvinia etc are also found. The death and decomposition of these
plants further increase the level of the substratum so the pond becomes shallower.
Finally the floating species disappear.
4. Reed-swamp stage: It is also called amphibious stage as most parts of the rooted
plants remain exposed to air. It includes the plant species like Segittaria, Typha etc
The organic matter added by these plants further raises the substratum so the pond
becomes unsuitable for the growth these amphibious plants.
5. Sedge – meadow stage: It is mainly formed of plant species like Carex, Juncus,
Cyperus, herbs like Caltha, Polygonum etc. They form a mat like vegetation
toward the centre of pond with the help of their much branched rhizomatous
systems. This develops the mesic conditions in the area marshy vegetation
disappears gradually.
6. Woodland stage: In this stage, first peripheral part of the area is invaded by some
shrubby plants which can tolerate bright sunlight as well as water logged
condition.
E.g. Cornus, Cephalanthus. These further lower the water table by their
transpiration and build up more soil. Mineralization and soil favors the arrival of
plants of next stage.
2ND PUC BOTANY CDF MATERIAL

7. Forest stage: It is the climax community. It depends upon the climatic condition
E.g. Tropical deciduous or monsoon forests in regions of moderate rainfall,
tropical rain forests in areas with heavy rainfall and tropical climate; and mixed
forests of Almus, Acer and Quercus in the temperate regions.
Xerosore:
Stages of xerosere:
1. Crustose lichen stage: It forms the pioneer community in a litho sere and is
represented by lichen species like Graphis, Rhizocarpus, Lacanora. These lichens
can tolerate desiccation. These produce organic acids which cause weathering of
rocks so that minerals essential for proper growth of lichens are released. Lichens
hold the fine particles of rock and sand to initiate soil formation. This invites the
following type of lichens.
2. Foliose Lichen Stage: It includes the lichens like parmellia, dermatocarpa etc.
which are larger sized with leafy thalli. These foliose lichens retain more water
and are able to accumulate dust particles which help in further formation of the
substratum. The weathering of rocks and its mixing with humus leads to the
development of a fine soil layer on the rock surface which favors the upcoming of
hardy mosses.
3. Moss Stage: It is characterized by the extension of mosses like Polytrichum,
Torula, Grimmia on thin soil layer on rock surface. Their death and decomposition
add more soil and organic matter so the thickness of soil increases. Weathering of
rocks also continues. The soil now remained moist for longer periods which favor
the growth of moisture loving mosses like Hupnus, Bryum.
4. Herbs stage: The mat formed by mosses on the partially fragmented rock
becomes suitable for germination of seeds of annual grasses like Eleusin, Aristida
etc. these grasses have more sand-binding properties. Their death and
decomposition accumulate more soil so the annual grasses are replaced by
perennial grasses like Cymbopogan, Heteropogon etc.
5. Shrub stage: Due to further weathering of rocks and death of the herbs, more soil
is accumulating. So the habit becomes suitable for the growth of shrubs like Rhus,
Phytocarpus, Zizypus, Caparis etc. These shrubs are large in size and their roots
penetrate more deeply in rocky substratum causing more weathering and soil
formation. This favors the invasion of the area by next seral stage.
6. Forest stage: It is the climax community in litho or xerosere and is formed of
several hardy trees. Further weathering of rocks in and increasing humus content
of the soil favorers the growth of more trees. The vegetation finally becomes
mesophytic. Type of climax community depends upon the climate e.g. rain
forest in temperature area; a grassland in area with less rainfall etc.
2ND PUC BOTANY CDF MATERIAL

NUTRIENT CYCLING
The exchange of materials between living and non-living components of biosphere
is called biogeochemical cycles or nutrient cycles.
(Or)
The cyclic pathways through chemical elements move from environment to
organisms and back to the environment.
Standing state: The amount of nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous,
calcium etc present in the soil at any given time, is referred to as the standing state.
Sedimentary cycles: Phosphorous, sulphur and calcium cycles. Here the reservoir
of the elements is in sediments of the earth.
Carbon cycle:
1. Carbon constitutes 49% of dry weight of organisms, 71% carbon is found
dissolved in oceans. Fossil fuel represents a reservoir of carbon.
2. Carbon cycling occurs through atmosphere, oceans and through living and dead
organisms.
3. Carbon dioxide is released into atmosphere by respiration of producers and
consumers. It is also released by decomposition of organic wastes and dead bodies
by decomposition by the action of bacteria and fungi of decay.
4. Volcanic eruptions and hot springs also release CO2 into the atmosphere.
5. Weathering of carbonate containing rocks by action of acids and excreted by
microorganisms and plant roots or treatment of carbonate minerals also add to CO2
in atmosphere.
6. Carbon returns to the plant biomass by photosynthesis. Through food chain carbon
passes to various levels of food chain as a source of food energy, but by
respiration, it is returned to atmosphere.
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
1. Phosphorus is one of the nutrients of major importance to biological systems and
is the constituent of energy rich compounds e.g. ADP, ATP, GTP, and NADP.
2. It is also found in plasma membrane, shells, bones and teeth.
3. Phosphorus is an example for sedimentary cycle.
4. Inorganic phosphate is added to soil as a result of weathering of phosphate rocks
by the action of dilute nitric acid formed during nitrification and is released by
leaching, erosion, and mining for agricultural uses.
5. Plants get phosphorus from soil especially as orthophosphate ions and is then
transferred to consumers and decomposers as organic phosphate through the food
chain.
2ND PUC BOTANY CDF MATERIAL

