CK-12 Biology for High School FlexBook® 2.

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Answer Key

Chapter 2: Cell Biology

2.1 Parts of the Cell

Review

Questions

1. Who coined the term cell, in reference to the tiny structures seen in living
organisms?
2. Who identified animalcules? What are animalcules?
3. What are the three main parts of the cell theory?
4. List the four parts common to all cells.
5. What are the cell structures where proteins are made?
6. What is the role of DNA?

Answers

1. The first time the word cell was used to refer to these tiny units of life was in 1665
by a British scientist named Robert Hooke. (Or can just answer Robert Hooke.)
2. Animalcules were discovered by Anton van Leeuwenhoek. Today, we call
Leeuwenhoek’s animalcules bacteria.
3. The three main parts of the cell theory:
a. all organisms are made up of one or more cells
b. all the life functions of an organism occur within cells
c. all cells come from preexisting cells
4. The four components common to all cells are the plasma membrane, cytoplasm,
ribosomes and DNA.
5. Ribosomes are structures in the cytoplasm where proteins are made.
6. DNA contains the genetic instructions that cells need to make proteins.

2.2 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Review

Questions

1. What is the cell nucleus?

2. What is the main difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
3. Give an example of a prokaryotic cell.
4. Define organelle.

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 5. What is the advantage of having organelles?

Answers

1. The nucleus of a cell is a structure in the cytoplasm that is surrounded by a

membrane (the nuclear membrane) and contains DNA (or chromosomes).
2. Prokaryotic cells are cells without a nucleus; eukaryotic cells have a nucleus.
3. Bacteria (and Archaea) are made of prokaryotic cells.
4. An organelle is a structure within the cytoplasm that performs a specific function
within the cell.
5. Organelles allow eukaryotic cells to carry out more functions (and thus be more
specific) than prokaryotic cells.

2.3 Phospholipid Bilayer

Review

Questions

1. Describe the role of the plasma membrane.

2. What is meant by semipermeability?
3. Describe the composition of the plasma membrane.
4. Explain why hydrophobic molecules can easily cross the plasma membrane,
while hydrophilic molecules cannot.

Answers

1. The plasma membrane forms a barrier between the cytoplasm inside the cell and
the environment outside the cell. It protects and supports the cell and also
controls everything that enters and leaves the cell.
2. The ability to allow only certain molecules in or out of the cell is referred to as
selective permeability or semipermeability.
3. The plasma membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids. The phospholipids
in the plasma membrane are arranged in a phospholipid bilayer. Each
phospholipid molecule has a head and two tails. The hydrophilic head “loves”
water and the hydrophobic tails “hate” water. Therefore, the “water-hating” tails
are on the interior of the membrane, whereas the “water-loving” heads point
outwards, toward either the cytoplasm or the fluid that surrounds the cell.
4. Small hydrophobic molecules can easily pass through the plasma membrane,
because they are hydrophobic like the interior of the membrane. Hydrophilic
molecules, on the other hand, cannot pass through the plasma membrane (at
least not without help) because they are “water-loving” like the exterior of the
membrane, and are therefore excluded from the interior of the membrane.

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2.4 Membrane Proteins

Review

Questions

1. What is the main difference between the two main types of proteins associated
with the plasma membrane?
2. What are two functions of integral membrane proteins?
3. Discuss the Fluid Mosaic Model.
4. What are flagella and cilia?

Answers

1. The main difference between the two main types of proteins associated with the
plasma membrane is whether they are permanently embedded (integral) within
the plasma membrane or not (peripheral).
2. Functions of integral membrane proteins include channeling or transporting
molecules across the membrane. Other integral proteins act as cell receptors.
3. The Fluid Mosaic Model states that integral membrane proteins are embedded in
the phospholipid bilayer. The model also states that the membrane behaves like
a fluid, rather than a solid. The proteins and lipids of the membrane move around
the membrane, much like buoys in water. Such movement causes a constant
change in the "mosaic pattern" of the plasma membrane.
4. Cilia and flagella are extensions of the plasma membrane, each with specific
functions.

2.5 Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton

Review

Questions

1. What is the difference between cytoplasm and cytosol?

2. List two roles of the cytoplasm.
3. Name the three main types of cytoskeleton fibers.
4. List two functions of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton.

Answers

1. Cytoplasm consists of everything inside the plasma membrane of the cell,

excluding the nucleus in an eukaryotic cell. It includes the watery, gel-like
material which is the cytosol, as well as various structures.

