Human Anatomy and Physiology with Iodine Trace

Pathophysiology (HAPP111)

Chapter 2: The Chemical Basis of Life 5. Atom – smallest particle of an element that has
the chemical characteristic of that element
2.1 Basic Chemistry (e.g. carbon is composed only of carbon
atoms)
Chemistry Contains Nucleus (a dense inner core)
 Scientific discipline 3 Subatomic Particles
1. Protons – positively charged
 Concerned with atomic composition and
particles
structure of substances and reactions they
2. Electrons – negatively charged,
undergo
surround the nucleus
3. Neutrons – no electrical charge

Atomic number = number of protons

Atomic mass = number of protons + neutrons
Chemicals make interactions of
Body's Atom
up of the body's chemicals with
one another Functions
structures

Some Basic Chemical Terms

1. Matter – anything that occupies space and has
mass
2. Mass (kg) – the amount of matter in an object
3. Weight – the gravitational force acting on an
object of a given mass
4. Elements – fundamental substance composing
of matter
- Simplest type of matter having
unique chemical properties
Common Elements in the Human Body (% in Human
Body Weight) 6. Molecule – combination of 2 or more atoms of
Hydrogen 9.5 the same element held together by chemical
Carbon 18.5 bonds
Nitrogen 3.3 7. Compound – 2 or more atoms of different
Oxygen 65 elements bound together
Sodium 0.2 8. Mixtures – substance composed of 2 or more
Phosphorus 1.0 compounds physically intermixed together
Sulfur 0.3 3 Types:
Chlorine 0.2 1. Solution
Potassium 0.4 2. Colloids
Calcium 1.5 3. Suspension
Iron Trace
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 Covalent Bonding
3 Types of Mixtures  Single Covalent Bond
- 2 atoms share 1 pair of electrons
1. Solution – homogenous mixture of 2 or more
- (e.g. H – H)
components. Composed of the solute and solvent
 Double Covalent Bond
Solute – substance present in smaller
- 2 atoms share 2 pairs of electrons
amount
- (e.g. O=C=O, 2 double covalent
Solvent – substance present in greatest
bonds)
quantity
2. Colloids – heterogenous mixture that appear
milky or translucent (e.g. gelatin, cytosol)
3. Suspension – heterogenous mixture with large Polar Covalent Bond Nonpolar Covalent
often visible solutes (e.g. blood) Bond
Unequal, asymmetrical Equal, symmetrical
sharing of electrons sharing of electrons
Molecule having a partial
9. Ions – charged particles electrical charge opposite
Cations – positively charged (e.g. Ca2+, to that of the other end
Na+ electron is lost) e.g. water molecule e.g. methane (CH4)
Anions – negatively charged (e.g. Cl- , (H2O)
I-, gain of electron)
Electrolytes – ions dissolved in solution
Hydrogen Bond
10. Bonds – union of 2 or more atoms - Positive “end” and negative “end”
of a polar molecule
Types of Bonds: - Weak attraction to another polar
A. Ionic Bond molecule
B. Covalent Bond - Not a chemical bond (electrons not
C. Hydrogen Bond transferred or shared)

 Ionic Bond 2.2 Chemical Reactions

- Transfer of electrons
- Formation or breaking of chemical
- Metal + Non – Metal
bonds
- Oppositely charged ion attraction
- Electrons are completely transferred Reactants
from one atom to another (e.g.
NaCl) - What is put into reaction
 Covalent Bond Products
- Sharing of electrons
- Between Non – Metals - end result of reaction
- Electrons are shared by the atoms
- Results to a Molecule
 Hydrogen Bond A + B -------- C + D
- Electrons are not shared or
Reactants Product
transferred
- Weak attraction between 2 polar Patterns of Chemical Reactions
molecules (positive and negative
1. Synthesis
end)
- Not a chemical bond A + B --- AB
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 -
Union of 2 or more atoms - Stored energy
-
Bigger compound is formed
Chemical Energy
-
Anabolic
-
Requires energy - energy stored in chemical bonds (food)
-
Growth, maintenance and repair of
body Glucose
2. Decomposition - sugar found in food
AB --- A + B - glucose is used to make ATP (energy)
-
Large molecule is broken down Glycogen
-
Catabolic
-
Release energy stored in the bonds - stored glucose
-
Digestion of food, breakdown of fat
- stored in liver, skeletal muscle, and fat
stores, breakdown of foreign matter
3. Exchange or Displacement 2.3 Acids and Bases
AB + C --- AC + B or AB + CD --- AD + BC  Acid
- Involves simultaneous synthesis an - Proton donor
decomposition - Any substance that releases
- Bond are broken and made hydrogen ions in water
- e.g. HCl - H+ + Cl-
Reversible Reactions  Base
- Proton acceptor
- A chemical reaction that can
- (OH-) binds with H+ to form water
proceed from: reactants to products
and products to reactants The pH Scale
RATE OF PRODUCT FORMATION = RATE OF  Basic Solution
REACTANT FORMATION - Fewer (H+) than (OH-)
- pH > 7.0
 Neutral Solution
Rate of Chemical Reactions - Equal number of (H+) and (OH-)
- pH = 7.0
Factors:
 Acidic Solution
1. How easily the substances react with one - Greater concentration of (H+) than
another (properties of reactants) (OH-)
2. Their concentration (greater concentration, - pH < 7.0
greater rate)
pH
3. The temperature (higher temperature, faster rate)
4. Presence of Catalyst (enzymes) – increases the - normal pH range for human blood
rate
- 7.35 – 7.45
Energy
- Ability to do work
Kinetic Energy
- Energy in motion
Potential Energy

