NSG 100

Anatomy and Physiology in Functions of the Cell

Nursing
Learning Outcome:
 Cell structure and its function.
 Diffusion and concentration gradient.
 Osmosis and pressure
 Carrier-mediated transport
 Endocytosis and exocytosis
 Nucleus, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
secretory vesicles, lysosomes, peroxisomes,
mitochondria, cytoskeleton and centrioles.
 Cilia, flagella and microvilli
 Process of gene expression, mitosis and cell
development.
 Cell metabolism and energy use
 Synthesis of molecules
 Communication
 Reproduction and inheritance
Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is the
outermost component of a cell.
 It forms a boundary between material in inside the
cell and the outside.
 Materials inside the cell are intracellular and those
outsides are extracellular.
 It acts as a selective barrier.

Cell Structure
Cell- A basic structural, functional, and
reproductive unit of all multicellular
organism.
 Organelles:
 specialized structures in cells that perform
specific functions
 Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
 Cytoplasm:
 jelly-like substance that holds organelles
 Cell membrane:
 also termed the plasma membrane
 a structure that encloses the cytoplasm

Generalized Cell
Cell Membrane Structure
 The fluid-mosaic model is the model used to
describe the cell membrane structure.
 The membrane contains phospholipids, cholesterol,
proteins, and carbohydrates.
 Phospholipids form a bilayer.
 Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar and nonpolar.

