Biology Reviewer Atomic Number: the numbers of protons in the Free Radicals: atoms that have unpaired

nucleus and determines the type of atom or electrons. They are very unstable, easily forcing
Chapter 2: Molecules of Life
element. electrons
2.1 FEAR OF FRYING Elements: are pure substances, each consisting
only of atoms with the same number of protons Ions: atoms with unequal number of protons and
Fats - are more than insert molecules that electrons in a nucleus
on their nucleus.
accumulate in strategic areas of our bodies.
- main constituents of cell membranes and 2.3 FROM ATOMS TO MOLECULES
*Carbon ( C ) is from carbo the Latin word for
have powerful effects on cell function.
coal. Chemical Bond: an attractive force that rises
between two atoms, and it is one way that atoms
Trans Fats - fats with certain arrangement of
Isotopes: differ in the number of neutrons rid themselves of vacancies
Hydrogen atoms around those carbon chains
Mass number: total numbers of neutrons and
 found in red meat and dairy products Compound: molecule has atoms of two or more
protons in the nucleus of an isotope
 Main source of these fats are in American elements
diet is an artificial food product called Radioisotope: have unstable nucleus that breaks
partially Hydrogenated vegetable oil (usually up spontaneously Bond: applies to a continuous range of atomic
looks like Lard) interactions.
 are abundant in hydrogenated vegetable oils Radioactive Decay: nucleus breaks up and emits
radiation. Ionic Bond Covalent Bond
raise in cholesterol
 Eating as little as 2 grams per day of HVO may -two ions stay together -two atoms share a pair
Tracers: radioisotopes are often used. They are
increase ones risk of atherosclerosis by the mutual of electrons so each
substances with a detectable component.
attraction of their atoms vacancy
Hydrogenation: manufacturing process that adds *An electron only gains energy by absorbing the opposite charges becomes partially filled
hydrogen atoms to oils in order to change them precise amount needed to boost it to the next
into solid fats. energy level. Likewise, it loses energy only by -can be quite strong -can be stronger than
emitting the exact difference between two energy ionic but not always
Polarity: any such
2.2 START WITH ATOMS levels.
separation of charge -can compose of two or
Occur in atom’s into distinct positive more bonds
Protons (p+)- positively charged Shell Model: helps visualize how electrons
core or nucleus and negative regions
populate atoms. Nested “shells”correspond to
Neutrons - uncharged -atoms share electrons
successively higher energy levels
unequally in polar
Electrons (e-) - negatively charged (move around *No vacancies = most stabel state such as Neon, covalent bond
the nucleus) Argon, Helium
-covalent bonds in most
- very little tendency to interact with other
Charge: is an electrical property compounds are polar
atoms
*Vacancies = chemically active
*Opposite charges attract, same charges repel
- tend to get rid of them by interacting with
other atoms. Polar Nonpolar

Unequal share of Share electrons equally

electrons
2.4 HYDROGEN BONDS AND WATER
Water: has unique properties that arise from two
polar covalent binds in each water molecule.
Hydrogen bond: an attraction between covalently
bonded hydrogen atom and another atom taking
part in a separate polar covalent bond.
- hydrogen bonds lie on the weaker end of
the spectrum of atomic interactions.
-they form and break more easily than
covalent or ionic bonds
Solvent: the polarity of the water molecule and its
ability to be dissolved
Solute: its component ions disperse uniformly
among the molecules of liquid
Solution: a uniform mixture such as salt dissolved
in water
Concentration: amount of solute that is dissolved
in a given volume of fluid
Hydrophilic Hydrophobic
- water loving -water-dreading
-substances that can - substances that do
easily dissolve in water not dissolve in water
Ex. Salt Ex. Oil: it consists of
nonpolar molecules of a solution and make solution and make it
and hydrogen bonds do it acidic basic
not form between
nonpolar molecules -below pH7 -above pH7
and water Seawater, Baking Soda, Milk, Banana, Urine,
Milk of Magnesia, Lemon Juice, Battery
Cohesion: molecules of some substances resist Bleach, Drain Cleaner Acid
separating from one another and their resistance
gives rise to this property Buffer: set of chemical that can keep pH stable by
Evaporation: process which molecules escape alternately donating and accepting ions that affect
from the surface of the liquid and become vapor pH
Evaporation of water: it is resisted by hydrogen
bonding among individual water molecules
Temperature: measure of the energy of the
2.6 ORGANIC MOLECULES
motion as degree
Organic: compounds consist of primarily of
Temperature Stability: an important part of carbon and water
homeostasis because most of the molecules of life
function properly only within a certain range of Monomers: small organic molecules such as
temperature sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, and nucleotides
-subunits of larger molecules
Ice Blankets: protect aquatic organisms during
long, cold winters. Polymers: consist of multiple monomers
*cells build polymers from monomers and
breakdown polymers to release monomers.
2.5 ACIDS AND BASES
Reactions: process of molecular change
pH- to measure the number of hydrogen ions in a
water-based fluid Metabolism: collective activities where the cells
constantly run reactions as they acquire and use
Pure water: ph7 it is neutral energy to stay alive, grow, and reproduce
Acids Bases Enzymes: organic molecules that speed up
reactions without being changed by them
- substance that gives -substance that accepts
up hydrogen ions in hydrogen ions from Ex. Condensation: an enzyme covalently bonds
water water two monomers together.
In hydrolysis, the reverse of condensation, an
-acids can lower the pH -can raise the pH of a
enzyme splits an organic polymer into its most abundant molecule on Earth. triglyceride containing fat: triglyceride
component monomers. -insoluble in water and is not easily broken 3 saturated fatty acids containing fatty acids
down such as Animal Fats with 1 double bond
(Butter and LArd)
Dietary Fiber “roughage”: refers to the Ex. Canola and Olive oil
indigestible cellulose in our vegetable foods b. Solid at room
temperature b. Liquid at room
Starch: does not dissolve readily in water but it is temperature
easier to break down.

