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Chapter 3:
Movement Into & Out the Cell

Movement of molecules
I. Diffusion
If there is a region of high concentration and a region of low concentration we cansay that there is a
concentration gradient between the
regions.

The net movement of molecules within a gas or

liquid from a region of high concentration to a
region of lower concentration (down a
concentration gradient) as a result of their random
movement until an equilibrium is reached.

o Brownian Motion
All particles move randomly at all
times. The energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of this random movement of
molecules and ions.

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

1- Temperature
Increase in temperature increases the rate of diffusion as it increases the kinetic energy of the
molecules. (e.g. Ammmonia on hands)
2- Distance of diffusion
The longer the distance, the longer the time taken for diffusion and vice versa.
3-Surface area to volume ratio
When increases, it leads to an increase in rate of diffusion.
4-Concentration gradient (difference in concentration)
Increase in difference of concentration leads to an increase in rate of diffusion.

Importance of diffusion of gases

1. Necessary for exchange of gases in all living organisms.
2. Necessary for obtaining carbon dioxide and release of oxygen in the process
of photosynthesis.

Importance of water as a solvent:

• 75% of cell components is water
• Many substances move around the cell dissolved in water
• Many needed reactions occur in water

Biology CIE OL - 23/2024 Dr. Ahmad Salem

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Example:
A-In plant: Absorption of minerals from soil by root hair cell.
B-Animal: Absorption of glucose from the small intestine to blood stream.

II. Osmosis
What is osmosis?
Net movement of water molecules from area of
high concentration of water (dilute solution) to
area of low concentration of water (concentrated
solution) through partially permeable membrane.
• Osmosis is passive that doesn’t need energy
to take place.
• It takes place in both animal and plant cells
as both have cell membrane.
N.B.
Water potential: The ability of water molecules
to move from one place to another.
Water potential gradient: Presence in water potential of different media.

Plant Osmosis
Plant cell doesn’t burst as it has a cell wall that is elastic as it’s made of cellulose so it’s
stretched and never break.
Plasmolysis
Plasmolysis: It is the shrinking of cytoplasm of plant cell so
that cellmembrane tears away from cell wall
It is an irreversible condition because it damages the cell
membrane when it tears away from the cell wall. It is a
condition caused by the process of osmosis.
Features of plasmolysis:
– Sap vacuole shrinks.
– Cytoplasm is pulled away from cell wall.
– Cell membrane is seen
– There is a space between cell wall and cell
membrane that contains outersolution as water
– No change in cell wall.
Turgor pressure within cells, Water pressure acting against an inelastic cell wall needed to
support plant.

Importance of osmosis for plants:

1- Absorption of water by root
hair cells
2- Preventing plants’ wilting
3- Provide support by turgidity.

Biology CIE OL - 23/2024 Dr. Ahmad Salem

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Flaccid: soft and limp; not firm

Effect of osmosis on plant cell

In dilute solution
High water potential (HWP)
As pure water-distilled water-dilutedsolution
The cell gains water by osmosis Water moves
from outside to inside
Vacuole enlarges and cell swells and becomes Turgid
Cell membrane is pushed against cellwall
Turgidity supports the plant cell
In concentrated solution
Low water potential (LWP)
As high concentrated of salt or sugarsolution
Cell loses water by osmosis Water moves from
inside the cell to outside
Vacuole shrinks and cell becomesflaccid
Cell membrane is pulled away from cellwall
Cell shrinks and becomes plasmolysed

The differences between uptake of water and uptake of minerals by the root hair cells
- Uptake of water takes place by the process of osmosis which is a passive process while
uptake of minerals takes place by the process of active uptake which is an active
process.
- In uptake of water, the molecules of water move from regions of their higher
concentration (potential), while in uptake of minerals the molecules move from
regions of their lower concentrations to regions of their higher concentrations (against
their concentration gradient).
Remember that No active transport for water or gases

Animal Cells & Osmosis

If an animal cell is placed in higher water potential
- The cell gains water and bursts, therefore the pressure inside the animal cell
cannot be higher than that inside the plant cell.