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 Inorganic Chemistry
- Deals with substances that do not
contain carbon except CO2, CO
Organic Chemistry
- The study of Carbon – containing
molecules
- Organic Molecules – carbon atoms
bound together by Covalent Bonds

2.4 Inorganic Molecules

 Oxygen (O2)
- 2 oxygen atoms
- 21% of the gas in the atmosphere
- Required in the series of chemical
reactions
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
- Product of metabolism within the
cells
- Exhaled during respiration
- Accumulation of CO2 in the cells is
Salts harmful or toxic
 A compound Water
- Positively ion other than H+
- Negative ion other than OH-  Important Role in Humans:
 Formed by the reaction of an acid and a base - Stabilizes Body Temperature
- water can absorb large amount of
heat
Buffers - water can evaporate (sweat) – heat
loss
- a chemical that resists changes in pH when - Provides Protection
either an acid or base is added to a solution containing - lubricant (tears)
the buffer - cushion (CSF in the brain)
- Facilitates Chemical Reactions
- maintains the normal body fluid pH
- reacting molecules are dissolved in
Increased (H+), Decrease pH - Buffer removes (H+), water
Resists change in pH - digestion
- Transports Substances
- e.g. blood transports nutrients,
Chemical Constituents of Living Matter gases, waste products

Inorganic Molecules Organic Molecules 2.5 Organic Molecules

Oxygen Carbohydrates
 Carbon + other atoms (covalent bonds) forms
Carbon Dioxide Lipids
Water Proteins large, diverse, complicated molecules necessary
Nucleic Acids for life
 Framework

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  4 major groups of organic molecules in living - Group of compounds with diverse
organisms: Carbohydrate, Lipid, Protein, chemical structure and composition
Nucleic Acid - Insoluble in water (polar solvents)
- Soluble in nonpolar solvents/other
A. Carbohydrates (C, H, O) lipids and inorganic compounds
- Hydrates of carbon (alcohol, acetone)
- Contains Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Fats
Carbon
- Function: Energy  Energy storage
Energy source: Monosaccharides  Pad and insulate the body
Energy storage: Polysaccharides  Glycerol and fatty acids (Fatty acid 14 – 18
(glycogen) carbon atoms)
Monosaccharid Disaccharides Polysaccharides 1. Saturated – single covalent bonds between
e carbon atoms
- building blocks 2. Unsaturated – with double covalent bonds
of carbohydrates a. Monounsaturated
- Smallest CHO - Combination - long chain of b. Poly unsaturated
molecule of 2 monosaccharide  e.g. triglycerides – 3 fatty acids bound to a
monosaccharid glycerol molecule
e.g. glucose, e.g. maltose, e.g. glycogen
galactose, lactose, (animal starch), Phospholipids
mannose, sucrose plant starch,
fructose cellulose (plant  structure, components of cell membrane
cell walls)  glycerol, fatty acids, with phosphorus
1. Polar End (with phosphorus); water loving
(hydrophilic)
Functions of Carbohydrates 2. Nonpolar End – hydrophobic – repelled by
 Short – term energy storage water
 Converted to glucose quickly  e.g. phospholipids, cholesterol
 Glucose is used to make ATP (energy) Eicosanoids
 Brain cells require glucose
 Regulation; role in the response o tissues to
injuries
 e.g. prostaglandins
Steroids

