BIOLOGY

Tr Sabe Win
Syllabus
 CHAPTER 1
Structures and Functions of Life
Content
⮚ Cells, Tissues, and Organs
Specialized Cells
Levels of Organization
⮚ Cell Functions and Components
Cell Components
⮚ Cell Division
Mitosis
Meiosis
Cells, Tissues and Organs
Historical landmarks of cell theory

✔ Honeycomb-like structure
✔ Named the term
Zacharias ✔ “CELL”
Iansen
invented
Microscope

Robert Hooke
1590

1665
Historical landmarks of cell theory
Bacteria Van Leeuwenhoek's main discoveries are:
Unicellular • Infusoria, in 1674
• Bacteria, in 1683 
• Vacuole of the cell
• Spermatozoa, in 1677
• The banded pattern of muscular fibers, in 1682

Antoine van Leeuwenhoek

1683
 Matthias Jakob Schleiden
Cell Theory
1838
• Basic building blocks
• Matthias Jakob Schleiden, all plant tissues are
composed of cells, and that cells are the basic
building blocks of all plants.

1839
• Theodor Schwann, a German botanist reached
the conclusion that not only plants, but animal
tissue as well is composed of cells.
Theodor Schwann
 Cell Theory

1. All organisms consist of one or more cells

2. The cell is the basic unit of structure for all

organisms
 1855

• Added 3rd part to the cell theory based on the cell division

3. All cells develop only from existing cells.

Rudolf Virchow, a German

 Modern Cell Theory

1. Cells are the 2. All living 3. New cells

smallest unit of things are can only be
structure and made up of produced
function in all one or more from other
living things Cells cells.
Specialized Cells

❖ Each type of cell is

specialized for a
particular job
Specialized Tissues
A group of specialized cells working together
make up a specialized tissue.

⮚ Connective tissue protects and connects other body

tissues to one another.
⮚ Bone, cartilage, and blood are connective tissues.
⮚ Epithelial tissue covers and protects the surface of
the body and the organs.
⮚ Skin is an epithelial tissue.
 Muscle tissue Nervous tissue

Connective tissue Epithelial tissue

Levels of Organization

Link
 Systems work together
in an organism

Systems work together

in an organ

ins
 EXERCISE 1

Choose the best answer for each of the following items.

1. Which statement is supported by the cell theory?
A. A single cell is not considered a living thing.
B. Anything that has cells is considered a living thing.
C. All living things are made of the same types of cells.
D. A living thing can absorb new cells from the environment.

2. Complete the statement with a term from the section.

A bone cell is _________________ to perform the unique function of storing
minerals for the body.
 Cell Functions and Components

Metabolism
▪ The set of chemical reactions that use the energy from food to build
substances the cell needs.
▪ two parts
▪1st - a series of reactions extract energy from food molecules and
convert it to a form of energy that the cell can use. (Catabolism)
▪2nd - a series of reactions uses that energy to fuel processes like
building proteins. (Anabolism)
Reproduction
▪ a necessary function for all cells
▪ Cells reproduce by a process called cell division.
▪ In this process, the “parent” cell divides into two identical
“daughter” cells.

• 2 types of reproduction_ asexual and sexual reproduction

• Asexually reproduces identical offspring (e.g., Binary fission, Mitosis)
• Sexual reproduction gives not identical (e.g., Meiosis)
Enzymes are also important molecules found inside cells.
Enzymes are proteins that help chemical reactions to occur faster. Without enzymes, a cell would not be able
to produce needed substances fast enough.
 Cell Organelles

Cell surface This surrounds the cell and controls the passage of
membrane substances into and out of the cell. One of the most
important of those substances is water. All other
substances that pass through, do so in solution.

Cytoplasm Cytoplasm – fluid which fills the space within the

Fig. A group of liver cells. These cells have all
the characteristics of animal cells
Nucleus
cell. Rich dissolved substances.
Nucleus – controlling organelle for cell activities.
Contains DNA

Fig. Stained liver cells

Endoplasmic reticulum
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – Multi-
folded tubular system made from cell
membrane
• Rough ER - appearance is given by
presence of ribosomes. Mainly involved in
protein transport
• Smooth ER – involved in digestion,
production and transport of fats
Ribosomes

• Ribosome - sites of protein synthesis

Mitochondria

• Mitochondrion - convert glucose into

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for the cell,
which provides energy for the cell