6. After death and decay of organisms phosphorus is recycled due to recycled due to
action of decomposers especially by phosphate solubilising bacteria.
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
A wide range of economic, environmental and aesthetic benefits provided to the
human beings by the ecological processes of an ecosystem are collectively called
ecosystem services.
Examples:
1.The forests provide food in the form of roots, tubers, leaves and fruits especially
for the tribal.
2. Forests ecosystems purify air and water, migrate drought and floods, cycle
nutrients, generate fertile soils, provide wild life habitat, maintain biodiversity,
pollinate crops, provide storage site for carbon and also provide aesthetic, cultural
and spiritual values.
3. Price tag on ecosystem services: Robert Constanza and his colleagues
supporting services. It is proposed an average price tag of US $ 33 trillion a year
on these fundamental ecosystem services.
 2nd PUC ZOOLOGY CDF MATERIAL
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
1. Gametogenesis: process of formation of gametes.
2. Spermatogenesis: process of formation of male gamete Sperm in the testis
3. Oogenesis: process of formation of female gamete ovum in the ovary
4. Fertilization: process of fusion of male gamete sperm and female gamete ovum resulting in
zygote.
5. Amphimixis: process of fusion of pronucleus of male gamete and pronucleus of female
gamete.
6. Zygote: fertilized ovum that contain half of the genome from both male and female parents.
7. Implantation: process of attachment of developing embryo to the uterine wall.
8. Puberty: the age of maturity or the period of when secondarily sexual characteristics
develop and the sexually organs mature allowing reproduction possible.
9. Testes: primary reproductive gland of Male that produce male hormone testosterone and
mate gametes sperms.
10. Sertoli cells: cells in the seminiferous tubules which nourish and support the sperms.
11. Leydig cells: Also called Interstitial cells present between seminiferous tubule and produce
androgen (Testosterone)
12. Seminiferous tubules: A mass of coiled tubules bound together by connective tissue
forming the essential part of the testes where sperms develop.
13. Penis: cylindrical erectile organ in males. Through which semen and urine passes.
14. Scrotum: it is a pouch/sac hanging below the penis enclosing the testes.
15. Vasdeferens: A narrow tube that store and transports sperms synthesized from testes.
16. Epididymis: A narrow coiled tube connecting the testes with vasdeferens, also it is the place
where sperms mature.
17. Seminal vesicle: secretes alkaline fluid that is rich in fructose
18. Prostate gland: male accessory reproductive structure that secretes thin alkaline secretion.
19. Cowper’s gland/ Bulbourethral glands: Male accessory reproductive structure that secretes
alkaline fluid, which neutralize the acid nature of urethra.
20. Spermatagonia/ Sperms: Motile male gametes carry the genetic material of male parent.
21. Spermiogenesis/Spermateolsis: the metamorphosis of nonfunctional spermatid into
functional sperm.
22. Acrosome: A cap like structure covering anterior nucleus by which sperm penetrate in to
ovum. It is derived from golgi complex, contain lytic enzyme (hyaluronidase).
23. Nebenkern/ Mitochondrial sheath: The middle piece of sperm concentrated with spirally
arranged mitochondria which provide energy for the activity of sperm.
24. Semen: Fluid produced by male on ejaculation contains sperms.
25. Ovary: primary reproductive gland of female that produce female hormones (estrogens and
progesterone) and female gamete ovum.
26. Uterus: A hollow flat pear shaped muscular structure lies behind the pelvis where fertilized
egg gets embedded for further development . it is lined by endometerium. The formation and
rupture of endometrium is under the influence of hormones.
27. Perimeterium: the external thin membrane of the uterus
28. Endometrium: the middle thick layer of uterus
29. Myometrium: the inner glandular layer of the uterus
30. Fallopian tube/ ovarian tube/Oviduct: Extend on either side of the body of the uterus. The
free end –infundibulum is with fimbriae for reception of egg during ovulation. It is the site of
fertilization (Ampullary isthamic zone)
31. Cervix: neck portion of vagina which leads to vagina
32. Vagina: The passage leading from the uterus to the exterior in females where ejaculation
occurs during coitus.
33. Mons pubis: cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair in external genitalia of
female
34. Labia majora: fleshy fold of tissue extend down from mons pubis and surround the opening
of vagina
35. Labia minora: paired folds of tissue under the labio majora
36. Clitoris: a tiny finger like structure that lies at the upper junction of the two labia minora
above the urethral opening.
37. Hymen: opening of vagina is often covered partially by a membrane
38. Mammary glands: paired glandular structure (breast) that secrete milk for sucking the
young.
39. Ovum: female gamete carries the genetic material of male paerent.
40. Menstual cycle: A series of changes in the uterine endometrium of nonpregnant female
41. Menses/ Menstuation: Loss of blood and tissue as the endometrium of the uterus sloughs
away at the end of menstrual cycle.
42. Menarche: it is the first menstruation which marks the on set of puberty in the female.
43. Menopause: the menstrual cycle ceases around 50 years of age
44. Proliferative or Follicular phase: this phase the primary follicles in the ovary grow to
become a fully mature graffian follicle. Also endometrium of uterus regenerates through
proliferation.
45. Antrum: The fluid filled cavity in tertiary follicle.
46. Zona pellucida: the new membrane formed around the secondary follicle.
47. Ovulation: the release of egg from the ovary.
48. Luteal phase: the period after the ovulation during which remaining part of the graffian
follicle transform as corpus luteum.
49. FSH: Follicle stimulationg hormone and LH: lutinizing hormone: hormones secreted by
adenohypophysis of pituitary gland that regulate the activity of gonads.
50. Oestrogens: Female hormones
51. Androgens/testosterone: Male hormonse
52. Cleavage: division of the egg through repeated mitosis resulting in morula.
53. Blastocyst: Early stage of mammalian embryo development, ready to be implanted
54. Trophoblast: outer layer of blastocyst that get attaches to the endometrium.
55. Placenta: the physiological junction between developing embryo and maternal body that
facilitate the supply of oxygen and nutrients and also removes carbon dioxide and excretory
materials
56. hCG: Human chorionic gonadotropin produced by placenta
57. hPL: Human placental lactogen produced by placenta
58. Relaxin: hormone secreted by ovary during pregnancy
59. Parturition: the delivery of an infant at the end of pregnancy
60. The signals of parturition originate from the fully developed foetus and the placenta which
induces mild uterine contractions is foetal ejection reflex.
61. Lactation: the period following child birth during which milk is formed in the breast.
62. Colostrum: A thick milky secretion from the mammary gland formed initially few days of
lactation that contains several antibodies, high proportion protein, vitamins absolutely
essential for baby.
REPRODUCTIVE HELATH
1. The term “Reproductive Health” simply refers to healthy reproductive organs with normal
functional potentiality.
2. According to WHO Reproductive health means well being of individuals in Physical,
functional, emotional, behavioral and social aspects of reproductive organs.
3. Reproductive Health : Problems and Strategies :
India was one amongst the first countries to initiate action planes and programmes at
national level to get reproductive health as a social goal.
These programmes are called “family planning programmes” initiated in 1951.
4. “Reproductive and child Health care” (RCH) Programmes create awareness among the
people for reproductive health.
5. Introduction of sex education in schools will provide right information to the young on sex
and other related issues.
6. Proper information about reproductive organs, adolescence and related changes, safe and
hygienic sexual practices, sexually transmitted diseases (STD) , AIDS to people especially
those in adolescent age group to lead reproductively healthy life.
7. “amniocentesis” is a foetal sex determination test based on the chromosomal pattern in the
amniotic fluid surrounding the developing embryo.
8. Statutory ban on Amniocentesis for sex determination to legally check increasing female
foeticide.
9. Massive child immunization will increases the child health.
10. Population Explosion and Birth control :
11. World Population in 1900 year - 2 billions
World Population in 2000 year – 6 billions
India Population in 2001 year – Growth rate is 1.7% i.e 17/1000/year.
12. Every sixth person in the world is an Indian.
13. The population explosion is due to a rapid decline in death rate / maternal mortality rate &
infant mortality rate ( IMR ) and increase in number of people of reproductive age group.
14. Alarming growth rate could lead to an absolute scarcity of food, shelter and clothing.
15. To overcome this problem , measures to be taken are 1. Birth control 2. Statutory rise of
marriageable age of the females to 18 yrs and that of males to 21 yrs. 3. Use of various
contraceptive methods. 4. Incentives given to couples with smaller families.
16. Contraceptive Methods :
Intentional prevention of Conception (fertilization of an egg by a sperm at the beginning
of Pregnancy) by natural or artificial means is called contraception.
17. An ideal Contraceptive is one that is user – friendly easily available, effective and reversible
with no or less side effects, do not affect the sexual life of the user.
18. Contraceptives are broadly classified into :
1. Natural Methods : This work on the Principle of avoiding chances of sperms meeting
the ovum.
a) Periodic abstinence : In this Method couples avoid or abstain from coitus from 10th
day to 17th day of Menstrual cycle, when Ovulation generally occurs.
b) Withdrawl or Coitus interrupts : In this method the male partner withdraw his
penis from the Vagina, just before ejaculation and thus avoid in semination.
c) Lactational amenorrhea : Absence of menstruation or ovulation occur during the
Period of intense lactation following parturition.
19. Barrier Methods : In this method , ovum and sperms and prevented from physically
meeting with the help of barriers. Barriers are available for both male and females.
a) Condoms : These are made of thin rubber / latex sheath & used to cover the penis in
males or vagina and cervix in females just before coitus. So that the ejaculated
semen would not enter & prevent conception. “ Nirodh” is popular brand of
condom for the male. Condoms provide protection from STD & AIDS.
b) Diaphragms, Cervical Caps & Vaults : made up of rubber that are inserted into
female reproductive tract to cover the cervix during coitus. Which prevent the entry
of sperms. To increase Contraceptive efficiency, these are used along with
spermicidal creams, jellies & foams.
c) IUDS ( Intrauterine Devices) :
These are inserted in the uterus by expert nurses or doctors. The available devices
are non medicated devices – E.g. Lippes loop , copper releasing IUDS - E.g. CUT,
CU7, Multiload 375 , Hormone releasing IUDS – E.g. Progestasert, LNG 20. IUDS
increase Phagocytosis of Sperms with in the uterus whereas CU ions suppress sperm
motility and fertilizing capacity of sperms. Hormone releasing IUDS make the
uterus unsuitable for implantation & cervix hostile to the sperms.
20. Other Methods: Pills: oral administration of either progesterone or progesterone –
estrogen combinations in the form of tablets by females is called pills. Pills to be taken
daily for a period of 21 days starting within 1 st five days of menstrual cycle. Pills inhibit
ovulation, implantation and also alter the quality of cervical mucosa to prevent/ retard
entry of sperms. Saheli – is a new oral contraceptive non steroid for the females
developed by CDRI, Lucknow. Females can take injection or Implantation of
progesterone alone or combination with estrogen as a contraceptive, their effective
periods are longer than the pills. Administration of Progestogen or progesterone –
estrogen combination or IUDS with in 72 hrs. after coitus as emergency contraceptive to
avoid pregnancy due to rape.
21. Surgical methods: (sterilization ) is a terminal method – in males is called Vasectomy
and in female is called Tubectomy. Surgical intervention blocks gametes transport and
prevent conception.
In vasectomy – a small part of vasadeferens is removed or tied up through a small
incision on the scrotum.
In tubectomy – a small portion of the fallopian tube is either removed or tied up through
a small incision in the abdomen or through Vagina. But reversibility is very poor.
The possible ill effects of contraceptives includes – Nausea, abdominal pain, break
trhough bleeding, irregular menstrual bleeding or even breastcancer.
22. Medical termination of Pregnancy (MTP) : Intentional or voluntary termination of
pregnancy before fullterm or induced abortion is known as MTP.
Govt. of INDIA legelised MTP in 1971 to avoid its misuse and to prevent indiscriminate
and illegal female foeticides.
 MTP is used to get rid of un wanted pregnancies either due to rape, unprotected
intercourse and failure of the contraceptives used during coitus.
MTP is essential incases where continuation of pregnancy is harmful or even fatal either
to female or foetus or both.
MTP is considerably safe during first trimester i.e. upto 12 weeks of pregnancy and are
much more risker during sec. trimester.
23. Sexually transmitted Diseases : ( STD ) Diseases or infections transmitted through sexual
intercourse are collectively called STD / Veneral diseases VD / Reproductive tract
infections ( RT).
EXAMPLES : Gonorrhea, syphilis, genital herpes, chlamydiasis, genital warts,
trichomoniasis, Hepatitis – B. and AIDS.
Except Hepatitis – B , genital herpes, and HIV infections, the remaining can be curable
on early detection and proper treatment.
Early symptoms of these are, itching, fluid discharge slight pain, swellings etc. in the
genital region.
Absence of symptoms or social stigma attached to STD results late detection leads to
pelvic inflammatory diseases (PID) , abortions, still births, ectopic pregnancies, infertility
or even cancer to reproductive tract.
The incidences are more among persons in the age group of 15-24 yrs.
STD can be prevented by – avoid sex with unknown partners/ multiple partners, always
use condoms during coitus, and in case of doubt , consult qualified doctor for early
detection.
24. INFERTILITY: Couples unable to produce children inspite of unprotected sexual –
cohabitation – infertility.
It Occurs due to – physical , congenital diseases, drug immunological and psychological.
Couples are assisted to have children through ART assisted reproductive technologies –
they are –
IVF/ Invitrofertilization : fertilization takes place outside the body followed by embryo
transfer ( ET) . This method is popularly known as – test tube “programme”.
Ova from wife/ donar & sperms from husband /donar are collected & fertilized to form
zygote in the laboraroty by simulated conditions.
This Zygote can be transferred in to the flallopian tube & this method is ZIFT (Zygote
intra fallopian tube transfer )
Zygote may be developed in to embryo with 8 blastomere & it can be transferred to
uterus. This method is IUT ( Intrauterine transfer )
Invivo fertilization : fusion of gametes with in female
Gift ( Gamete intra fallopian tube transfer ) : In this method ovum collected from
donar & transferred to another female who can’t produce ova, but can provide suitable
conditions for fertilization & embryo development.
 ICSI : ( Intracytoplasmic sperm injection) in this method sperm is directly injected in to
the ovum by invitromethod.
AI : (Artificial Insemination ) In this technique, infertility cases, either due to inability
of the male partner to inseminate into the female of very low sperm count can be
corrected .
In this method semen is collected from the husband or a healthy donar is artificially
introduced into vagina or into the uterus ( UI – Intrauterine semi nation ) of female.