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 2. Roles of the cytoplasm include:
a. suspending cell organelles.
b. pushing against the plasma membrane to help the cell keep its shape.
c. providing a site for many of the biochemical reactions of the cell.
3. Three main kinds of cytoskeleton fibers are microtubules, intermediate filaments,
and microfilaments.
4. Functions of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton include maintaining cell shape, holding
organelles in place, and for some cells, enabling cell movement. The
cytoskeleton also plays important roles in both the intracellular movement of
substances and in cell division.

2.6 Nucleus

Review

Questions

1. What is the role of the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell?

2. Describe the nuclear membrane.
3. What are nuclear pores?
4. What is the role of the nucleolus?

Answers

1. The nucleus holds (and protects) most of the cell’s genetic material.
2. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane of the nucleus. The nuclear
envelope is made of two lipid bilayers, an inner membrane and an outer
membrane. The outer membrane is continuous with the rough endoplasmic
reticulum. There are numerous tiny holes called nuclear pores found in the
nuclear envelope.
3. Nuclear pores are tiny holes found throughout the nuclear envelope that help to
regulate the exchange of materials (such as RNA and proteins) between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.
4. The nucleolus is mainly involved in the assembly of ribosomes.

2.7 Ribosomes and Mitochondria

Review

Questions

1. What is the function of a ribosome?

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 2. What is a significant difference between the structure of a ribosome and other
organelles?
3. Identify the reason why mitochondria are called "power plants" of the cell.
4. Describe the structure of a mitochondrion.

Answers

1. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis

2. Unlike other organelles, ribosomes are not surrounded by a membrane.
3. Mitochondria are called the "power plants" of the cell because they use energy
from organic compounds to make ATP. Mitochondria are the site of cellular
respiration.
4. A mitochondrion has two phospholipid membranes. The smooth outer membrane
separates the mitochondrion from the cytosol. The inner membrane has many
folds, called cristae. The fluid-filled inside of the mitochondrion, called matrix, is
where most of the cell’s ATP is made.

2.8 Cell Structure

Review

Questions

1. List five organelles eukaryotes have that prokaryotes do not have.

2. Explain how the following organelles ensure that a cell has the proteins it
needs: nucleus, rough ER, vesicles, and Golgi apparatus.
3. What is the main difference between rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum?
4. Describe the three types of vesicles.

Answers

1. Answers may vary: the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,

vesicles, vacuoles, and centrioles
2. The nucleus stores the DNA and is where transcription occurs. Once proteins are
made in ribosomes, some of the proteins move to the rough ER for transport.
Then they are transported within vesicles to the Golgi apparatus for modification
and transport to their proper destinations in or out of the cell.
3. The main difference between rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum is that the rough ER is studded with ribosomes.
4. Transport vesicles are able to move molecules between locations inside the cell.
Lysosomes contain powerful enzymes that break down the cell’s waste products.
Peroxisomes are vesicles that use oxygen to break down toxic substances in the
cell.

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2.9 Plant Cell Structure

Review

Questions

1. List three structures that are found in plant cells but not in animal cells.
2. Identify two functions of plastids in plant cells.
3. What are the roles of the cell wall and the central vacuole?
4. Describe the chloroplast structure.

Answers

1. Structures found in plant cells, but not animal cells, include a cell wall, a large
central vacuole, and plastids (chloroplasts).
2. Plastids are responsible for photosynthesis, for storage of products such as
starch, and for the synthesis of many types of molecules that are needed as
cellular building blocks.
3. The cell wall provides structural support and protection. Pores in the cell wall
allow water and nutrients to move into and out of the cell. The cell wall also
prevents the plant cell from bursting when water enters the cell. Aside from
storage, the main role of the central vacuole is to maintain turgor pressure
against the cell wall.
4. The chloroplast is enclosed by an inner and an outer phospholipid membrane.
Between these two layers is the intermembrane space. The fluid within the
chloroplast is the stroma. Within the stroma are stacks of thylakoids that are the
site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana. A
thylakoid has a flattened disk shape. Inside it is an empty area called the
thylakoid space or lumen.

2.10 Cell Organization

Review

Questions

1. What is a multicellular organism?

2. What is a cell feature that distinguishes a colonial organism from a multicellular
organism?
3. What is the difference between a cell and a tissue?
4. Describe the top two levels of organization of an organism.