Glycogen: animals store sugars through this.

1.
*Hydrolysis enzymes break the bonds between
strach’s glucose monomers.
*Muscle and liver cells contain most of the body’s
glycogen.
*When the blood sugar level fails, lover cells
break down the glycogen and the released
glucose subunits enter the blood.
Fats: the carboxyl group head of a fatty avid
can easily form a covalent bond with another
molecule
- a substance that consists mainly of
TRIGLYCERIDES (3 fatty acids bonded to the
same glycerol)
- trigylcerides are usually called satured
fats
- fats and oils

2.7 CARBOHYDRATES: organic compound that 2. Phospholipid: has two fatty acid tails and a
consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ina ratio head that contains a phosphate group. The
of 1:2:1. 2.8 LIPIDS : are fatty, oily, or waxy organic tails are hydrophobic but the phosphate
-primary fuel source for body cells compounds. They vary in structure but all are group is hydrophilic.
hydrophobic. Many lipids incorporate fatty acids
Saccharides: apply to a sugar molecule Lipid Bilayer: hydrophobic and hydrophilic
Saturated Fatty Acids Unsaturated Fatty consists the layer. Arranged in two layers.
Monosaccharide Disaccharides Polysaccharide Acids - structural foundation of all cell membranes
s s
-only single bonds -the double bonds 3. Wax: a complex, varying mixture of lipids
-Simplest -made up of - can be linking the carbons in between carbons limit with long fatty acids tails bounded to carbon
carbohydrates two digestable and their tails the flexibility of the rings or OTHER STRUCTURES.
-backbone of monosacchar non-digestable -an acid group at one tails - molecules are packed tightly so waxes
five or six ides end and a methyl group are firm and water-repellent
carbon atoms at the other end -not stable - types of waxes, lubricate, protect and
-can be cis or trans soften skin
Glucose, Maltose, Starches, -more stable - waxes with fats and fatty acids make
Fructose, Sucrose, Glycogen,
Carbon chains filled Carbon chain lacks feathers waterproofs
Galactose Lactose Fiber
with hydrogen atoms some hydrogen 4. Steroids: lipids with no fatty acid tails; they
have a rigid backbone that consists of 20
Cellulose: major structural material of plants. The a. Saturated Fat: a. Monounsaturated
 carbon atoms arranged in characteristic
pattern of four rings.
2.9 PROTEINS: they need from only twenty kinds
of amino acid monomers.
Amino Acid: a small organic compound with an
amine group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH, the
acid), and a side chain called an “R group”that
defines the kind of amino acid.
Peptide Bond: covalent bond that links amino
acids in a protein
How protein structure structure arises
1. Another peptide bond links a third amino acid
to the second, and so on.
2. The order of the amino acids, which is called
primary structure, defines the type of protein.
3. The primary structure of each type of protein is
unique, but most proteins have similar patterns of
secondary structure
4. This pocket holds a heme, which is a small
compound essential to the function of the
finished protein--hemoglobin.
5. So, are most enzymes, which have multiple
polypeptides that collectively form a roughly
spherical shape.
6. Other fibrous proteins are part of the
mechanisms that help cells, cell parts, and
multicelled bodies move.
Denature: Protein shape depends on hydrogen
bonds and other interactions that heat, some
salts, shifts in pH, or detergents can disrupt. Such
disruption can cause proteins to lose their three-
dimensional shape.
PrPC: begin with a glycoprotein that occurs
normally in cell membranes of a mammalian
body.
Prion: one misfolded molecule should not pose
much of a threat, but when this particular protein
misfolds.
2.10 NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleotides: are small organic molecules that
function as energy carries, enzymes helpers,
chemical messengers, and subunits of DNA and
RNA.
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): serves an
especially important role as an energy carrier in
cells.
Nucleic Acids: chains of nucleotides in which the
sugar of one nucleotide is joined to the phosphate
group of the next.
RNA (ribonucleic acid): named after the ribose
sugar of its component nucleotides.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): a nucleic acid
named after deoxyribose sugar of its component
nucleotides.
DNA molecule: consists of two chains of
nucleotides twisted into a double helix.
Hydrogen bonds hold the chains together.
The cell uses the order of nucleotide bases in
DNA-- the DNA sequence- to guide production of
RNA and proteins.