CHAPTER-5
PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATIONS

5.1. Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance

1. Genetics: Study of inheritance and variations is called genetics.
2. Artificial selection: Selection by humans of animals and plants with desirable characteristic
for use in breeding is called artificial selection
5.2. Inheritance of One gene
3. Hybridization: The process of combining different varieties of organisms to create a hybrid is
called hybridization.
4. Gene: Gene is the determinant of a characteristic of an organism. It is the fundamental
physical unit of heredity. A gene is a nucleotide sequence specifies the sequence of amino acids
in a polypeptide.
5. Allele: An alternative form of a gene is called allele.
6. Locus: The specific place on a chromosome where a gene is located.
7. Homozygous: A diploid organism in which same alleles occur at a given locus of a pair of
homologous chromosomes is said to be homozygous.
8. Heterozygous: A diploid organism in which two different alleles occur at a given locus of a
pair of homologous chromosomes is said to be heterozygous.
9. Dominance allele/ factor: It is one of the alleles of a pair alleles, which can express when it is
present in heterozygous condition also.
10. Recessive allele/factor: It is one of the alleles of a pair of alleles, which is unable to express
when it is present in heterozygous condition.
11. Genotype: The generic constitution of an organism.
12. Phenotype: The physical manifestation of a genetic trait (physical appearance) that results
from a specific genotype and its interaction with the environment.
13. Cross: A mating between two individuals leading to the fusion of gametes.
14. Monohybrid Cross: A cross between two organisms with different traits of a character.
15. Segregation: The separation of the two alleles of each gene and their distribution to separate
sex cells during meiosis.
16. Punnet Square: It is a graphical representation to calculate the probability of all possible
genotypes of offspring in a genetic cross. It was developed by a British geneticist, Reginald C.
Punnet.
17. Test cross: A cross in which the organism with dominant phenotype whose genotype is to
be determined, is crossed with the recessive parent.
18. Black cross: A cross between an individual member of F1 generation and either of its
parents.
19. Law of Dominance: In a pair of contrasting traits of a character, one is dominant trait and
the other is recessive trait. The trait that is expressed in the F1 generation is called dominant trait
and the factor for this trait is dominant factor. The other trait which is not expressed in F1
generation is called recessive trait and the factor for this is recessive factor.
20. Law of Segregation: During the formation of gametes due to meiosis the paired unit factors
separate or segregate randomly with equal probability, so that each gamete receives only one of
these factor.
21. Incomplete dominance (or) Partial dominance: The condition in which both alleles of the
heterozygote interact influencing the phenotype expressing incomplete phenotype, of the parents
is called incomplete dominance.
22. Co-dominance: The condition in which the alleles of the heterozygote show individual
expression in the phenotype is called co-dominance.

5.3. Inheritance of two genes

23. Dihybrid cross: The cross involving two pairs of contrasting traits of two characters is
called dihybrid cross.
24. Law of Independent Assortment: When two or more pairs of contrasting traits are brought
together in a cross, the inheritance of one pair of traits is independent of other pair of traits.
25. Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance: “Behaviour of chromosomes at meiosis can serve as
the cellular basis of both segregation and independent assortment”.
26. Homologous chromosomes: Chromosome pairs of approximately the same length,
centromere position, and staining pattern, with genes for the same characteristics at
corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism's mother; the
other from the organism's father.
27. Heterologous chromosomes: Chromosome pairs of different length, with different genes at
corresponding loci are called Heterologous chromosomes.
28. Linkage: Genes that are located on the same chromosome do not assort independently during
gamete formation, instead they tend to segregate together. This phenomenon is referred to as
linkage and such genes are said to be linked.
29. Recombination: It is the reshuffling of parental genes to produce new genotypes or new
combination of genes.
30. Polygenic inheritance / Quantitative inheritance / Galton’s Inheritance / Cumulative
inheritance / Multiple Factor Inheritance : This type of inheritance is controlled by two or
more genes in which each dominant alleles have cumulative effect with each dominant allele
expressing a part / unit of the trait.
31. Pleiotropy: The genes that control more than one phenotype are called pleiotropic genes and
the phenomenon is called pleiotropy

5.4 SEX DETERMINATION

32. Sex determination: The property or quality by which organisms are classified as female or
male on the basis of their reproductive organs and functions.
33. Autosomes : The chromosomes which have no role in the sex determination are called
autosomes.
34. Allosomes / Sex chromosomes / Idiochromosomes : The chromosomes which are
responsible for the sex determination in unisexual organisms is called allosomes.
35. Hetrogamy: sexual reproduction involving fusion of unlike gametes often differing in size,
structure, and physiology.
36. Homogamy : sexual reproduction involving fusion of same types of gametes in size,
structure, and physiology.

5.5. Mutation
37. Mutation – It is a phenomenon which results in alteration of DNA sequences and
consequently results in changes in the genotype and the phenotype of an organism.
38. Chromatid : A chromatid is one copy of a duplicated chromosome, which generally is
joined to the other copy by a centromere,
39. Frame-shift mutation : A frameshift mutation is a genetic mutation caused by a deletion or
insertion in a DNA sequence that shifts the way the sequence is read.
40. Mutagens: An agent which causes mutation is called mutagen.

5.6. Genetic Disorders

41. Pedigree : Analysis of family history (or) Screening of family
42. Pedigree Analysis: The study of pedigree for a few generations for the analysis of
transmission of certain exceptional phenotype / disorders and the possibility of their occurrence
in a particular generation is known as pedigree analysis.
43. Mendelian Disorders / Hereditary disorders: Disorders may be due to autosomal or
allosomal genes or due to dominant or recessive genes are called Mendelian disorders .
44. Chromosomal disorders / Syndromes : Genetic disorders due to chromosomal aberrations
or ploidy changes are chromosomal disorders.
45. Haemophilia: It is a sex linked recessive disease, in which a single protein that is a part of
the cascade of proteins involved in the clotting of blood is affected. Due to this in an affected
individual a simple cut will result in non-stop bleeding.
46. Cystic fibrosis: It is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder that affects most critically
the lungs.and also the pancreas, liver, and intestine. It is characterised by abnormal transport
of chloride and sodium across an epithelium leading to thick, viscous secretions.
47. Sex linked genes/Characters: Genes which are present on allosomes are considered as sex
linked genes.
48. Sickle cell anaemia (SCA) or Sickle cell disease (SCD) or Drepanocytosis: I1t is an
autosomal linked recessive disease, characterized by RBC that assume an abnormal, rigid, sickle
shape. The defect is caused by the substitution of Glutamic acid (Glu) by Valine (Val) at the 6th
position of the β-globulin chain of the haemoglobin molecule.
49. Colour blindness (or) Colour vision deficiency: It is a x-linked recessive gene disease. It is
the inability or decreased ability to see colour, or perceive colour differences, under normal
lighting conditions.
50. Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an autosomal recessive metabolic genetic disorder characterized
by a mutation in the gene for the hepatic enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH), rendering it
non-functional. This enzyme is necessary to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine (Phe) to
the amino acid tyrosine. When PAH activity is reduced, phenylalanine accumulates and is
converted into phenylpyruvate (also known as phenylketone), which can be detected in the urine.
51. Thalassemia : It is autosomal recessive blood disorder, characterized by the weakening and
destruction of red blood cells. Thalassemia is caused by variant or missing genes that affect how
the body makes hemoglobin. People with thalassemia make less hemoglobin and fewer
circulating red blood cells than normal, which results in mild or severe anaemia.
52. Aneuploidy : Aneuploidy is a type of chromosomal abnormality, in this an extra or missing
chromosome is a common.
53. Polyploidy: Containing more than two paired (homologous) sets of chromosomes are called
polyploidy.
54. Trisomy (2n+1): It is a type of polysomy in which there are three instances of a particular
chromosome, instead of the normal two. It is a type of aneuploidy.
55. Monosomy (2n-1): It is a form of aneuploidy with the presence of only
one chromosome (instead of the typical two in humans) from a pair.
56. Down’s Syndrome (DS): Also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused by the
presence of all or part of a third copy of chromosome 21. It is typically associated with a delay
in cognitive ability (mental retardation) and physical growth and a particular set of facial
characteristics.
57. Kleinfelter’s syndrome: Also 47,XXY or XXY syndrome, is a genetic disorder in which
there is at least one extra x chromosome to a standard human male karyotype for a total of
47 chromosomes rather than the 46 found in genetically normal humans. Symptoms include
hypogonadism, gynacomastism etc.
58. Karyotype: A karyotype is the number and appearance of chromosomes in the nucleus of
a eukaryotic cell. The term is also used for the complete set of chromosomes in a species or an
individual organism.
59. Hypogonadism: It is a medical term which describes a diminished functional activity of
the gonads – the testes and ovaries in males and females, respectively – that may result in
diminished sex hormone biosynthesis and impaired gamete production and/or regulation.
60. Gynecomastia: It is the benign enlargement of breast tissue in males.
61. Turner’s syndrome or Ullrich–Turner syndrome or Gonadal dysgenesis or 45,X: It is
a chromosomal abnormality in which all or part of one of the sex chromosomes is absent. In
some cases, the chromosome is missing in some cells but not others, a condition referred to
as mosaicism or Turner.

