HISTOLOGY with

CYTOPHYSIOLOGY
and EMBRYOLOGY

Introduction
Cell part 1.
2022/2023

Bartlomiej Krazinski PhD

Department of Human Histology and Embryology,
School of Medicine, Collegium Medicum
University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn
 Hierarchic ORGANIZATION
of the organism
1. Cell – basic structural and functional unit
2. Tissue – cells similar to each other or cells which
have a common function, grouped together within
the extracellular matrix
3. Organ – different types of tissues that are
specialized for particular function
4. System – the group of organs that function together
 TISSUES
• TISSUES are aggregates or groups of cells and non-cellular
components organized to perform one or more specific
functions.

TISSUES are composed of:

• 1. CELLS – one or more types, common function
• 2. EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (ECM) – a complex of
macromolecules manufactured by the cells and released by
them into the extracellular space
• 3. TISSUE FLUID – derives from blood plasma
 All human organs are made up of
ONLY four BASIC tissue types
– Epithelium
body surface and cavities, forms glands

– Connective tissue
underlies and supports structurally
and/or functionally other tissues

– Muscle tissue
contractile cells, responsible for movement

– Nerve tissue
receiving, transmission
and processing of information

Ross & Pawlina. Histology: A Text and Atlas, Sixth Edition

 EMBRYOLOGY: origin of TISSUES

• 3rd – 8th week of human

development.
The EMBRYONIC PERIOD:
– The three germ layers:
ectoderm, mesoderm and
and endoderm give rise to
TISSUES and ORGANS.
– At the 8th week the main
organ system is established.
 CELL part 1.
Biological membranes. Membrane
transport. Cell signaling.
 CELL MEMBRANE
1. LIPID BILAYER 2. MEMBRANE PROTEINS

The plasma membrane=plasmalemma consists of a lipid bilayer (1) and associated

proteins (2).
The inner leaflet of the plasma membrane faces the cytoplasm, and the outer leaflet
faces the extracellular environment.
The lipid bilayer is composed of phospholipids (e.g. phosphatidlycholine,
phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylethanolamine,
sphingomyelin), glycolipids and cholesterol.
 LIPIDS
A. Phospholipids B. Sterols
– Phosphoglicerides – Cholesterol
– Sphingolipids C. Glycolipids
 Membrane proteins – structure and association
with the membrane

A. Integral membrane proteins

• Transmembrane proteins (1, 2, 3)
• Lipid-anchored proteins (5, 6)

B. Peripheral membrane proteins (7, 8)

Molecular Biology of the Cell (© Garland Science 2008)

 MEMBRANE PROTEINS – FUNCTIONS
Six broad categories:
1. Pumps – active transport of ions and metabolic precursors
of macromolecules
2. Channels – passage of small ions, molecules and water
3. Receptor proteins – ligands recognition and localized
binding – hormonal stimulation, receptor-mediated
endocytosis, antibody reactions
4. Linker proteins – anchor intracellular cytoskeleton to the
extracellular matrix (ECM)
5. Structural proteins – form junctions with adjacent cells,
often concentrated in localized regions
6. Enzymes – various roles; eg. ATP synthase or digestive
enzymes which are integral proteins
INTRACELLULAR • Different structural pattern
– vesicular, tubular etc.
COMPARTMENTS
• Increase the surface area of
membranes (by 10-100
approx.)
• Intracellular
microcompartments
• Substrates, products and
other substances can be
segregated or concentrated
• Enzymes are separated
from other compartments,
protecting cell against their
activity
• pH control
• Control of polimerization
(cytoskeleton)
 TYPES OF CELLULAR TRANSPORT

1. Transport through the biological membranes

Exchange of relatively small molecules (nutrients, ions, waste etc.)
between cell and its environment (or between cell compartments).
Can be passive or active (energy source needed).

2. Vesicular transport
Transport of relatively large molecules; inside and/or outside the cell
and/or between the cell compartments; e.g. secretion or
internalization of macromolecules, membrane trafficking, protein
sorting and trafficking, macromolecules and organelles degradation;
cytoskeleton and motor proteins involved. Is considered as a form of
active transport (energy is expended).
 The lipid bilayer is a semipermeable structure. Most
substances are unable to diffuse through the lipid bilayer.
Small nonpolar and hydrophobic molecules, such as O2
and CO2, readily dissolve in lipid bilayers and therefore
diffuse rapidly across them. Lipid-soluble molecules such
as alcohols or steroids can cross the lipid bilayer with
ease.

Small uncharged polar molecules, such as water or urea,

also diffuse across the lipid bilayer, albeit much more
slowly. Diffusion is not suitable for rapid water transport.

Large polar molecules e.g. glucose, amino acids or

peptides cannot diffuse through the lipid bilayer.

Lipid bilayer is highly impermeable to charged molecules

(ions), no matter how small they are: the charge and high
degree of hydration of such molecules prevents them
from entering the hydrocarbon phase of the bilayer.