Phospholipid Structure
 A phospholipid molecule has a polar head
region that is hydrophilic and a nonpolar tail
region that is hydrophobic.
  The polar region is exposed to water around
the membrane.
 The nonpolar region is facing the interior of
the membrane.
Movement through the Cell
Membrane
 The cell membrane has selective permeability, which
allows only certain substances to pass in and
out of the cell.
 Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and
potassium are found in higher concentrations
inside the cell.
 Substances such as sodium, calcium, and chloride
are found in higher concentrations outside the
cell.
Cell Membrane Passage
 Some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass
directly through the cell membrane’s
phospholipid bilayer.
 Some substances must pass through
transmembrane protein channels, such as Na+
through its channels.
 The route of transport through the membrane
depends on the size, shape, and charge of the
substance.
 Some substances require carrier molecules to
transport them across the cell membrane,
such as glucose.
 Some substances require a vesicular transport
across the membrane.
 The vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane
for transport.
Active Transport and Passive
Transport
 Passive membrane transport does not require the
cell to expend energy.
 Active membrane transport does require the cell to
expend energy, usually in the form of ATP.
 Passive membrane transport mechanisms include
diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
 Active membrane transport mechanisms include
active transport, secondary active transport,
endocytosis, and exocytosis.
Passive Transport
A. Diffusion
 movement of substances in a solution down
a concentration gradient.
 solution= solutes (substances dissolved) +
(liquid/gas) solvent.
 Solutes (e.g., ions or molecules) tend to
move from an area of higher concentration
of a solute to an area of lower
concentration of that same solute in
solution.
 concentration gradient- the difference in
the concentration of a solute in a solvent
between two points divided by the distance
between the two points.
Factors that Influence the diffusion rate of
substances across plasma membrane:
1. Steepness of contration gradient.
2. Temperature
3. Mass of the diffusing substances
4. Surface area
5. Diffusion distance
Types of Diffusion
A. Simple diffusion
 substances move freely through
the lipid bilayer of the plasma
membranes of cells without the
help of membrane transport
proteins
 Nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules
 Molecules that can pass: oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and nitrogen
gases; fatty acids; steroids; and fat-
soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K).
Small, uncharged polar molecules
such as water, urea, and small
alcohols
 e.g., movement of
oxygen and carbon
dioxide between
blood and body cells,
and between blood
and air within the
lungs during
breathing, absorption
of some nutrients and
excretion of some
wastes by body cells.
A. Diffusion
A.1. Diffusion through the Cell Membrane
2.1. Leak and Gated Membrane Channels
B. Facilitated diffusion
 Solutes that are too polar or highly
charged to move through the lipid
bilayer by simple diffusion can
cross the plasma membrane.
 membrane channel or a carrier.
 Types: Channel Mediated FD and
Carrier Mediated FD
Types of Facilitated Diffusion
2. a. Channel Mediated FD
 Allows small, inorganic ions
that are too hydrophilic to
penetrate the non-polar
interior of lipid bilayer.
 Can diffuse only to a certain
site.
 K+, Cl- = Most numerous
channels
 Na+,Ca++ = few only
 Generally slower than free
diffusion.
Leak and Gated Channels
 Lipid soluble substances can
diffuse directly through the
phospholipid bilayer.
 Water-soluble substances,
such as ions, can diffuse across
the cell membrane only by
passing through cell
membrane channels.
 Two classes of cell membrane
channels include leak channels
and gated channels.
 Leak channels constantly
allow ions to pass through.
 Gated channels limit the
movement of ions across the
membrane by opening and
closing.
2.b. Carrier Mediated FD
 A carrier/transporter moves
a solute down its
concentration gradient
across plasma membrane.
 Solutes bind to carrier that
are available.
 Transport maximum if
reached the utmost
number.
 e.g., glucose, fructose,
galactose and some vitamins
C. Osmosis
 The diffusion of water (a solvent)
across a selectively permeable
membrane from a region of higher
water concentration to one of
lower water concentration
high solvent--->lower solvent
  Water moves through a selectively
permeable membrane from an
area of lower solute concentration
to an area of higher solute
concentration.
lower solute---> higher
solute
 It occurs only when a membrane is
permeable to water but is not
permeable to certain solutes.
3.1. Osmosis
Red Blood Cell Changes in Differing Solutions
Osmotic Pressure and the Cell
 A force required to prevent movement of
water across cell membrane
 A solution’s tonicity(tension) is a measure
of solution’s ability to change the volume of
cells by altering their water content.
 A cell may be placed in solutions that are
either hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic
compared to the cell cytoplasm.
 Hypotonic
 A solution that has a lower
concentration of solutes than the
cytosol inside the cell.
 The solution has less tone, or osmotic
pressure, than the cell.
 Water molecules enter faster than
they leave.
 Swell and eventually burst called
lysis.
 Given to dehydrated
 Isotonic
 Any solution in which cells maintain
its normal shape and volume.
 The concentration of solutes that
cannot cross the plasma membrane
are the same on both sides of the
membrane.
 The cell will neither shrink nor swell.
 e.g., 0.9% NaCl (Normal Saline sol),
D5Water
 Hypertonic
 It has a higher concentration of
solutes than does of the cytosol
inside the cell.
 Water molecules moves out of the
cells faster than they enter.
 Shrink called Crenation
 e.g., 2%NaCl, Mannitol (sugar
alcohol)
 Useful for cerebral edema
Active Transport
 It is a carrier-mediated process, requiring
ATP, that moves substances across the cell
membrane from regions of lower
concentration to those of higher
concentration against a concentration
gradient.
 Na+, K+, H+, Ca2+, I− (iodide ions), and Cl−;
amino acids; and monosaccharides.
 Two (2) sources of cellular energy:
 Primary Active Transport - Energy
obtained from hydrolysis of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
 carrier proteins that mediate
primary active transport are
often called pumps.
 Secondary Active transport- energy
stored in an ionic concentration
gradient.
A. Primary Active Transport
 Sodium-Potassium Pump
 action of the sodium-
potassium pump present in
cell membranes.
 The sodium-potassium
pump moves Na+ out of cells
and K+ into cells.
 The result is a higher
concentration of Na+ outside
cells and a higher
concentration of K+ inside
cells.
B. Secondary Active Transport
 Secondary active transport uses
the energy provided by a
concentration gradient established
by the active transport of one
substance, such as Na+ to transport
other substances.
 No additional energy is required
above the energy provided by the
initial active transport pump.
 In cotransport, the diffusing
substance moves in the same
direction as the initial active
transported substance.
 In counter transport, the diffusing
substance moves in a direction
opposite to that of the initial active
transported substance.
 C. Endocystosis D. Exocytosis