CHAPTER- 6
MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE

1. Double helix – Structure of DNA proposed by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953
2. The ratio between adenine and thymine and guanine and cytosine are constant and equals
one (Chargaff’s rule)
3. Histones-A set of positively charged, basic proteins associated with DNA
4. Histone octamer-Histones organized to form a unit of eight molecules
5. Nucleosome-is the basic unit of DNA packaging in eukaryotes, consisting of a segment of
DNA wound in sequence around eight.
6. Chromatinis the Mass of genetic material composed of DNA and proteins that condense to
form chromosomes during eukaryotic cell division in the nucleus
7. Euchromatin in atypical nucleus, some region of chromatin are loosely packed and stains
light and are referred to as Euchromatin
8. Heterochromatin chromatin that is more densely packed and stains dark.
9. Non histone chromosomal (NHC)proteins the packaging of chromatin at higher level
requires additional set of proteins that collectively are referred to as NHC proteins
10. Transforming principle:- In 1928, Frederick Griffith in a series of experiments with
streptococcus pneumoniae (Bactria) witnessed a miraculous transformation (DNA) in
bacteria. When heat killed S and live R bacteria are mixed, the Rstain bacteria gets
transformed by the heat killed S stain
11. Semiconservative DNAreplication:-Semiconservative replication would produce two
copies that each contained one of the original strands(old) and one entirely new strand
12. DNA polymeraseis a cellular or viral polymerase enzyme that synthesizes DNA molecules
from their nucleotide building blocks
13. Replication fork-A replication fork is just the junction where the double-stranded DNA
splits apart into 2 single strands
14. On one strand, the template with polarity 31 51, the replication is continuous(leading
strand), while on the other, the template with polarity 51 31 , it is discontinuous(lagging
strand)
15. DNA ligase-the enzyme that binds the discontinuous fragmentsof the DNA
16. Helicase- An enzyme that catalyses the unwinding of the DNA helix during DNA
replication.
17. Origin of replication (ORI) there is a definite region in E.coli DNA where the replication
originates
18. Transcription-The process of copying genetic information from one strand of the DNA into
RNA is termed as transcription
19. DNA dependent RNA polymerase also catalyse the polymerisation in only one direction ,
that is 5’ 3’, the stand that has the polarity 3’ 5’ acts as a template and is also referred
to as template strand
20. The other strand which does not code for anything is strangely referredto as coding strand
21. The promoter and terminator flank the structural gene in transcription unit
22. Cistron-A segment of DNA coding for a polypeptide.
23. Monocistron-Structural gene in a transcription unit could be said as monocistronic (mostly
in eukaryotes)
24. Polycistronic- Structural gene in a transcription unit mostly in bacteria or prokaryotes is
called polycistronic
25. Exons-The coding sequences or expressed sequences that appear in mature or processed
RNA are called exons
26. Introns-Intervening sequences that interrupt the exons and do not appear in mature or
processed RNA are called introns
27. Initiation – RNA polymerase binds to promoter and initiates transcription
28. Termination – Once the polymerase reaches the terminator region, the mascent RNA falls
off, so also the RNA polymerase. This results in termination of transcription
29. The RNA polymers associated transiently with initiation –factorand termination-factor to
initiate and terminate the transcription respectively.
30. The RNA polymerase I transcribes rRNAs (28S,18S,8S), where as the RNA polymerase III
is responsible for transcription tRNA, 5 srRNA and snRNAs (small nuclear RNAs )
31. The RNA polymerase II transcribes precursor of mRNA , the Heterogeneous nuclear RNA
(hnRNA)
32. Splicing- The primary transcripts contain both exons and introns and are non- functional, so
it is subjected to a process called splicing where the introns are removed and exons are
joined in a defined order.
33. Capping-An unusual nucleotide (methyl guanosine triphosphate )is added to the 51 – end of
hnRNA
34. Tailing– Adenylate residues (200-300) are added at 31 –end in a template independent
manner
35. The process of splicing represents the dominance of RNA-world
36. One codon codes for only one amino acid, hence it is unambiguous and specific
37. Same amino acids coded by more than one coden, hence the code is degenerate
38. AUG has dual functions. It codes for methionine (met),and it also acts as initiator codon
39. Sickle cell anemia – point mutation where change of single base pair in the gene for beta
globin chain that results in change of amino acid residue glutamate to valine which results in
sickle cell anemia
40. Frame-shift insertion or deletion mutations – Insertion or deletion of three or its multiple
bases insert or delete one or multiple codon hence one or multiple amino acids, and reading
frame remains unaltered from that point onwards
41. The tRNA has an anticodon loop that has bases complementary to the code, and it also has
an amino acid accepter end to which it binds amino acids
42. Initiator tRNA – specific tRNA for initiation
43. Translation – process of polymerisation of amino acids to form a polypeptide
44. Charging of tRNAor aminoacylation of tRNA- The process in which amino acids are
activated in the presence of ATP and linked to their cognate tRNA
45. Untranslated regions (UTR) – An mRNA also has some additional sequences that are not
translated and are referred to as untranslated regions
46. Release factor – it binds to the stop codon, terminating translation and releasing the
complete the polypeptide from the ribosome.
47. Regulation- Regulation of gene expression refers to a very broad term that may occur at
various levels. In eukaryotes, the regulation could be exerted at
i) Transcriptional level ( formation of primary transcript)
ii) Processing level (regulation of splicing )
iii) Transport of mRNA from nucleus to the cytoplasm
iv) Translational level
48. Operators – The accessibility of promoter regions of prokaryotic DNA is in many cases
regulated by the interaction of proteins with sequences termed operators.
49. Operon – In Lac operon, a polycistronic structural gene is regulated by a common promoter
& regulatory genes such arrangement is very common in bacteria, & is referred to as operon
50. Inducer – Lactose is the substrate for the enzyme beta-galactosidase and it regulates
switching on & off of the operon. Hence, it is termed as inducer.
51. Negative regulation- Regulation of lac operon by repressor is referred to as negative
regulation.
52. Human genome project– The mega project which was closely associated with the rapid
development of a new area in biology called bioinformatics
53. Expressed sequence tags (ESTs)- An approach focused on identifying all the genes that are
expressed as RNA.
54. Sequence annotation- A blind approach of simply sequencing the whole set of genome that
contained all the coding & non-coding sequence, & later assigning different regions in the
sequence with functions.
55. BAC & YAC- The DNA fragments were closed in suitable host using specialisedvectors.
The commonly used hosts were bacteria and yeast, & the vectors were called as BAC
(bacterial artificial chromosomes), & YAC (yeast artificial chromosomes).
56. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs)- scientists have identified about 1.4 million
locations where single base DNA differences (SNPs) occur in humans
57. Repetitive DNAis a sequence with small stretch of DNA repeated many times
58. Satellite DNA- the bulk DNA forms a major peak and the other small peaks are referred to
as satellite DNA
59. DNA polymorphism- If an inheritable mutation is observed in a population at high
frequency, it is referred to as DNA polymorphism.
60. Variable numbers of Tandem Repeats (VNTR) - In DNA finger printing Alec Jeffreys
used a satellite as probe that shows very high degree of polymorphism.It was called as
variable number of Tandem Repeats.

