3.1 Cell Structure
Carrier-mediated transport is the movement of a
1. Cells are highly organized units containing organelles,
which perform specific functions.
2. The nucleus contains genetic material, and cytoplasm
is the living material between the nucleus and the cell
membrane.
3.2 Functions of the Cell
1. Cells are the basic unit of life.
2. Cells protect and support the body, as well as provide
for cell metabolism, communication, and inheritance.
3.3 Cell Membrane
1. The cell membrane forms the outer boundary of the
cell. It determines what enters and leaves the cell.
2. The cell membrane is composed of a double layer of
phospholipid molecules in which proteins float. The
proteins function as membrane channels, carrier
molecules, receptor molecules, enzymes, and structural
components of the membrane.
3.4 Movement Through the Cell Membrane Diffusion
1. Diffusion is the movement of a solute from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
within a solvent. At equilibrium, the distribution of
molecules is uniform.
2. A concentration gradient is the concentration of a
solute at one point in a solvent minus the concentration
of that solute at another point in the solvent divided by
the distance between the points.
3. Lipid-soluble molecules pass through the cell
membrane readily by dissolving in the lipid portion of
the membrane. Small molecules and ions can pass
through membrane channels.
Osmosis
1. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively
permeable membrane.
2. Osmotic pressure is the force required to prevent
movement of water across a selectively permeable
membrane.
3. In a hypotonic solution, cells swell (and can undergo
lysis); in an isotonic solution, cells neither swell nor
shrink; in a hypertonic solution, cells shrink and undergo
crenation.
Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms
1.
substance across a membrane by means of a carrier
molecule. The substances transported tend to be large,
water-soluble molecules or ions.
2. Facilitated diffusion moves substances from a higher
to a lower concentration and does not require energy in
the form of ATP.
3. Active transport can move substances from a lower
to a higher concentration and requires ATP.
4. Secondary active transport uses the energy of one
substance moving down its concentration gradient to
move another substance across the cell membrane. In
cotransport, both substances move in the same direction;
in countertransport, they move in opposite directions.
Endocytosis and Exocytosis
1. Endocytosis is the movement of materials into cells by
the formation of a vesicle. Receptor-mediated
endocytosis involves cell receptors attaching to
molecules, which are then transported into the cell.
Phagocytosis is the movement of solid material into
cells. Pinocytosis is similar to phagocytosis, except that
the material ingested is much smaller and is in solution.
2. Exocytosis is the secretion of materials from cells by
vesicle formation.
3.5 Organelles Nucleus
1. The nuclear envelope consists of two separate
membranes that form nuclear pores at many points on
the surface of the nucleus.
2. DNA and associated proteins are found inside the
nucleus as chromatin. DNA is the hereditary material of
the cell and controls cell activities.
3. Nucleoli consist of RNA and proteins and are the sites
of ribosomal subunit assembly.
Ribosomes
1. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.
2. A ribosome is composed of one large and one small
subunit.
Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
1. Rough ER is ER with ribosomes attached. It is a
major site of protein synthesis.
2. Smooth ER does not have ribosomes attached and is a
major site of lipid synthesis.
Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus is a series of closely packed
membrane sacs that collect, modify, package, and
distribute proteins and lipids produced by the ER.
Secretory Vesicles
Secretory vesicles are membrane-bound sacs that carry
substances from the Golgi apparatus to the cell
membrane, where the vesicle contents are released.
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
Lysosomes and peroxisomes are membrane-bound sacs
containing enzymes. Within the cell, lysosomes break
down phagocytized material. Peroxisomes break down
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are the major sites for the production of
ATP, which cells use as an energy source. Mitochondria
carry out aerobic respiration (requires O2).
Cytoskeleton
1. The cytoskeleton supports the cytoplasm and
organelles and is involved with cell movements.
2. The cytoskeleton is composed of microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
Centrioles
Centrioles, located in the centrosome, are made of
microtubules. They facilitate chromosome movement
during cell division.
Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli
1. Cilia move substances over the surface of cells.
2. Flagella are much longer than cilia and propel sperm
cells.
3. Microvilli increase the surface area of cells and thus
aid in absorption.
3.6 Whole-Cell Activity
A cell’s characteristics are ultimately determined by the
types of proteins it produces, which are determined by
the genetic information in the nucleus. Understanding
how genetic information is used in the cell and
distributed to daughter cells is important for
understanding basic cellular activity.
Gene Expression
1. Cell activity is regulated by enzymes (proteins), and
DNA controls enzyme production.
2. During transcription, the sequence of nucleotides in
DNA (a gene) determines the sequence of nucleotides in
mRNA; the mRNA moves through the nuclear pores to
ribosomes.
3. During translation, the sequence of codons in mRNA
is used at ribosomes to produce proteins. Anticodons of
tRNA bind to the codons of mRNA, and the amino acids
carried by tRNA are joined to form a protein.
Cell during
1. The cell cycle consists of a series of events that
produce new cells for growth and for tissue repair.
2. The two phases of the cell cycle are interphase and
cell division.
3. DNA replicates during interphase, the nondividing
phase of the cell cycle.
4. Cell division occurs through mitosis, which is divided
into four stages:
∙ Prophase—each chromosome consists of two
chromatids joined at the centromere.
∙ Metaphase—chromosomes align at the center of the
cell.
∙ Anaphase—chromatids separate at the centromere and
migrate to opposite poles.
∙ Telophase—the two new nuclei assume their normal
structure, and cell division is completed, producing two
new daughter cells.
Differentiation
Differentiation, the process by which cells develop
specialized structures and functions, results from the
selective activation and inactivation of DNA sections.
Apoptosis
Apoptosis is the programmed death of cells. Apoptosis
regulates the number of cells within various tissues of
the body.
3.7 Cellular Aspects of Aging
Aging may be due to the presence of “cellular clocks,”
the function of “death genes,” DNA damage, free
radicals, or mitochondrial damage