 Exocytosis involves the use of

membrane-bound sacs called secretory
vesicles that accumulate materials for
release from the cell.
 The vesicles move to the cell membrane
 Endocytosis is a process that that and fuse, ultimately releasing the
brings materials into cell using vesicles. material by exocytosis.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis  Examples of exocytosis are the secretion
occurs when a specific substance binds of digestive enzymes.
to the receptor molecule and is
transported into the cell.
 Phagocytosis is often used for General Cell Structure
endocytosis when solid particles are
ingested.
 Pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles
formed, and they contain liquid rather
than solid particles.
 The interior of a cell is composed of the
cytoplasm, which a jelly-like fluid that
surrounds the organelles.
 Organelles are specialized structures that
perform certain functions.
 Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria,
cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia, flagella, and
microvilli.
 The subunits of ribosomes, a type of
cytoplasmic organelle, are formed within a
nucleolus.
 These ribosomal components exit the
nucleus through nuclear pores.
Chromosome Structure

Cell Nucleus

Ribosomes

 Large organelle usually located near the

center of the cell.
 Bounded by a nuclear envelope, which
consists of outer and inner membranes with
a narrow space between them.
 The nuclear membrane contains nuclear
pores, through which materials can pass
into or out of the nucleus.
 contain 23 pairs of chromosomes which  Components are produced in the
consist of DNA and proteins. nucleolus
 Within the nucleus are Nucleoli, which are  Produced proteins are
diffuse bodies with no surrounding  May be attached to other organelles,
membrane. such as the endoplasmic reticulum.
 There are usually one to several nucleoli  free ribosomes if not attached to other
within the nucleus. organelles.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum  Also called the Golgi complex, consists of
closely packed stacks of curved, membrane-
bound sacs.
 It collects, modifies, packages, and
distributes proteins and lipids
manufactured by the ER.
 It forms vesicles, some of which are
secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and other
vesicles.

Lysosomes

 (ER) is a series of membranes forming sacs

and tubules that extends from the outer
nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm.
 The rough ER is involved in protein
synthesis and is rough due to attached
ribosomes.
 The smooth ER has no attached ribosomes
and is a site for lipid synthesis, cellular
detoxification, and it stores calcium ions in
 are membrane-bound vesicles formed from
skeletal muscle cells.
the Golgi apparatus.
 They contain a variety of enzymes that
Golgi Apparatus function as intracellular digestive systems.
 Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse
with lysosomes in order to breakdown
materials in the endocytotic vesicles.
 One example is white blood cells
phagocytizing bacteria.

Peroxisomes
 are small, membrane-bound vesicles
containing enzymes that break down fatty
acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2).
 Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty
acid and amino acid breakdown and can be
toxic to a cell.
 The enzymes in peroxisomes break down
hydrogen.
 Mitochondria  The cytoskeleton gives internal framework
 are small organelles responsible for to the cell.
producing considerable amounts of ATP by  It consists of protein structures that support
aerobic (with O2) metabolism. the cell, hold organelles in place, and
 They have inner and outer membranes enable the cell to change shape.
separated by a space.  These protein structures are microtubules,
 The outer membranes have a smooth microfilaments, and intermediate
contour, but the inner membranes have filaments.
numerous folds, called cristae, which
project into the interior of the Microtubules
mitochondria.
 The material within the inner membrane is
the mitochondrial matrix and contains
enzymes and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
 Cells with a large energy requirement have
more mitochondria than cells that require
less energy.

A Mitochondrion

 Hollow structures formed from protein

subunits.
 helping to support the cytoplasm of cells,
assisting in cell division, and forming
essential components of certain organelles,
such as cilia and flagella.

The Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
 Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from
protein subunits that structurally support
the cytoplasm, determining cell shape.
 Some microfilaments are involved with cell
movement.
 Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the
cells to shorten, or contract.