EVOLUTION
Origin of Life:
 Biopoiesis – Origin of life
 Universe is believed to have originated about 15 billion years ago through – Big bang –
Lemaitre
 Galaxy gave rise to large cold, clouds of dust and gas called Nebulae
 Earth originated 4.6 billion years ago
 Theory of Autobio genesis / spoutaneous generation Plato and Aristotle
 Farther Saurez – Like other theologists strog believer in the theory of special creation
 Franscesco Redi-first to propose biogenesis
 Dollo’s law – Evolution is irreversible
 Louis Pasteur confirmed biogenesis theory
  Louis Pasteur’s empirical results were summarizied in the pharse “Omne vivum exvivo”
(Latin) all life is from life
 Louis Pasteur by Swan neck flask experiment demonstrated that life comes only from pre
– existing life.
 Oparin & Haldane prepared that the first form of life could have come from pre-existing
non-living organic molecules.
 Formation of life was preceeded by chemical evolution.
 S.L.Mller created similar conditions in a laboratory, electric discharge in a closed flask
containing CH4, H2, NH3 and water vapour at 8000C. He observed formation of
aminoacids.
Evidences of Evolution:
 Evolution (term by Herbert Spencer 1856) is a slow continuous, irreversible and natural
process of change to give rise to advance and diverse forms of life
 Term comes from ‘revolvere’ that means to unfold of unroll, as life is process of “going
on”.
 From bacteria to man and from diatoms to trees there are wide differences yet they share
some common features.
 The change in the properties of population through generations is the biological or
organic evolution.
 Darwin(1859) defined it as the “descent with modification”.
 Dobzhansky (1973) said “nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of
evolution”.

EVIDENCES FROM TAXONOMY

 Classification of animals both extant and extinct is based upon their natural similarities
and dissimilarities which establish their genealogical relationship and common ancestry.
 A genealogical tree was first drawn by Lamarck (1809)

EVIDENCE FROM CONNNECTING LINK

Many animals present a clear example to connect two phyla by their features hence
provide evidence for the rise of one phylum from another
Connecting link
(i) Virus
(ii) Blue green algae
(iii) Euglena
(iv) Mastigamoeba
(v) Slime moulds
(vi) Dicyema )Mesozoa)
(vii) Ctenophores
(viii) Flat worms
(ix) Neopilina
(x) Peripatus
(xi) Chimaera
(xii) Latimeria
(xiii) Archaeopteryx
(xiv) Prototherian
(Monotremes)
Between
Living and non living
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes (algae)
Plants and Animals
Rhizopoda and Flagellata
Protists and Fungi
Protozoans and Sponges
Radiata and Bilateria
Diploblastic and Triploblastic animals
Annelida and Mollusca
Annelida and Arthropoda
Osteichthyes and Chondrichthyes
Fishes and Amphibia;
(Crossopterygian) & Dipnoi(lung fishes)
Reptiles and Birds
Reptiles and Mammal

EVIDENCES FROM PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY

Biochemical similarity
 The nitrogen bases, the nucleotides, are the same for all organisms, only the length and
sequence may vary.
 Metabolic process of cell are same in all organism.
E.g : glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle, oxidative phosphorylation and others.
 Trypsin, the oldest known enzyme (ancestral enzyme) is found in all animals from
Protozoa to Primates.
Homology (term by Richard Owen 1804 – 1892) :
Organs having same origin with similar or different function
Eg. Heart and brain of vertebrates (fish to mammal) have same origin and basic structural
plan but have changed in the course of evolution. Hand of man, wing of bat, wing of
birds, flipper of whale & forelimb of cow, are originally the forelimb of tetrapod, but for
different functions have become functionally different.
Mouth parts and Leg of insects e.g. cockroach, grasshopper, honey bee, cricket, aquatic
beetle are different in their form and function but have same origin. Leg consists of same
 five segments; coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus in all. Thorns of Bougainvillia
and the tendril of Cucurbita are homologous but functionally different.
Homologous organs provide evidence for divergent evolution
Analogy :
 Organs of different origin but similar form and function are analogous. Eg. Wings of
insect, bat and bird are of different origin but similar function.
 Analogous organs provide evidence for convergent evolution.
Vestigial Organ :
 The organs once functional in ancestral form later become non-functional (or
degenerated)
Vestigeal organs in humans are
Pinna muscle, wisdom teeth, vermiform appendix, coccyx, plica semilunaris (nictitating
membrane) body hair etc. cannies, caecum, nipples in males, panniculus carnosis,
pyramidalis muscles of abdomen.
Atavism (Reversal)
Reappearance of ancestral feature in any individed, Eg. Longer canine in man, tail in
body, hair on face and body (lion boy of Russia), cervical fistula.
EVIDENCES FROM EMBRYOLOGY
 Human embryo pass through all the stages of forms like fishes salamander  reptiles
 birds  other mammals  man.
 Haeckle’s (1866) Biogenetic law (or Recapitulation theory or theory of Paleogenesis)
states “Ontogeny repeats phylogeny”.
EVIDENCES FROM CYTOLOGY AND GENETICS
 Principles and laws of heredity apply to all organisms in same way except some
individual differences.
EVIDENCES FROM PALAEONTOLOGY : (STUDY OF FOSSILS)
 George Cuvier (1800), Father of Modern Paleontology, first to do the scientific study of
fossils.
 Fossil are the remains of the dead body of organism converted into rock and provide most
authentic evidences.
 Sedimentary rocks are the richest source of fossils
 Archaeopteryx and related fossils, are clear evidences for reptilian origin of birds.
 Theories of Evolution
Theories of Evolution
VARIATIONS
 Defined as “dissimilarities of features among members of the same species”. Offsprings
of same parent are different and also differ from their parent.
 Natural selection can act upon genetic variation only when it is expressed in the
phenotype.
1. Somatogenic and Blastogenic Variation
Blastogenic variations are the changes at germinal cell level or in the genotype or gene
patterns, these are inheritable and hence form the basis for evolution.
2. Continuous and Discontinuous Variation
Continuous variations are small, gradual changes
e.g. changes in color, size, shape, body weight etc. The discontinuous variation are the
discrete and sudden, without any intermediate stge or gradiations.
3. Determinate and Indeterminate variation
Determinate variation are adaptive, selective and of definite evolutionary line, also called
as orthogenic variation;
e.g. extra large antlers of Irish Elk and tooth of smedolon
Intermenate variations have no evolutionary line, it is sudden and nondirectional.
ADAPTATION
It is change in body parts as per the need of surrounding, makes basis for evolution.
After various such adaptive changes the new species is evolved
Adaptive Radiation :
When organisms of common origin change in diversified direction to suit the
environment. It is called adaptive radiation (or divergent evolution)
e.g. mouthparts in insects;
Genetic Basis of Adaptation
Dollo’s law : Evolution is irreversible
Cope’s law : In general it has been found that in the course of evolution there is tendency
in the organism to increase in size.
Bergman’s law : In colder regions warm blooded animals are bigger in size as compared to
animals of hotter regions.
Allen’s law : In colder regions the extremities of bodies like pinna, tail, digits are smaller
in size.
Gloger’s Rule : Warm blooded animals in hot, humid area have more melanin pigment but
develop yellow-red-pigment in hot dry areas.

GENETIC DRIFT (OR WRIGHT’S EFFECT)

 Gene frequency in small population, changes purely be chance.
 In small populations genetic drift fixes or preserves certain genes and eliminates the other
genes completely.
Founder Effect : New colony formed in split population by fixing only few genes is called
Founder. After settling in new habitat the phenotype quickly changes from parental type due to
genetic drift forming a new species, this phenomenon is called founder effect.
ISOLATION:
Any factors that tend to break large population in smaller one would promote evolution
and Isolation is one such factor.
NATURAL SELECTION:
 It is initiating force for evolution
 It is the most critical evolutionary process that leads to changes in alletic frequencies.
 Less adaptive alleles are not selected hence their frequency decrease.
Stabilising selection : If both small and large type individuals contribute lesser number of
offsprings than the average size to the population it is stabilizing selection
This reduces variation but does not change the mean value
The rate of evolution is slow
SPECIATION
 Speciation is the formation of new species. A species constitutes one or more population
of similar organism
 Population of a species are similar because they share the same gene pool.
 Gene pool is the total number of different kinds of genes (or alleles) contained by all the
members of a species.
Allopatric speciation : New species arising from a geographically isolated population.
Sympatric speciation : New species arising from a segment of populations of near areas due to
reproductive isolation.
Phyletic speciation : Formation of species by accumulation of variations with passage of time.
Abrupt or Rapid Speciation : Formation of new species very rapidly, polyploidy is one such
genetic process which leads to this kind of speciation.
SPECIES OF CONCEPT
 Various methods have been used to define the species as the basic unit of classification
and to fit it into phylogenetic scheme
 Davis and Heywood defined species as the group of individuals with common
morphological features and separable from other such assembly
MODERN SYNTHETIC THEORY OF EVOLUTION
 It is the synthesis of the ideas of Neo Darwinians as a new theory of evolution based
upon recent findings of genetics and molecular biology. Thus, Neo-Darwinism has
emerged as the mathematically based Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution designated
by Huxley (1942)
 Muller, Dobzhansky, Fisher and Wright are also the main contributors
 First is gene mutation, second is chromosomal changes and 3rd is genetic recombination
to cause genetic variability. These changes are then acted upon by natural selection and
reproductive isolation which guide the population into adaptive channels.
HUMAN EVOLUTION
Evolution of Early Prosimians
 The Ancestral home of primates (not man) was the present continent of Asia, from where
they migrated to three continent (South Asia, Africa and South America), due to
increasing northern cold. In the order primates, man belongs to the suborder
Anthropoidea, which includes monkey apes and man (Catarrhines). The other group of
primates is prosimii, and it is believed that the earliest coenozoic prosimians including
tree shrews, lemurs, Ioris and tarsiers gave rise to the higher primates including man.
HOMINOIDS
 The hominoids include the apes and humans.
 Apes : The earliest and primitive ape lived about 40 million years ago (Oligocene) and is
known as Parapithecus.
 Another fossil Proliopithecus was found in Egypt and of early Oligocene (38 to 25
million years ago) times.
The Hominids
 Humans and their close ancestors are called hominids. The first hominids probably
emerged between 6-4 million years ago during the late minocene or early Pliocene.
 i)Bipedalism (ii) Omnivorous feeding behavior (iii) Further brain expansion and
reorganization.
Man’s place Among Mammals
 Order primate including man, great apes, monkeys, Ioris, lemurs and tarsiers originated
about 65 million years ago cretaceous period.
  The anthropoid apes (ancestors of monkeys, apes and man) originated about 36 million
years ago from Oligocene to Miocene epochs.
 The hominids (ancestors of apes and man) evolved about 24 million years ago. Evolution
of hominids took placed in Asia and Africa.
 Darwin (1871) put forwarded the theory of evolution of man from ape-like ancestors in
his book Descent of man and selection in relation to sex.
 Carolus Linnaous named as Homo sapiens as wise man and placed them with apes and
monkeys.
 In 1863 T.H. Huxley first tried to explain origin of humans in his book “Man’s place in
Nature”.
CHROMOSOMES AND MOLECULAR HOMOLOGY
 Apes POSSESS 48 Chromosomes where as humans possess 46 chromosomes.
 Bonding patterns of many chromosomes are same in humans and apes.
 AB blood groups is found both in apes and man.
 LuckerhandI in 1963 proposed that hemoglobin of human and gorilla differ in only one
amino acid is each of the two types of polypeptides.
Propliopithecus or Pre-Man Ancestor
 Found in Egypt about 35 million years old from Oligocene period.
 It had characters of man and apes.
First known ape.