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Answers

1. Multicellular organisms are organisms that are made up of more than one type of
cell and have specialized cells that are grouped together to carry out specialized
functions.
2. The difference between a multicellular organism and a colonial organism is that
individual organisms from a colony can, if separated, survive on their own, while
cells from a multicellular organism cannot.
3. A cell is the smallest unit of structure and function of an organism. A tissue is
made of cells; a tissue is a group of connected cells that have a similar function
within an organism.
4. An organ is a group of tissues that has a specific function or group of functions.
An organ system is a group of organs that act together to carry out complex
related functions, with each organ focusing on a part of the task. Together all the
organ systems compile into an organism.

2.11 Diffusion

Review

Questions

1. Define semipermeable.
2. What is diffusion?
3. What is a concentration gradient?
4. What is meant by passive transport?

Answers

1. Semipermeable is the ability to allow only certain molecules to cross the plasma
membrane.
2. Diffusion is the movement of a molecule from an area of high concentration of
the molecule to an area with a lower concentration.
3. A concentration gradient is the difference in the concentrations of a molecule
across two distinct areas, such as a cell membrane.
4. Passive transport is the movement of substances across a plasma membrane
that does not require energy.

2.12 Osmosis

Review

Questions

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 1. What is osmosis? What type of transport is it?
2. How does osmosis differ from diffusion?
3. What happens to red blood cells when placed in a hypotonic solution?
4. What will happen to a salt water fish if placed in fresh water?

Answers

1. Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable

membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration. It is a type of passive transport.
2. Osmosis solely refers to the movement of water. Diffusion is the movement of
other substances.
3. A red blood cell will swell and lyse (burst) when placed in a hypotonic solution.
4. If a saltwater fish (whose cells are isotonic with seawater) is placed in fresh
water, its cells will take on excess water, lyse, and the fish will die.

2.13 Passive Transport

Review

Questions

1. What is facilitated diffusion?

2. What is a transport protein? Give three examples.
3. Assume a molecule must cross the plasma membrane to enter a cell. The
molecule is very large. How will it be transported into the cell?
4. Explain how carrier proteins function?
5. Explain the role of ion channels. Why are ion channels necessary?

Answers

1. Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion of solutes through the plasma membrane

using transport proteins.
2. A transport protein completely spans the membrane, and allows certain
molecules or ions to diffuse across the membrane. Channel proteins, gated
channel proteins, and carrier proteins are three types of transport proteins that
are involved in facilitated diffusion.
3. A very large molecule will probably be carried into the cell via a carrier protein.
4. Carrier proteins "carry" the ion or molecule across the membrane by changing
shape after the binding of the ion or molecule.
5. Because they are polar, ions do not diffuse through the membrane. Instead they
move through ion channel proteins where they are protected from the

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 hydrophobic interior of the membrane. Ion channels allow the formation of a
concentration gradient between the extracellular fluid and the cytosol.

2.14 Active Transport

Review

Questions

1. What is active transport?

2. Explain how cell transport helps an organism maintain homeostasis.

Answers

1. Active transport is the energy-requiring process of pumping molecules and ions

across membranes against a concentration gradient (or down a concentration
gradient).
2. Maintaining homeostasis requires constant adjustments as conditions change
inside and outside the cell. Moving substances into and out of the cell is an active
part of maintaining homeostasis, continuously making adjustments to keep the
cell within normal limits.

2.15 Sodium-Potassium Pump

Review

Questions

1. What is active transport?

2. What type of protein is involved in active transport?
3. Describe how the sodium-potassium pump functions.
4. What is the electrochemical gradient?

Answers

1. Active transport is the energy-requiring process of pumping molecules and ions

across membranes against a concentration gradient (or down a concentration
gradient).
2. Carrier proteins known as pumps are needed for active transport.
3. Three sodium ions bind with the sodium-potassium pump inside the cell. The
carrier protein then gets energy from ATP and changes shape. In doing so, it
pumps the three sodium ions out of the cell. At that point, two potassium ions

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 from outside the cell bind to the sodium-potassium pump. The potassium ions
are then transported into the cell, and the process repeats.
4. The electrochemical gradient refers to the difference across a membrane due to
both a chemical force and an electrical force. May provide additional information.

2.16 Exocytosis and Endocytosis

Review

Questions

1. What is the difference between endocytosis and exocytosis?

2. Why is pinocytosis a form of endocytosis?
3. Are vesicles involved in passive transport? Explain.

Answers

1. Endocytosis is the process of capturing a substance or particle from outside the

cell by engulfing it with the cell membrane. Exocytosis describes the process of
vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane and releasing their contents to the
outside of the cell.
2. Pinocytosis, or cellular drinking, occurs when the plasma membrane folds inward
to form a channel allowing dissolved substances to enter the cell. Pinocytosis
brings substances into the cell, making it a type of endocytosis.
3. Vesicular transport requires energy. It is a form of active transport. So no,
vesicles are not involved in passive transport.