Intermediate Filaments
 are fibrils formed from protein subunits
that are smaller in diameter than
microtubules but larger in diameter than
microfilaments.
 They provide mechanical support to the
cell.
 A specific type of intermediate filament is  Microvilli are specialized extensions of the
keratin, a protein associated with skin cells. cell membrane that are supported by
microfilaments.
 They do not actively move as cilia and
flagella do.
 Microvilli are numerous on cells that have
Centrioles them and they increase the surface area of
those cells.
 They are abundant on the surface of cells
that line the intestine, kidney, and other
areas in which absorption is an important
function.

Whole Cell Activity

 A cell’s characteristics are determined by
the type of proteins produced.
 The proteins produced are in turn
determined by the genetic information in
the nucleus.
 Information in DNA provides the cell with a
code for its cellular processes.

 The centrosome is a specialized area of

cytoplasm close to the nucleus where
microtubule formation occurs.
DNA
 DNA contains the information that directs
 It contains two centrioles, which are normally
protein synthesis; a process called gene
oriented perpendicular to each other.
expression.
 Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle
 consists of nucleotides joined together to
composed of microtubules.
form two nucleotide strands.
 The centriole is involved in the process of
 The two strands are connected and
mitosis.
resemble a ladder that is twisted around its
long axis.

Cilia
 Cilia project from the surface of certain
cells.
 cylindrical structures that extend from the Gene Expression
cell and are composed of microtubules.  Gene expression, which is protein synthesis,
 Responsible for the movement of materials involves transcription and translation.
over the top of cells, such as mucus.  Transcription involves copying DNA into
messenger RNA.
 Translation involves messenger RNA being
used to produce a protein.
Flagella
 a structure similar to that of cilia but are
much longer, and they usually occur only
one per cell.
 Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which
propels the sperm cell.
Microvilli
Overview of Gene Expression
 Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter
 Mitosis is divided into four phases:
Stages of Mitosis
The Cell Cycle
 During growth and development, cell
division occurs to increase the number of
cells or replace damaged or dying ones.
 This cell division involves a cell cycle.
 The cell cycle includes two major phases: a
nondividing phase, called interphase, and a
cell dividing phase, termed mitosis.
 A cell spends most of its life cycle in
interphase performing its normal functions.
 During interphase, the DNA (located in
chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus) is
replicated.
 The two strands of DNA separate from each
other, and each strand serves as a template
for the production of a new strand of DNA.
Cell Genetic Content
 Each human cell (except sperm and egg)
contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total
of 46.
 The sperm and egg contain 23
chromosomes total.
 One pair of chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes, which consist of two X
chromosomes if the person is a female or
an X and Y chromosome if the person is a
male.
Mitosis
cells from a single parent cell.
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase.
1. Prophase
 During prophase the chromatin
condenses to form visible
chromosomes.
 Microtubules, termed spindle fibers,
form to assist in breaking the
centromere between the chromatids
and move the chromosomes to
opposite sides of the cell.
 The nuclear membrane dissolves.
2. Metaphase
 During metaphase, the chromosomes
align near the center of the cell.
 The movement of the chromosomes is
regulated by the attached spindle fibers.
3. Anaphase
 At the beginning of anaphase, the
chromatids separate and each chromatid
is called a chromosome.
 Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes
is moved by the spindle fibers toward the
centriole at one of the poles of the cell.
 At the end of anaphase, each set of
chromosomes has reachedan opposite
pole of the cell, and the cytoplasm begins
to divide.
4. Telophase
 During telophase, the chromosomes in
each of the daughter cells become
organized to form two separate nuclei,
one in each newly formed daughter cell.
 The chromosomes begin to unravel and
resemble the genetic material during
interphase.
 Following telophase, cytoplasm division is Diversity of Cell Types
completed, and two separate daughter
cells are produced.

The Cell Cycle

A human body is a conversation going on, both within the cells

and between the cells, and they're telling each other to grow and
to die; when you're sick, something's gone wrong with that
conversation.
-W. Daniel Hillis

Differentiation
 A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a
single cell, then a great number of mitotic
divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of
the body.
 The process by which cells develop with
specialized structures and functions is called
differentiation.
 During differentiation of a cell, some portions
of DNA are active, but others are inactive.