Dryopithecus/Proconsul
 In India obtained from Sivaliks and Bilaspur (HP)
Common ancestor of man and apes or a direct fore runner of man. Common species is D.
africanus.
Rampithecus / kenyapithecus (Fore runner of hominid stock)
 It was earliest man like Primate
 Probably bipedal locomotion
 Ramapithecus represents the first man-like primate.
Australopithecus (Primitive man or ape man)
 Australopithecus afticannus (Tuang baby) was discovered by Raymond Dart (1924) with
cranial capacity about 450-550 cc and bipedal locomotion and omnivorous, face was
prognathus but man like characters like lumber curve, broadbasin pelvic, parabolic
dentation.
Homo habilis (Early true man or the tool maker)
 Evolved about 2 million years ago during early Pleistocene period
 Fossil discovered by Leaky (1960-1964) from East Africa
 He led community life in caves and greatly cared for the young.
Homo erectus
 They walked erect over long legs, prognathus face, used stone and bone tools, fire and
some primitive type of speech had developed.
Sapiens
 It evolved from homo erectus in Africa during late Pleistocene man. There was a second
spurt in brain size.
Homo sapiens neanderthalensis (Neanderthal man)
 This resembled modern man, cranial capacity 1400-1450 c.c.
 Made beautiful tools for hunting, used animal hides as clothing built hut like structures,
lived social life, division of labour, buried their dead.
Homo sapiens fossilis (Cro-Magnon man)
 It is believed that Cro-Magnon man is direct descendent of Neanderthal man
 They were cave dweller, hunter with domesticated dogs, did some excellent cave
paintings, used ivory ornaments and animals skin garments.

PERIODS OF CULTURAL EVOLUTION AND MODERN MAN

Paleolithic period : Stone age. Age of tools of stones and bones, cave paintings.
Mesolithic period : Age of domestication of animals and learning reading and writing develop
language.
Neolithic period : Age of agriculture and manufacture of pottery, clothers and this period further
sub-divided into following ages:
Bronze age (ancient age)
Iron age (modern age)
 Chapter-8
Human health and disease
Blood circulation was discovered by William Harvey
Health: A state of complete physical, mental, physiological, emotional and social well-being
not the absence of disease or infirmity.
Genetic disorders or infections or life style are the factors that influence the health.
Disease: A disease is an abnormal condition that affects the body of an organism. It is often
construed as a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs.
Infectious diseases/ transmissible diseases / communicable diseases: comprise clinically
evident illness resulting from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic biological
agents in an individual host organism.
Non-communicable disease / NCD: It is a medical condition or disease which is non-
infectious and non-transmissible among people. NCDs may be chronic diseases of long duration
and slow progression, or they may result in more rapid death such as some types of sudden
stroke.
Pathogen / infectious agent : it is a microorganism—in the widest sense, such as
a virus, bacterium, protozoan, nematode, worm, prion, or fungus—that causes disease in its
host.
Host: It may be an animal (including humans), a plant, or even another microorganism.
Popular Diseases of Humans, parasites and location details

Disease Pathogen Type Location

Typhoid Salmonella typhi Bacteria Intestine

Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumonia Bacteria Respiratory tract

Haemophilusinflenzae

Malaria Plasmodium vivax Protozoan Liver-RBC

Amoebiasis Entomoebahistolytica Protozoan Large intestine

(Amoebic
dysentery)

Ascariasis Ascarislumbricoides Nematode Intestine

Filariasis Filariabancrofti Nematode Lymphoid tissues

(Elephantiasis) Wuchereriabancrofti

Plague Yersinia pestis Bacteria Intestine

Diphtheria Corynebacteriumdipththeriae Bacteria Skin/Mucous
membrane

AIDS HIV Virus -

Ringworms Microsporum, Trichophytin and Fungi Skin

Epidermophyton species

Hemozoin/malaria pigment: Malaria parasites digest hemoglobin and release high quantities of
free heme, which is the non-protein component of hemoglobin. Free heme is toxic to cells, so the
parasites convert it into an insoluble crystalline form called hemozoin.
Immunity: the ability of the host to fight the disease causing organisms. Or Defenses to
avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion.
Innate immunity or nonspecific immunity: It is the natural resistances with which a person is
born. It provides resistances through several physical, chemical and cellular approaches.
Microbes first encounter the epithelial layers, physical barriers that line skin and mucous
membranes.
Adaptive/ Acquired/Active immunity: A type of immunity or resistance developed in
an organism by its own production of antibodies in response to an exposure to an antigen,
a pathogen or to a vaccine.It is often sub-divided into two major types depending on how the
immunity was introduced. Naturally acquired immunity occurs through contact with a disease
causing agent, when the contact was not deliberate, whereas artificially acquired
immunity develops only through deliberate actions such as vaccination.
Passive immunity:It is the transfer of active immunity, in the form of readymade antibodies,
from one individual to another. Passive immunity can occur naturally, when maternal antibodies
are transferred to the fetus through the placenta, and can also be induced artificially, when high
levels ofhuman (or horse) antibodies specific for a pathogen or toxin are transferred to non-
immune individuals.
PMNL:Polymorph nuclear leukocytes
Natural killer cells- Type of lymphocytes.
Interferons (IFNs) are proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence
of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, parasites or tumor cells they migrate to the neighbouring
cells and stops the synthesis of proteins required for viral/parasite/ tumour multiplication.
Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material (a vaccine) to stimulate an individual's
immune system to develop adaptive immunity to a pathogen.Generically, the process of artificial
induction of immunity, in an effort to protect against infectious disease, works by 'priming'
the immune system with an 'immunogen'. Stimulating immune responses with an infectious
agent is known as immunization.
Allergy:An allergy is a hypersensitivity disorder of the immune system. Mild allergies like hay
fever are very common in the human population and cause symptoms such as red eyes, itchiness,
and runny nose, eczema, hives, or an asthma attack.
Inflammation:Inflammation is the body's attempt at self-protection; the aim being to remove
harmful stimuli, including damaged cells, irritants, or pathogens - and begin the healing process.
Autoimmunity is the failure of an organism in recognizing its own constituent parts as self,
which allows an immune response against its own cells and tissues. Any disease that results from
such an aberrant immune response is termed an autoimmune disease.
Mucous associated lymphoid tissues (MALT): is the diffusion system of small concentrations
of lymphoid tissue found in various sites of the body, such as the gastrointestinal
tract, thyroid, breast, lung, salivary glands, eye, and skin. It forms 50 % of the total lymphoid
tissue of the body
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease of the human immune
system caused by infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). During the initial
infection, a person may experience a brief period of influenza-like illness. This is typically
followed by a prolonged period without symptoms.
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is a test that uses antibodies and color change
to identify a substance.
A retrovirus is an RNA virus that replicates in a host cell through the process of reverse
transcription.
Cancer known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a broad group of various diseases, all
involving unregulated cell growth. In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming
malignant tumors, and invade nearby parts of the body.
A tumor is a solid or fluid-filled [cystic] lesion that may or may not be formed by an abnormal
growth of neoplastic cells that appears enlarged in size.
Metastasis is the spread of cancer to other locations in the body.
A benign tumor is a mass of cells (tumor) that lacks the ability to invade neighboring tissue
or metastasize. The benign tumors are non-cancerous.
A malignant tumor (cancerous tumor) is one that is invasive and can spread to other parts of the
body.
An oncovirus (tumor virus or cancer virus) is a virus that can cause cancer. The vast majority of
human and animal viruses do not cause cancer.
Substance abuse/ drug abuse, is a patterned use of a substance (drug) in which the user
consumes the substance in amounts or with methods neither approved nor advised by medical
professionals.
Substance dependence/ drug addiction, is a compulsive need to use drugs in order to function
normally. When such substances are unobtainable, the user suffers from withdrawal.
Cirrhosis is a consequence of chronic liver disease characterized by replacement of
liver tissue by fibrosis, scar tissue and regenerative nodules leading to loss of liver function.
Cirrhosis is most commonly caused by alcoholism, hepatitis B and hepatitis C, and fatty liver
disease, but has many other possible causes.