2.17 Autotrophs and Heterotrophs

Review

Questions

1. Compare autotrophs to heterotrophs, and describe the relationship between

these two groups of organisms.
2. Name and describe the two types of food making processes found among
autotrophs. Which is quantitatively more important to life on earth?
3. Describe the flow of energy through a typical food chain (describing "what eats
what"), including the original source of that energy and its ultimate form after use.

Answers

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 1. Autotrophs store chemical energy in carbohydrate food molecules they build
themselves, whereas heterotrophs cannot make their own food, so they must eat
or absorb it. Autotrophs are producers, heterotrophs are consumers. Autotrophs
make the food that heterotrophs eat (heterotrophs get their energy from
autotrophs, or from other animals that consumed autotrophs).
2. Photosynthesis, which is making energy from sunlight, and chemosynthesis,
which is producing food using the chemical energy stored in inorganic molecules,
are two types of food making processes. Photosynthesis provides over 99
percent of the energy for life on earth, so that process is quantitatively more
important to life on earth.
3. Answers will vary. The original source of energy is sunlight, which is absorbed by
autotrophs, such as maple trees, during photosynthesis. Grasshoppers eat the
leaves of the tree. Birds eat the bugs, snakes eat the birds, and final consumers
(big birds) eat the snakes, transferring energy at each step in the food chain.

2.18 Glucose and ATP

Review

Questions

1. The fact that all organisms use similar energy-carrying molecules shows one
aspect of the grand "Unity of Life." Name two universal energy-carrying
molecules, and explain why most organisms need both carriers rather than just
one.
2. A single cell uses about 10 million ATP molecules per second. Explain how cells
use the energy and recycle the materials in ATP.
3. ATP and glucose are both molecules that organisms use for energy. They are
like the tank of a tanker truck that delivers gas to a gas station and the gas tank
that holds the fuel for a car. Which molecule is like the tank of the delivery truck,
and which is like the gas tank of the car? Explain your answer.

Answers

1. Two of the most important energy-carrying molecules are glucose and ATP.
Glucose, the product of photosynthesis, stores energy for organisms. But for this
energy to be used by cells, it must be turned into ATP. Under the proper
conditions, many (up to 38) ATP can be produced for each glucose molecule.
2. The three phosphate groups of an ATP are linked by bonds which hold the
energy actually used by cells. Usually, only the outermost bond breaks to release
or spend energy for cellular work. An ATP molecule is like a rechargeable
battery: its energy can be used by the cell when it breaks apart into ADP and
phosphate, and then the "worn-out battery" ADP can be recharged using new
energy to attach a new phosphate and rebuild ATP.

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 3. Glucose is like the tank as the glucose delivers the energy to the cell, just link the
tank delivers the gas. ATP is like the gas tank as ATP is used for energy for the
cell, just like the gas tank stores the energy of the car.

2.19 Chloroplast

Review

Questions

1. Describe the chloroplast's role in photosynthesis.

2. Explain how the structure of a chloroplast (its membranes and thylakoids) makes
its function (the chemical reactions of photosynthesis) more efficient.
3. Describe electron carriers and the electron transport chain.

Answers

1. The chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis.

2. Each chloroplast contains neat stacks of thylakoids called grana. The thylakoid
membranes contain photosystems, which absorb sunlight. The light reactions of
photosynthesis occur in the thylakoid membranes. The stroma is the space
outside the thylakoid membranes. This is where the reactions of the Calvin cycle
take place. So having stacks of thylakoids, and having many thylakoids, allows
numerous photosynthesis reactions to occur simultaneously.
3. Electron carrier molecules are usually arranged in electron transport chains. The
electron carriers accept and pass along energy-carrying electrons in small steps.
In this way, they produce ATP and NADPH, which temporarily store chemical
energy.

2.20 Leaves and Photosynthesis

Review

Questions

1. Explain how a leaf is like a factory.

2. Explain the role of stomata during photosynthesis.
3. What controls the opening of stomata?

Answers

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 1. A factory has specialized machines to produce and transport a product. In a leaf,
the product is energy and the machines are all the organelles working together in
photosynthesis.
2. Stomata are pores on the leaf that can open and close to regulate gas exchange.
In photosynthesis, they control the transpiration of water vapor and the exchange
of carbon dioxide and oxygen.
3. Stomata are flanked by guard cells that swell or shrink by taking in or losing
water through osmosis.