• ‘power plants’
• the sites of aerobic respiration.
• insect flight muscle and liver cells contain
vast numbers of mitochondria.
 Golgi Apparatus
• Golgi body – has a role in storage
and transport of things produced
within the cell
Lysosome

• Lysosome – sack like structures that digests

macromolecules
Nucleolus
• Nuclear membrane - the membrane that
surrounds the nucleus
Nucleolus - within the nucleus - produces
ribosomal RNA
Centrosome 

• Centrosome - a small body

located near the nucleus, has a
role in cell division
 Vacuoles
• The main function of vacuole
is to store substances, typically
either waste or harmful
substances, or useful
substances the cell will need
later on.
 EXERCISE 2

1. Which of the following is NOT a function performed by all cells?

A. reproducing
B. producing food
C. building proteins
D. converting energy

2. Complete the statement with a term from the section.

A cell cannot survive without mitochondria, because it would have no
source of _____________________ to run cell processes.
 Cell Division

▪ A cell reproduces by a process called cell division.

▪ Cell division occurs in three stages.
1st - the cell’s nucleus makes an extra copy of its deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
molecules, which carry the genetic instructions for forming new cells.
2nd - the nucleus divides into two parts, each containing an identical copy of the
DNA.
3rd - the “parent” cell divides into two identical “daughter” cells.
Asexual Reproduction ?
1) Prokaryotes or eukaryotes ???
2)

Sexual Reproduction ?
1)

Prokaryotes or eukaryotes ???

 Cell Cycle

5 stages
•Interphase
1. G1 – 10 growth phase – G1, S, G2 Phases
2. S – Synthesis, •Mitosis (M)
DNA replication •Cytokinesis (C)
3. G2 – 20 growth phase
4. M – Mitosis
5. G0 (C) - Cytokinesis

❖ During Interphase,
DNA replication, centrioles preparation, prepare for
cell division
Structure of a Chromosome
Human Chromosomes
Mitosis

▪ Mitosis is the name for the second stage of cell division, when the
cell’s nucleus divides in two.
▪ Mitosis occurs in four predictable phases, each of which is described
in the following table.
▪ Remember that the cell starts mitosis with two copies of the DNA,
and ends mitosis as two identical cells, each containing one copy of
the DNA.

❖ Division of nucleus
❖ Karyokinesis
❖ Eukaryotes
❖ 4 stages
 1
- Chromatin to visible chromosomes
- Centrioles
-Nucleus disappears
- centrioles move to the poles

2
- Chromosome are in center
(equator)
- Spindle formation

3
- Occurs rapidly
- 2 sister chromatids towards
opposite poles

4
- Nuclear envelope occurs
- Nucleolus and chromosomes
reappear
- Cytokinesis occurs
Meiosis

⮚ Meiosis is a special type of cell division that produces reproductive cells.

⮚ Reproductive cells have half the number of chromosomes found in a
regular body cell, so they must be made by a special process.
⮚ Meiosis occurs in two stages: meiosis I and meiosis II.
⮚ Both stages are described in the following list. As in mitosis, the cell
makes a copy of its DNA before starting meiosis.
Reduction – division
Original cell is diploid (2n) {zygote}
Daughter cell is haploid (n)
Produce gametes ( sperm and egg cell)
Male – spermatogenesis
Female – Oogenesis
Prophase I. DNA condenses into structures called chromosomes and the nucleus
disappears. Matching pairs of chromosomes trade segments in a process
called crossing over.
Metaphase I. Chromosomes line up in matching pairs.
Anaphase I. One chromosome from each pair moves to the opposite side of the cell.
Telophase I. The cell splits in two.
 Prophase II. Two cells have the same number of chromosomes as
the original. Unlike prophase I, during this phase
there is no new replication of DNA.
Metaphase II. Individual chromosomes line up in each cell.
Anaphase II. Chromosomes split into chromatids. Chromatids
move to opposite sides of the cell.
Telophase II. A nucleus reforms around each set of chromatids.
Each cell splits in two again.
❖ Notice that the final result of meiosis is four reproductive cells, each with
Gamete (egg and sperm) forms half the DNA of a regular body cell.
4 haploid cells
1 allele of each gene
Meiosis
Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis
 EXERCISE 3

Question 1 is based on the following diagram.

1. A student creates the drawing shown as he observes mitosis in onion root cells
under a microscope. Place a circle on the diagram to indicate the cell that
appears to be transitioning from metaphase to anaphase.
2. Indicate your answer choice by connecting the correct process(es) to each
description. Each process may be used more than once.
Thank you for your attention !
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