CHAPTER-15
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
1. Biodiversity: the term biodiversity refers to the totality of genes, species, and ecosystems
of a region.
2. Types of biodiversity described by Edward Wilson:
3. Genetic diversity: A single species might show high diversity at the genetic level over
its distributional range.
4. Medicinal plant Rauwolfia vomitoria of Himalayan range produces active
chemical reserpine shows genetic variation.
5. India has more than 50000 different strain of rice.1000 varieties of mango.
6. Species diversity: different species of a single animal like frog.
7. Ecological diversity: diversity in the ecosystem level like desert, rain forest, mangroves,
coral reef, wetlands, estuaries etc
8. According to IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature)(2004), 1.5
million of plants and animals are in our biosphere.
9. Robert May places global species diversity at about 7 millions.
10. More than 70 percent of all the species recorded are animals.
11. All plants constitute about 22 percent.
12. Among animals insects constitute 70 percent.
13. India has only 2.4 percent of the world’s land area; its share of global species diversity is
impressive 8.1 percent.
14. India is considered one of the mega diversity countries of the world.
Pattern of Biodiversity:
Latitudinal gradients:
15. Species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator towards the pole.
17. Tropic (23.5o N to 23.5o S) harbors more species than temperate and pole
18. The largely tropical Amazonian rain forest in South America has the greatest biodiversity
on earth: 40,000 species of plants, 3000 species of fishes, 1300 of birds, 427 amphibians,
378 reptiles, More than 1, 25,000 invertebrates.
Why tropical rain forest has greater biodiversity:
19. Unlike temperate regions subjected to frequent glaciations in the past, tropical latitudes
have remained relatively undisturbed for millions of years and thus, had a long
evolutionary time for species diversification.
 20. Tropical environments. Unlike temperate ones, are less seasonal, relatively more constant
and predictable, promotes niche specialization and lead to greater species diversity.
21. There is more solar energy available in the tropics, which contribute to higher
productivity.
Species area relationship:
22. ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT observed within a region species richness incre
ased with increasing explored area but only up to a limit.
23. The relation between species richness and area for a wide variety of taxa turns out to be a
rectangular hyperbola.
24. On a logarithmic scale the relationship is a straight line describe by the equation LogS =
logC +Z log A
Where S= species richness, A = Area, Z = slope of the line (regression coefficient),
C = Y- intercept.
25. It has been noted that regardless of the taxonomic group or region the slope of the
regression line are amazingly
similar. However, for a very large area like the entire continent the slope of the l
ine is steeper.
Importance of species diversity to the Ecosystem:
26. Community with more species generally tends to be more stable than those with less
species.
27. A stable community should not show too much variation in productivity from year to
year; it must be resistant or resilient to occasional disturbances (natural or man-made)
28. Stable community must be resistant to invasion by alien species.
29. David Tillman’s long-term field experiment finds that:
a. Plots with more species showed less year to year variation in biomass
b. Increased diversity contributed to higher productivity.

30. The rivet popper hypothesis:

a. In an airplane (ecosystem) all parts are joined together by thousands of
rivets (species).
b. If every passenger starts popping a rivet to take home (species extinct), it
may not affect flight safety initially but as more and more rivets are
removed the plane becomes dangerously weak.
c. Further more which rivet is removed may also be critical.
d. Loss of rivets on the wings (key species) is obviously a more serious
threat to flight safety than loss of a few rivets on the seats or windows
inside the plane.
Loss of Biodiversity:
31. The IUCN Red List (2004) documents the extinction of 784 species.
32. Recent extinction includes:
a. Dodo (Mauritius).
b. Quake (Africa)
c. Thylacine (Australia)
d. Stiller’s cow (Russia)
e. Three subspecies of tiger (Bali, Java, Caspian).
33. Since the origin and diversification of life on earth there were five episodes of mass
extinction of species.The sixth mass Extinctions in progress now.
How the’ sixth Extinction’ is different from the previous five extinctions.
34. The current extinction rate is 100 to 1000 times faster.
35. All others are pre-human period, this one is anthropogenic.
Effect of biodiversity loss:
36. Decline in plant production.
37. Lowered resistance to environmental perturbations such as drought.
38. Increased variability in certain ecosystem processes such as plant productivity, water use,
and pest and disease cycle.
Causes of biodiversity loss:
39. The present loss is all due to human activity (anthropogenic)
40. There are four major causes “The Evil Quartet” are as follows:
Habitat loss and fragmentation:
41. The Amazonian rain forest is called as ‘lungs of the planet ‘is being cut cleared for
cultivating soya beans.
42. Degradation of many habitat by pollution is also threatens the loss of diversity.
43. Large areas are broken into figments also the cause of diversity loss.
Over-exploitation:
44. When ‘need’ turns to ‘greed’ it leads to over-exploitation of natural resources.
45. Many species extinctions in the last 500 years (Stiller’s cow, passenger pigeons) were
due to over-exploitation.
Alien species invasion:
46. The alien species became invasive and cause decline or extinction of indigenous species.
47. Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east Africa led to extinction of 200 species
of cichlid fish in the lake.
 48. Parthenium, (carrot grass), Lantana, and water hyacinth (Eichornia) posed a thread to
indigenous species.
49. African cat fish Clarias gariepinus for aquaculture purposed is posing a threat to
indigenous catfishes in our rivers.
Co-extinction:
50. When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it an
obligatory way also become extinct.
51. Extinction of Host species leads to extinction of the parasite also.
52. Co-evolved plant-pollinator mutualism where extinction of one invariably lead to the
extinction of the other.
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION:
53. Why should we conserve Biodiversity?
Reason for conservation biodiversity is grouped into three categories.
 Narrowly utilitarian.
 Broadly utilitarian
 Ethical
Narrowly utilitarian: Human derive countless direct economic benefits from nature-
54. Food (cereals, pulses, fruits), firewood, fiber, construction material.
55. Industrial products (tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes)
56. Products of medicinal importance.
57. Bioprospecting: exploring molecular genetic and species-level diversity for products of
economic importance.
Broadly Utilitarian
58. Amazonian forest along produce 20% of oxygen during photosynthesis.
59. Pollinator layer: bees, bumblebees, birds and bat that pollinate the plant without which
seed cannot be produced by plants.
60. Aesthetic pleasure we get from the biodiversity.
How do we conserve biodiversity?
In situ conservation:
61. When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all level is
protected – we save the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach is called in situ (on
site) conservation.
62. Biodiversity hot spot: regions with very high levels of species richness and high degree
of endemism.(species confined to that region and not found anywhere else)
63. Hot spot in biodiversity is also regions of accelerated habitat loss.
 64. Out of 34 hot spot in the world, three hot spot located in India:
a. Western Ghats and Srilanka.
b. Indo-Burma.
c. Himalaya.
65. Other protected area under in situ conservations are:
a. 14 biosphere reserve
b. 90 national park
c. 448 wild life sanctuary
66. Sacred groves: tract of forest were set aside, and all the trees and wildlife within were
venerated and given total protection.
Ex situ conservation:
67. Threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat and placed in
special setting where they can be protected and given special care.
 Zoological Park.
 Botanical garden
 Wildlife safari.
 Conservation of gamete by cryopreservation.
 Genetic strains are preserved in seed bank.
Convention on Biodiversity:
68. “The earth Summit” held in Rio de Jeneiro in 1992 called upon all nations to take
appropriate measures for conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilization of its
benefits.
World Summit on Sustainable development held in 2002 in Johannesburg, South Africa, 190
countries pledged their commitment to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction in the current rate
of biodiversity loss at global, regional and local level.
 CHAPTER- 16
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
1. Pollution: is any undesirable changed in physical chemical or biological characteristics
of air, land, water or soil.
2. Pollutant: Any solid, liquid or gas released into the environment in such a huge
quantities that make our environment unhealthy is called pollutant.
3. Environment (protection) Act, 1986 to protect and improve the quality of our
environment (air, water and soil)
AIR POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL:
Effect of air pollution:
4. Cause injury to all living organisms, Reduce growth and yield of crops, Cause premature
death of plants. Affects the respiratory system of human being.
5. Particulate size 2.5 micrometers or less are responsible for breathing and respiratory
symptoms like irritation, inflammations and damage to the lungs and premature death.
6. Pollution caused by thermal power plant and smelts:
 These plants release particulate matter and gaseous air pollutant.
 A harmless gas released by these plants is Nitrogen and Oxygen.
Prevention of air pollution: ways to remove particulate matter:
7. Electrostatic precipitator are widely using to remove particulate matter in the exhaust
from a thermal power plant.
8. Scrubber:
o Removes gases like sulphur dioxide.
o The exhaust is passed through a spray of water or lime.
9. Methods to reduce vehicular pollution: Use of lead free petrol or diesel can reduce
vehicular pollution.
Catalytic converter:
10. Having expensive metals namely platinum, palladium and rhodium as the catalyst. These
metals reduce emission of poisonous gases.
11. The unburnt hydrocarbons are converted into CO2 and H2O.Carbon
monoxide and nitric oxide are changed to carbon dioxide and nitrogen
gas respectively.
12. Motor vehicle equipped with catalytic converter should use unleaded petrol because
lead in the petrol inactivates the catalyst.
Controlling Vehicular pollution: A case study of Delhi:
 Use of CNG (compressed natural gas):
13. Advantages of CNG: CNG burns most efficiently, Very little remain unburnt, Cannot be
siphoned, Cannot be adulterated like petrol or diesel, CNG is cheaper than petrol and
diesel.
14. Problem of use of CNG: Difficulty in laying down pipelines to deliver CNG, Non-
assurance of uninterrupted supply.
15. Other parallel steps taken in Delhi: Phasing out old vehicles, Use of unleaded petrol,
Use of low-sulphur petrol and diesel, Use of catalytic converter in vehicle, Application of
strict pollution level norms for vehicle.
16. New auto fuel policy to cut down vehicular pollution: Steadily reducing the sulphur
and aromatic content in petrol and diesel fuels.
17. Euro-II norms
o Sulphur reduced to 350 ppm in diesel.
o Sulphur reduced to 150 ppm in petrol
o Aromatic hydrocarbon to be reduced to 42 %.
o Up gradation of vehicle engines.
18. Due to above steps taken by Delhi Govt. there is substantial fall in CO2 and
SO2 level between 1997 and 2005.