Molecular Biology of the Cell, 5th Edition

PASSIVE TRANSPORT: simple and facilitated
 Active transport
• Primary – result in formation and maintaining ion gradient,
the usage of ATP as power source is required
• Secondary – ion gradients generated by ATP-powered pumps
are used as the energy source for another types of transport
(of different type of ions or molecules) = cotransport
 Vesicular transport
Formation and fusion of
a transport vesicle.
1. Membrane proteins
and lumenal secretory
proteins with their
receptors – collected into
selected region of donor
membrane.
2. Transport vesicle
budding (coat).
3. Translocation of
vesicle (coat
disassembled). Vesicle
docking and fusion with
target membrane.

THE CELL A Molecular Approach FOURTH EDITION; GEOFFREY M. COOPER, ROBERT E. HAUSMAN
 Exocytosis and endocytosis

In exocytosis (A) a transport vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane.

Its content, of an intracellular origin (from Golgi) is released into the
extracellular space, while the vesicle membrane becomes continuous with the
plasma membrane.
In endocytosis (B) a plasma membrane patch becomes internalized forming a
transport vesicle. Its content derives from the extracellular space (‚fluid’).
Transcytosis is a vesicular transport of macromolecules across the cell consisting
of capturing (endocytosis), transferring and ejecting (exocytosis) of the
(unchanged) cargo. Molecular Biology of the Cell, 5th Edition
 PRINCIPLES OF CELL COMMUNICATION
Communication between cells is maintained mainly by extracellular signal
molecules (or direct communication between the cells).
Reception of the signals depends on receptor proteins.
1. Receptors bind the signaling molecules.
2. Receptors process the signal inside the cell by intracellular signaling
molecules and affect respective effector mechanism(s).
3. Effector mechanisms include alterations in: (a) functioning of ion channels,
(b) activity of enzymes, (c) poly- or depolymerization of cytoskeleton and
(d) gene expression.

Molecular Biology of the Cell (© Garland Science 2008)

 TWO MAJOR TYPES OF CELL RECEPTORS DISCRIMINATE
LIGANDS THAT CAN OR CANNOT PASS THE CELL MEMBRANE
• Receptors for hydrophobic ligands usually
are localized inside the cell:
INTRACELLULAR RECEPTORS.
• Receptors for hydrophilic ligands are
localized in the cell membrane:
MEMBRANE RECEPTORS.
• In addition, cell signaling may be a
CONTANT-DEPENDENT process: ligands
are on the surface of signaling cell and
activete surface receptors on target cell.

E
Ribosomes = rRNA + proteins
▪ small electron dense particles
▪ 15-20 nm in diameter
▪ consist of: rRNA - 60%, Protein - 40%
▪ responsible for the basophilia of cytoplasm

Molecular Biology of the Cell 5 th edition, Alberts et. all

Junqueira, Basic Histology, 10th ed A -site binds an incoming aminoacyl-tRNA

P-site codon is occupied by peptidyl-t RNA
E-site is occupied by empty tRNA
 Proteins synthesized on free ribosomes either remain in the cytosol or are
transported to the nucleus, mitochondria, or peroxisomes.
Proteins synthesized on membrane-bound ribosomes are translocated into the
ER while their translation is in progress. Those proteins are then transported to
the Golgi apparatus and, from there, to lysosomes, the plasma membrane, or the
cell exterior via secretory vesicles.

Free Bound
ribosomes ribosomes

THE CELL A Molecular Approach FOURTH EDITION; GEOFFREY M. COOPER, ROBERT E. HAUSMAN
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the largest
membranous system of the cell.
It is divided into two subcompartments:
• smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
• rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

SER and RER

comprise a system of
interconnected tubules
and vesicles.
The lumen of SER is

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu
assumed to be
continuous with that of
RER.
E
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
Structure of SER
• An irregular network of membrane-bounded
channels
• It appears as branching anastomosing tubules,
or vesicles.
• SER is prominent in cells that synthesize lipids
and steroids

Functions of SER
• Cholesterol and steroid synthesis,
lipid/phospholipid synthesis

• detoxification of metabolites and xenobiotics

(including ethanol, drugs) especially in the liver

• Ca++ storage for skeletal and cardiac muscle cells

(sarcoplasmic reticulum) for contraction and re-
uptake during relaxation
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

Functions:
• synthesis of proteins (secreted proteins; integral
membrane proteins; proteins that reside within
compartments of the endomembrane system, including
ER, Golgi complex, lysosomes).

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu
 The Golgi: protein sorting and posttranslational modifications

Proteins destined for lysosomes,

secretion or plasma membrane
1. are synthesized in the ER
2. transported to the cis Golgi
3. modified in the Golgi:
GLYCOSYLATION
phosphorylation
acetylation
methylation
sulfation
4. then sorted and packaged in
vesicles at the trans Golgi for
onward delivery to their target
compartments (lysosomes,
secretory vesicles or plasma
membrane). Gal = galactose
GlcNAc = N-acetylglucosamine
NANA = N-acetyl-neuraminic acid (sialic acid)
Man = mannose
Molecular Biology of the Cell, 5th Edition
 PROTEIN DEGRADATION IN CELLS
There are 2 major enzyme systems responsible for degrading of
damaged or unneeded proteins:
➢ ATP-independed degradative enzyme system of the lysosomes
(LYSOSOME PATHWAY)
➢ ATP-depended ubiquitin-proteasome system of the cytosol
(PROTEASOME PATHWAY)

Cell and Molecular Biology. Chandar N., Viselli S.