2.21 Photosynthesis

Review

Questions

1. Summarize what happens during the light reactions of photosynthesis.

2. What is the chemiosmotic gradient?
3. Explain the role of the first electron transport chain in the formation of ATP during
the light reactions of photosynthesis.

Answers

1. During the light reactions, light energy is absorbed in the chloroplast, exciting
electrons. The electrons enter the electron transport chain, where a little ATP and
NADPH are produced. Water is split to replace the electrons that were lost to the
electron transport chain. The ATP and NADPH are used in the next part of
photosynthesis.
2. The chemiosmotic gradient is an electrochemical gradient across the thylakoid
membrane of the chloroplast and the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. It is
due to concentration differences of both positive charges and hydrogen ions.
3. The first electron transport chain captures the energy in the excited electrons and
uses it to pump hydrogen ions by active transport into the thylakoids. These
concentrated ions store potential energy by forming a chemiosmotic or
electrochemical gradient. The hydrogen ions “slide down” their concentration
gradient through ATP synthase, which uses their energy to chemically bond a
phosphate group to ADP, making ATP.

2.22 Calvin Cycle

Review

Questions

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 1. What happens during the carbon fixation step of the Calvin cycle?
2. What is special about RuBisCo?
3. What are stomata?
4. Explain what might happen if the third step of the Calvin cycle did not occur.
Why?
5. What is the main final product of the Calvin cycle? How many turns of the Calvin
cycle are needed to produce this product?

Answers

1. During carbon fixation, low-energy inorganic CO2 is built into high-energy organic
molecules, like glucose.
2. The most common carbon fixation pathway combines one molecule of CO2 with
a 5-carbon sugar called ribulose biphosphate (RuBP). The enzyme which
catalyzes this reaction isRuBisCo, and is the most abundant enzyme on earth.
3. Stomata are tiny openings under the leaf which normally allow CO2 to enter and
O2 to leave the leaf.
4. If step three of the Calvin cycle did not occur, then the process would stop. Step
three regenerates ribulose-5- phosphate, which is needed to restart the cycle.
5. The final product of the Calvin cycle is glucose. Six “turns” of the Calvin cycle are
needed to make one glucose.

2.23 Photosynthesis Summary

Review

No review questions.

2.24 Chemosynthesis

Review

Questions

1. What is chemosynthesis?
2. Why do bacteria that live deep below the ocean’s surface rely on chemical
compounds instead of sunlight for energy to make food?
3. Describe the habitats of extremophiles?

Answers

1. Chemosynthesis is a process in which some organisms use chemical energy

instead of light energy to produce "food."

CK-12 Biology Answer Keys - ​updated July 2019 14

 2. Bacteria that live deep below the ocean’s surface rely on chemical compounds
instead of sunlight for energy to make food, as the sunlight does not penetrate to
these parts of the ocean.
3. Extremophiles live in harsh conditions, such as in the absence of sunlight and a
wide range of water temperatures, some approaching the boiling point.

2.25 Aerobic vs Anaerobic Respiration

Review

Questions

1. Define aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

2. What process is common to both aerobic and anaerobic respiration?
3. Why do scientists think that glycolysis evolved before the other stages of cellular
respiration?

Answers

1. Aerobic respiration is the type of cellular respiration that requires oxygen, and
anaerobic respiration is the type of cellular respiration that does not require
oxygen.
2. Both aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration begin with glycolysis.
3. Scientists think that glycolysis evolved before the other stages of cellular
respiration because the other stages need oxygen, whereas glycolysis does not,
and there was no oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere when life first evolved about 3.5
to 4 billion years ago.

2.26 Cellular Respiration

Review

Questions

1. Define cellular respiration.

2. What are the three stages of cellular respiration?
3. Describe the structure of the mitochondrion and discuss the importance of this
structure in cellular respiration.
4. Assume that a new species of organism has been discovered. Scientists have
observed its cells under a microscope and determined that they
lack mitochondria. What type of cellular respiration would you predict that the
new species uses? Explain your prediction.

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 5. When you exhale onto a cold window pane, water vapor in your breath
condenses on the glass. Where does the water vapor come from?