NOISE POLLUTION: Undesirable high level of sound is called noise pollution.

Harm full effect of noise pollution:
19. Psychological and physiological disorder in humans. High sound level, 150dB or more
may damage ear drums.
20. Noise causes sleeplessness, Increased heart rate, Altered breathing pattern.
Prevention of Noise Pollution:
21. Use of sound absorbent materials or by muffling noise in industries, Demarcation of
horn free zones around hospitals and schools.
22. Permissible sound levels of crackers, Timings after which Loudspeakers cannot be
played
WATER POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL:
Domestic sewage and industrial effluents:
23. A mere 0.1 percent impurities make domestic sewage unfit for human use
24. The amount of organic matter in water is estimated by BOD.
25. Biochemical oxygen demand: the amount of Oxygen required oxidizing all organic
matter present in one liter of water.
 26. Due to low dissolved oxygen there is mortality of fish and other aquatic animals.
27. Presence of large amount of nutrients in water also causes excessive growth
of Planktonic (free floating) algae, called algal bloom.
28. The world’s most problematic aquatic weed is water hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes) called ‘Terror of Bengal’.
29. Sewage associated with diseases: Discharge of such sewage without proper treatment
causes diseases like dysentery, typhoid, jaundice, cholera etc.
30. Toxic heavy metals (defined as elements with density > 5g/cm3), released from:-
Petroleum industry, Paper manufacturing, Metal extraction and processing, Chemical
manufacturing industries.
31. Biomagnifications: increase in concentration of the toxicant at successive trophic level is
called biological magnification or biomagnifications.
o This phenomenon is well known for mercury and DDT.
32. Bio magnification of DDT in Aquatic food chain.

33. Eutrophication: The process of nutrient enrichment of water and consequent loss of
species diversity is referred to as Eutrophication.
34. Cultural or Accelerated Eutrophication:Pollutants from man’s activities like effluents
from the industries and homes can radically accelerate the aging process. This
phenomenon is called Cultural or Accelerated Eutrophication.
Thermal pollution:
35. Cause:Heated (thermal) waste waters flowing out of electricity-generating units. E.g.
thermal power plants.
36. ‘EcoSan’ toilets are being used in Kerala and Srilanka.
SOLID WASTES: Solid wastes refer to everything that goes out in t
37. Sanitary landfills were adopted as substitute for open-burning dumps.
38. Sanitary landfills: Wastes are dumped in a depression or trench after compaction and
covered with dirt every day.
39. Solution to solid wastes: All solid wastes are categorized into thee types: Bio-
degradable, Recyclable, Non-biodegradable.
40. Polyblend, a fine powder of recycled modified plastic, was developed by Ahmed
Khan’s company. Polyblend is mixed with bitumen that is used to lay roads.
41. It increases the water repelling property of bitumen, and helped to increase road life by a
factor of three. The raw material used for polyblend is plastic film waste.
42. The use of incinerators is crucial to disposal of hospital wastes.
Electronic wastes (e-wastes):
43. Irreparable computers and other electronic goods are known as electronic wastes (e-
wastes).E- Wastes are buried in landfills or incinerated. Recycling is the only solution for
the treatment of e-wastes.
AGRO-CHEMICAL AND THEIR EFFECTS:
44. Use of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides has increased manifold for enhancing crop
production. Increasing amounts of artificial fertilizers causes eutrophication.
RADIOACTIVE WASTES:
45. Accidental leakage of radioactive wastes, as occurred in Three Mile Island and
Chernobyl.
46. Radiation from radioactive waste causes mutation at very high rate.
47. High dose of nuclear radiation is lethal, but lower doses create genetic disorders and also
cause cancer.
Disposal of nuclear wastes:
48. Storage of nuclear waste, after sufficient pre-treatment, should be done in suitably
shielded containers buried within the rocks about 500 m deep below the earth’s surface.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING:
49. The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon that is responsible for heating
of Earth’s surface and atmosphere.
50. Clouds and gases reflect about one-fourth of the incoming solar radiation and absorb
some of it but half of incoming solar radiation falls on Earth’s surface heating it, while a
small portion is reflected back.
51. Earth’s surface re-emits heat in the form of infrared radiation but some part of this does
not escape into space because of atmospheric gases (e.g. carbon dioxide, methane etc).
52. The molecule of these gases radiate heat energy and a major part of which again comes to
Earth’s surface, thus heating it up once again.
53. Carbon dioxide and methane – are commonly called as greenhouse gases because they
are responsible for greenhouse effect.
54. Increase in the level of greenhouse gases has led to considerable heating of Earth leading
to global warming or enhanced green house effect.
o
55. During the past century, the temperature of Earth has increased by 0.6 C.
Effect of global warming:
56. Deleterious changes in the environment and resulting in odd climatic changes (e.g. El
Nino effect).
57. Increased melting of polar ice caps as well as of other places like the Himalayan snow
caps.
58. Rise in sea level that can submerge many coastal areas.
Control of global warming:
59. Reduce use of fossil fuel, improving efficiency of energy usage, Reducing deforestation.
60. Promoting a forestation programe, slowing down growth of human population,
International initiative to be taken to reduce emission of green house gases.
OZONE DEPLETION IN THE STRATOSPHERE:
61. The thickness of ozone layer is measured in terms of Dobson units (DU)
Ozone depletion:
62. Balance of ozone in stratosphere is disrupted due to enhancement of ozone degradation
by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), CFCs find wide use as refrigerants.
63. In stratosphere, UV rays acts on CFCs and release active Cl atoms.
64. Cl degrades ozone releasing molecular oxygen. Cl acts as catalysts and not consumed
during reaction.
65. Whatever CFCs are added to the stratosphere, they have permanent and continuing
affects one Ozone levels.
66. The depletion is marked particularly over the Antarctic region. This has resulted in
formation of a large area of thinned ozone layer, commonly called as the ozone hole.
Effects of UV rays:
67. DNA and proteins of living organisms are damaged by UV rays as they potentially
absorb it. UV – B damages DNA and mutation may occur.
68. It causes ageing of skin, Damage skin cells and causes skin cancers.
69. In human eye cornea absorb UV – B radiation and high dose of UV – B causes
inflammation of cornea called snow-blindness, cataract etc. Such exposes may damage
cornea.
Prevention:
70. Montreal Protocol was signed at Montreal (Canada) in 1987 to control emission of
ozone depleting substances.
DEGRADATION BY IMPROPER RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND MAINTENANCE:
71. Soil erosion : The removal of top fertile layer due to human activities
72. Reasons: - Over cultivation, Unrestricted grazing, Deforestation , Poor irrigation
practices
73. Deforestation: Conversion of forested areas to non-forested one.Slash and burn
agriculture/jhum cultivation
74. Effects of deforestation : Leads to global warming due to excess carbon-dioxide , Loss
of biodiversity, Damage to hydrological cycle , Leads to soil erosion m Desertification of
land
75. Reforestation :Restoring forest that was existing earlier
E.g. Observing Van-Mahotsavas
A case study of people‘s participation in forest conservation
76. A king of Jodhpur wanted to arrange wood for his new palace in 1731.
77. Few Bishnois hugged the trees and asked to cut them first rather than cutting trees. 365
persons lost their lives in this act ,A small temple is now present there in remembrance of
this act
78. Amrita Devi Bishnois Wild Life Protection Award is instituted for individuals of rural
areas who take keen interest in protecting wild life.
79. Chipko movement
80. It was started by local women of Garhwali; they hugged the trees to protect them from
the axes of contractors.
81. Joint forest management (JFM)
82. Strategy Government of India in 1980
83. Local communities worked with the government to save the forest.
CPCB: Central Pollution Control Board
BOD: Biological Oxygen Demand
CNG: Compressed Natural Gas
FOAM: Friends of Arcata Marsh
JFM: Joint Forest Management.