 Regulation; physiological processes (hormones);

structural (cell membrane) 4 ringed molecules
Elements: C, H, O  e.g. cholesterol
Building Blocks: Monosaccharides
Function and Examples:
Energy: Monosaccharides can be used as energy Functions of Lipids
sources. Glycogen (a polysaccharide) is an energy –
storage molecule 1. fats can be stored and broken down later for
energy
B. Lipids (C, H, O, P, N) 2. phospholipids and cholesterol are important
components of cell membrane
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 3. steroid hormones regulates many physiological
processes
Composition
- major: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
- minor: phosphorus, nitrogen
Functions of Lipids
 Long term energy storage
 Insulates against heat loss
 Protective cushion for organs
 Cholesterol is part of the cell membrane
structure
Types of Lipids
 Saturated – single covalent bonds between
carbon atoms (e.g. beef, pork, whole milk,
cheese and eggs)
 Unsaturated – one or more double covalent
bonds between carbons (e.g. olive oil, fish oil,
sunflower oil)
 Saturated Fatty acids – (e.g. beef, pork, eggs,
butter, cheese, whole milk, coconut oil, palm oil)
 Unsaturated Fatty acids – do not cause CV
diseases. Monounsaturated – olive oil, peanut
oil, Polyunsaturated – safflower, sunflower,
corn and fish oils
 Trans Fats – unsaturated fats that have been
chemically altered. Fats become more saturated;
more solid, more stable, longer shelf-life.
Greater factor in the risk for CV disease than
saturated fats
Elements: C, H, O, P, N
Building Blocks: Glycerol and fatty acids (for fats)
Function and Examples:
Energy: Fats can be stored and broken down later for
energy; per unit of weight, fats yield twice as much
energy as carbohydrates
Structure: Phospholipids and cholesterol are important
components of cell membranes. Adipose tissue
surrounds organs to protect them
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Regulation: Steroid hormones regulate many
physiological processes (e.g. estrogen, and testosterone
are responsible for many of the differences between
males and females)
C. Proteins (CHON)
 Polymer of amino acids
 Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
most have sulfur
 Amino Acids – building blocks of protein
(amine group + carboxyl group)
 20 basic types of amino acids: 12 can be
synthesized by humans and the remaining 8
essential amino acids must be obtained in the
diet
Biologic Functions of Proteins
1. Catalytic Role (e.g. enzymes)
2. Contraction of Muscles (e.g. actin and myosin)
3. Gene Regulation (e.g. histones, non – histone
nuclear proteins)
4. Transport (e.g. transferrin)
5. Protection (e.g. fibrin, immunoglobulin)
6. Regulatory (e.g. protein hormones)
7. Structural (e.g. collagen)
Functions of Proteins
 Used to make skin, hair, nails and muscles
 Hemoglobin
 Act as enzymes
 Immune system functions
 Muscle contractions (actin and myosin)
 Part of cell membrane
Elements: C, H, O, N
Building Blocks: Amino Acids
Function and Examples:
Regulation: Enzymes control the rate of chemical
reactions. Hormones regulate many physiological
processes (e.g. insulin, affects glucose transport into
cells)
Structure: Collagen fibers form a structural framework
in many parts of the body
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Energy: Proteins can be broken down for energy; per  DNA – central information storage
unit of weight, they yield the same energy as molecules. Carry the hereditary message
carbohydrates of the organism
 RNA – needed in the synthesis of cell
Contraction: Actin and myosin in muscle are responsible
protein; and gene expression e.g. tRNA,
for muscle contraction
mRNA, rRNA
Transport: Hemoglobin transports O2 in the blood
Protection: Antibodies and complement protect against
Elements: C, H, O, N, P
microorganisms and other foreign substances
Building Blocks: Nucleotides
3D Shape
Function and Examples:
 Ability of proteins to perform their functions
depends on its shape Regulation: DNA directs the activities of the cell
 Hydrogen bonds between Amino Acid in the
Heredity: Genes are pieces of DNA that can be passed
chain cause to COIL or FOLD
from one generation to the next
Denaturation
Gene expression: RNA is involved in gene expression
 Change in shape (3D) of proteins
 Broken chains – protein becomes nonfunctional
 Caused by abnormally high temperatures, DNA RNA
changes in pH Sugar deoxyribose ribose
Bases Adenine, Adenine,
Classification of Proteins Purine (double guanine, guanine,
1. Composition ringed) cytosine, cytosine, uracil
Pyrimidine thymine
 Simple protein – contain amino acid
(single ringed)
only - genetic - role in gene
 Compound protein – complex or material of cells expression or
conjugated with non-amino acid protein
 e.g. lipoproteins, glycoproteins synthesis
2. Conformation Double – Single –
 Fibrous – e.g. collagen, elastin, keratin stranded stranded
 Globular – e.g. enzymes, albumin
Enzymes Two Main Process:

 A protein catalyst Transcription and Translation

 Increases the rate of chemical rxn
 Doe not change or destroyed after a chem rxn
 3D shape Replication – DNA copy itself
 Increase rate of chemical reactions by lowering Transcription – DNA synthesize RNA
the activation energy. The energy necessary to
start a chemical reaction Translation – RNA synthesize protein

D. Nucleic Acids
 Made up of nucleotides
 Composition: nitrogenous base,
phosphate, pentose sugar
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