Answers

1. Cellular respiration is the process in which cells break down glucose and make
ATP for energy.
2. The three stages of cellular respiration are glycolysis (stage 1), the Krebs cycle,
also called the citric acid cycle (stage 2), and electron transport (stage 3).
3. A mitochondrion has an inner and outer membrane. The space between the
inner and outer membrane is called the intermembrane space. The space
enclosed by the inner membrane is called the matrix. The second stage of
cellular respiration, the Krebs cycle, takes place in the matrix. The third stage,
electron transport, takes place on the inner membrane.
4. An organism without mitochondria in its cells would undergo anaerobic
respiration, as glycolysis would still occur, but the Krebs cycle and electron
transport chain of aerobic respiration would not.
5. The water vapor is exhaled as a product of cellular respiration.

2.27 Glycolysis

Review

Questions

1. What is glycolysis?
2. Describe what happens during glycolysis. How many ATP and NADH molecules
are gained during this stage?
3. Defend this statement: ‘‘Glycolysis is a universal and ancient pathway for making
ATP’’.

Answers

1. The first stage of cellular respiration is glycolysis, which is the splitting of glucose.
2. During glycolysis, enzymes split a molecule of glucose into two molecules of
pyruvate. The energy to split glucose is provided by two molecules of ATP. As
glycolysis proceeds, energy is released, and the energy is used to make four
molecules of ATP, so there is a net gain of two ATP molecules during glycolysis.
During this stage, high-energy electrons are also used to produce two molecules
of NADH.
3. Because glycolysis is used by all organisms, it is said to be universal. Glycolysis
is used to make two ATPs. As aerobic cellular respiration is not used by all
organisms, most biologists consider glycolysis to be the most fundamental and
primitive pathway for making ATP.

CK-12 Biology Answer Keys - ​updated July 2019 16

2.28 Krebs Cycle

Review

Questions

1. What is the Krebs cycle?

2. What are the products of the Krebs cycle?
3. Explain why two turns of the Krebs cycle are needed for each molecule of
glucose.

Answers

1. May also add the products here: The Krebs cycle is the second stage of cellular
respiration, where the energy stored in two molecules of pyruvate is transferred
to 4 ATPs, 10 NADHs, and 2 FADH2s.
2. The products of the Krebs cycle are 4 ATPs, 10 NADHs, and 2 FADH2s.
3. Glucose is split into two pyruvates during glycolysis. Each pyruvate enters the
Krebs cycle as an acetyl-CoA molecule, so since there are two pyruvates, two
turns of the cycle are needed for each glucose.

2.29 Electron Transport

Review

Questions

1. Summarize the overall task of Stage III of aerobic respiration.

2. Explain the chemiosmotic gradient.
3. What is the maximum number of ATP molecules that can be produced during the
electron transport stage of aerobic respiration?

Answers

1. The overall task of stage III is to transfer energy from NADH and FADH2, which
result from the Krebs cycle, to ATP.
2. The pumping of hydrogen ions across the inner membrane of the mitochondria
creates a greater concentration of the ions in the intermembrane space than in
the matrix. This creates a chemiosmotic gradient, which then causes the ions to
flow back across the membrane into the matrix, where their concentration is
lower.
3. Up to 34 ATPs are made during the electron transport stage.

CK-12 Biology Answer Keys - ​updated July 2019 17

2.30 Fermentation

Review

Questions

1. What is fermentation?
2. Name two types of fermentation.
3. What is the main advantage of aerobic respiration? Of anaerobic respiration?
4. What process produces fuel for motor vehicles from living plant products? What
is the waste product of this process?
5. Compare and contrast lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation.
Include examples of organisms that use each type of fermentation.

Answers

1. Fermentation is making ATP without oxygen, which involves glycolysis only. It is

a type of anaerobic respiration that includes glycolysis followed by the conversion
of pyruvic acid to one or more other compounds and the formation of NAD+.
2. Two types of fermentation include lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic
fermentation.
3. Anaerobic respiration allows organisms to produce ATP in the absence of
oxygen, although only a small amount of ATP is made. Aerobic respiration is
much more efficient at ATP production.
4. Alcoholic fermentation produces fuel for motor vehicles. The waste product of
this process is carbon dioxide. May also mention biofuels/ethanol.
5. Lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation both allow glycolysis to continue,
producing small amounts of ATP. In lactic acid fermentation, pyruvic acid from
glycolysis changes to lactic acid. This process is done by certain bacteria. In
alcoholic fermentation, pyruvic acid changes to alcohol and carbon dioxide. This
type of fermentation is carried out by yeasts and also some bacteria. Both types
of fermentation recycle NAD+.