If an animal cell is placed in lower water potential

- Cytoplasm shrinks and the cell shrivels up.
( It is not plasmolysed as plasmolysis includes separation of the cell membrane away from
the cell wall and the animal cell has no cell wall.)

Effect of osmosis on animal cell

In dilute solution
High water potential (HWP)
As pure water-distilled water-dilutedsolution
The cell gains water by osmosis Water
moves from outside to inside
Cell bursts
In concentrated solution
Low water potential (LWP)
As high concentrated of salt or sugarsolution
Cell loses water by osmosis Water
moves from inside the cell to outside
Cytoplasm shrinks and cell shrivels up

Biology CIE OL - 23/2024 Dr. Ahmad Salem

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III. Active Transport

How active transport occurs? By special carrier protein in the cell membrane.

Carrier protein:
Protein found in cell membrane that forces particles against their
concentration gradient.
They’re specific (for each type of carrier has a specific precise
shape that can bind with specific particles).

How carrier proteins act?

The solute is taken in the binding site of the carrier. The carrier
molecules rotate using energy to transfer the solute from lower
concentration area to its higher concentration area.

Factors affecting active transport:

1- Number of mitochondria: (increasing mitochondria
leads to release moreenergy; this causes more active
uptake to occur)
2- Concentration of O2: When it increases, the rate of
aerobic respiration increases so more released energy
is produced and fast active uptake occurs.
3- Number of carrier proteins: This increase the rate of active transport.

Important questions:
Q1) Why respiration rate increases during uptake of minerals?
-Because active uptake needs energy that is released by respiration
Q2) Explain how root hair cell of pea plant absorb ions from soil with low nitrate
concentration?
-By active transport where molecules of ion is taken in the binding site of the carrier then
The carrier molecules rotate using energy to transfer the solute fromlower concentration area
to its higher concentration area

Practical Osmosis Experiments

The most common osmosis practical involves cutting cylinders of potato and placing them into
distilled water and sucrose solutions of increasing concentration.
The potato cylinders are weighed before placing into the solutions. They are left in the solutions for
20 – 30 minutes and then removed, dried to remove
excess liquid and reweighed.

The potato cylinder in the distilled water will have

increased its mass the most as there is a greater

Biology CIE OL - 23/2024 Dr. Ahmad Salem

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concentration gradient in this tube between the distilled water (high water potential) and the potato
cells (lower water potential)

This means more water molecules will move into the potato cells by osmosis, pushing the cell
membrane against the cell wall and so increasing the turgor pressure in the cells which makes them
turgid – the potato cylinders will feel hard.
The potato cylinder in the strongest sucrose concentration will have decreased its mass the most as
there is a greater concentration gradient in this tube between the potato cells (higher water potential)
and the sucrose solution (lower water potential).

This means more water molecules will move out of the potato cells by osmosis, making them flaccid
and decreasing the mass of the cylinder – the potato cylinders will feel floppy.

If looked at underneath the microscope, cells from this potato cylinder might be plasmolysed,
meaning the cell membrane has pulled away from the cell wall.
If there is a potato cylinder that has not increased or decreased in mass, it means there was no overall
net movement of water into or out of the potato cells.

This is because the solution that cylinder was in was the same concentration as the solution found in
the cytoplasm of the potato cells, so there was no concentration gradient.