2.31 Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration

Review

Questions

1. What is the main advantage of aerobic respiration? Of anaerobic respiration?

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 2. Tanya is on the high school track team and runs the 100-meter sprint. Marissa is
on the cross-country team and runs 5-kilometer races. Explain which type of
respiration the muscle cells in each runner’s legs use.

Answers

1. Aerobic respiration produces much more ATP than anaerobic respiration, but
anaerobic respiration occurs more quickly than aerobic respiration.
2. Tanya uses anaerobic respiration for energy because it gives her the energy she
needs for the short-term, intense activity. Marissa uses aerobic respiration
because it produces more energy but at a slower rate.

2.32 Cell Division

Review

Questions

1. Describe binary fission.

2. What is mitosis?
3. Contrast cell division in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Why are the two types of
cell division different?

Answers

1. Binary fission is how prokaryotic cells divide. It occurs in three phases: DNA
replication, chromosome segregation, and separation. Simply, the cells grows
and then splits into two cells.
2. Mitosis is a multi-phase process in which the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell
divides.
3. Cell division in eukaryotes includes mitosis, to ensure the many chromosomes
sort properly. As a prokaryotic cell only has one chromosome and no nucleus,
mitosis is not necessary. After DNA replication and chromosome segregation, the
cell can just grow and divide. In a eukaryotic cell, mitosis is followed by
cytokinesis.

2.33 Cell Cycle

Review

Questions

1. Identify the phases of the eukaryotic cell cycle.

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 2. What happens during interphase?
3. Define cancer.
4. Cells go through a series of events that include growth, DNA synthesis, and cell
division. Why are these events best represented by a cycle diagram?
5. Explain how the cell cycle is regulated.
6. Why is DNA replication essential to the cell cycle?

Answers

1. The phases of the eukaryotic cell cycle include the G1, S, and G2 phases, which
are grouped together as interphase, and the mitotic phase (M) which includes
both mitosis and cytokinesis.
2. During interphase the cell grows and completes its metabolic activities, the DNA
is replicated, and the cell prepares for mitosis.
3. Cancer is a disease that occurs with the loss of control of the cell cycle.
4. After cell division, the new cells enter the first phase of their cell cycle. So the
cycle begins again, thus it is represented as a circle.
5. The cell cycle is controlled mainly by regulatory proteins at key checkpoints.
These proteins control the cycle by signaling the cell to either start or delay the
next phase of the cycle. They ensure that the cell completes the previous phase
before moving on.
6. The DNA must be replicated prior to mitosis to ensure the two resulting cells are
genetically identical (both receive a complete set of DNA). Otherwise the
resulting cells would not function properly, and most likely die.

2.34 Chromosomes

Review

Questions

1. What are chromosomes? When do they form?

2. Identify the chromatids and the centromere of a chromosome.
3. Explain how chromosomes are related to chromatin. Why are chromosomes
important for mitosis?
4. How many chromosomes are in a normal human cell?

Answers

1. Chromosomes are coiled structures made of DNA and proteins. Chromosomes

are the form of the genetic material of a cell during cell division.
2. The two copies of replicated DNA are called sister chromatids. They are attached
to one another at a region called the centromere.

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 3. Chromosomes are the form of the genetic material of a cell during cell division.
During other phases of the cell cycle, DNA exists as grainy uncoiled material
called chromatin. The coiled chromosome structure is important to ensure proper
segregation of the chromosomes during mitosis.
4. Human cells normally have two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from
each parent. There are 23 chromosomes in each set, for a total of 46
chromosomes per cell.

2.35 Mitosis

Review

Questions

1. List the phases of mitosis, in order.

2. What happens during prophase of mitosis?
3. During which phase of mitosis do sister chromatids separate?
4. Describe what happens during cytokinesis in animal cells.
5. If a cell skipped metaphase during mitosis, how might this affect the two daughter
cells?
6. Explain the significance of the spindle fibers in mitosis.

Answers

1. The phases of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

2. During prophase, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the nuclear envelope
breaks down, and a spindle starts to form.
3. Sister chromatids separate during anaphase.
4. During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm splits in two and the cell divides. In animal
cells, the plasma membrane of the parent cell pinches inward along the cell’s
equator until two daughter cells form.
5. If a cell skipped metaphase, the resulting cells would probably not have an equal,
complete set of chromosomes, as the chromosomes would not line up properly.
Then they would not segregate equally during anaphase.
6. The spindle fibers ensure that sister chromatids will separate and go to different
daughter cells when the cell divides.

2.36 Reproduction

Review

Questions

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 1. What are three types of asexual reproduction?
2. Define gamete and zygote. What number of chromosomes does each have (in
humans)?
3. What happens during fertilization?
4. Compare and contrast asexual and sexual reproduction.

Answers

1. Three types of asexual reproduction are binary fission, fragmentation and

budding.
2. A gamete is a haploid sex cell (23 chromosomes), and a zygote is the first diploid
cell of a new organism (46 chromosomes).
3. During fertilization the nuclei of two haploid gametes join to form a diploid zygote.
4. Asexual reproduction involves one parent and produces offspring that are
genetically identical to each other and to the parent. Sexual reproduction involves
two parents and produces offspring that are genetically unique.

2.37 Meiosis

Review

Questions

1. What is meiosis?
2. Compare the events of metaphase I to metaphase II?
3. Create a diagram to show how crossing-over occurs and how it creates new
gene combinations on each chromosome.
4. Explain why sexual reproduction results in genetically unique offspring.
5. Explain how meiosis I differs from mitosis.

Answers

1. Meiosis is a type of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is reduced

by half.
2. During metaphase I, spindle fibers attach to the paired homologous
chromosomes. The paired chromosomes also line up along the equator (middle)
of the cell. During metaphase II, spindle fibers line up the sister chromatids of
each chromosome along the equator of the cell.
3. Answers will vary, but should include new chromosomes containing parts of the
original chromosomes. May also mention independent assortment of
chromosomes during metaphase.
4. Sexual reproduction has the potential to produce tremendous genetic variation in
offspring. This is due in part to crossing-over, which creates new allele
combinations, during meiosis.

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 5. Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, whereas mitosis separates sister
chromatids. Crossing-over also occurs during prophase I of meiosis I.

2.38 Gametogenesis

Review

Questions

1. What is gametogenesis, and when does it occur?

2. What are the main differences between oogenesis and spermatogenesis?
3. How many chromosomes are in a human oogonia?
4. Why is there unequal distribution of the cytoplasm during oogenesis?

Answers

1. The development of haploid cells into gametes is called gametogenesis, which

occurs after meiosis.
2. Spermatogenesis produces four haploid sperm, whereas oogenesis produces
one haploid egg cell and three polar bodies.
3. Oogonia are diploid, so human oogonia have 46 chromosomes.
4. As the zygote receives all of its cytoplasm from the egg cell, the egg needs to
have as much cytoplasm as possible, hence the unequal distribution of the
cytoplasm during egg formation.

2.39 Genetic Variation

Review

Questions

1. What is crossing-over and when does it occur?

2. Describe how crossing-over, independent assortment, and random fertilization
lead to genetic variation.
3. How many combinations of chromosomes are possible from sexual reproduction
in humans?
4. Create a diagram to show how crossing-over occurs and how it creates new
gene combinations on each chromosome.

Answers

1. Crossing-over is the exchange of genetic material between homologous

chromosomes. It occurs during prophase I.

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 2. Crossing-over is the exchange of genetic material between homologous
chromosomes and results in new combinations of genes on each chromosome.
When cells divide during meiosis, homologous chromosomes are randomly
distributed to daughter cells, and different chromosomes segregate (sort)
independently of each other. It results in gametes that have unique combinations
of chromosomes.
During sexual reproduction, fertilization is random, as any two gametes can unite
to produce an offspring. All these contribute to genetic variation.
3. well over 64 trillion
4. Answers will vary, but should include new chromosomes containing parts of the
original chromosomes.

2.40 Life Cycle

Review

Questions

1. What is a life cycle?

2. An adult organism produces gametes that quickly go through fertilization and
form diploid zygotes. The zygotes mature into adults, which live for many years.
Eventually the adults produce gametes and the cycle repeats. What type of life
cycle does this organism have? Explain your answer.
3. Which life cycle is the simplest? Why?
4. Describe the alternation of generations life cycle.

Answers

1. The series of life stages and events that a sexually reproducing organism goes
through is called its life cycle.
2. As the diploid adult is the primary form, this represents a diploid life cycle.
3. The haploid life cycle is the simplest life cycle. Organisms with a haploid life cycle
spend the majority of their lives as haploid gametes. When the haploid gametes
fuse, they form a diploid zygote. It quickly undergoes meiosis to produce more
haploid gametes that repeat the life cycle.
4. In an alternation of generations life cycle, the organism changes back and forth
from one generation to the next between haploid gametophyte and diploid
sporophyte stages.

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