Chemicals and Solutions

Saturated salt solution (about 1g NaCl/mL of water)
Materials
1 About 6 inches of dialysis tubing
2 50 mL burette with tip removed
3 Food coluoring
4 Dialysis tubing
5 Tall beaker of water
6 Celery, cucumber & white carnation
Procedure
Cut about 15 cm of dialysis tubing and soften it in water.
Tie one end of the dialysis tubing in a double knot to make a leak proof bag.
Secure the buret to a stand. Slide the open end of the dialysis bag around the 50 mL buret
and pull the bag up so that the bag and tubing overlap for about one inch. Secure the bag
around the buret using a rubber band.
Use food coloring to color about 100 mL of saturated salt solution and then add the salt
solution to the dialysis bag by pouring it through the top of the buret. The bag should be
filled with salt solution.
Immerse the bag in a beaker of saturated salt solution until classtime.
To present the demo, remove the beaker of saturated salt solution and immerse the bag in
deionized water. Water will pass through the membrane into the bag causing the liquid level
in the buret to rise.
Discussion
The dialysis tubing is a semipermeable membrane. Water molecules can pass through the
membrane. The salt ions can not pass through the membrane. The net flow of solvent
molecules through a semipermeable membrane from a pure solvent (in this cause deionized
water) to a more concentrated solution is called osmosis.

Biology CIE OL - 23/2024 Dr. Ahmad Salem

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Chapter 4:
Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalyst made of proteins that speeds up the metabolic reactions
without being used and are released to cataylse more reactions.
 Protein which is made from the genes from the DNA of the nucleus.
 Biological as it is made and found in living cells.
 Catalyst as it increases the rate of chemical reactions without being used up.
(chemically unchanged)

Cells contain hundreds of different enzymes, each catalyses different

reactions, Genes control production of enzymes. Different Types of
Enzymes and some major enzymes, and the functions:
Enzymes control a lot of vital processes in an organism, such as
Respiration, photosynthesis, digestion, protein synthesis, etc.

Enzymes are classified according to:

Site of formation and action

Intracellular enzymes Extracellular enzymes
Made and work inside the same cells. Made inside cells and work outside
e.g.: Respiratory Enzymes these cells. e.g.: pancreatic enzymes.

Function
Catabolic enzymes Anabolic enzymes
Break down large particles into small Build up small particles to form large
ones. ones.

Biology CIE OL - 23/2024 Dr. Ahmad Salem

Substrate: molecules on which the enzyme act.
Product: produced molecule at the end of the reaction.

Substrate Enzyme Product

Starch Amylase Maltose
Proteins Protease Amino acids
Lipids (fats) Lipase Fatty acids +
glycerol

How an enzyme works:

The “lock and key” theory suggests of one way of enzyme actions. Active site is
part of the enzyme that holds to the substrate. Substrate is the substance the
enzyme will work on.
Enzymes have a specific and unique 3D shape, and so the active site of each enzyme
will be different. Each active site will be complementary to a specific substrate.
Only one enzyme works on one substrate. This is called substrate specificity.
It is called lock and key, as only one key will open one lock, just as only one
enzyme will work on one substrate.
Enzymes speed up chemical reaction by lowering activation energy needed to start
the reaction.
Enzymes require in minute amounts. A small amount of enzyme can catalyse a large
number of chemical reactions, for example, a spoon of washing powder containing
enzymes is enough to wash a large number of clothes clean.

Factors affecting enzymes activity:

- Enzyme action: To the complementary shape of the active site of an enzyme and its
substrate and the formation of a product.
- An enzyme can be denatured by the environment (high temperatures or extreme pH).
Denaturation is when the enzyme’s shape is changed and the active site no longer is
specific. i.e. The enzyme can no longer catalyse the reaction.

1. Temperature:
• Each enzyme has its optimum temperature at which it
works better.
• Below the optimum, the activity of the enzyme is
lower.
• By heating the enzyme till the optimum, molecules of
enzymes gain more kinetic energy, more collision
between the particles, so faster reaction.
• If the enzyme is heated above the optimum, i.e.
increases more, molecules colloid and vibrates faster, as
enzymes are protein in nature, vibration destroys its
active site, reduces its activity and denatured.
• Denaturing is permanent, so the enzyme can no longer
catalyse the reaction.
2. pH Value:
• pH affects and denatures enzymes.
• Like optimum temperatures, enzymes also have an optimum pH.

Biology CIE OL - 23/2024 Dr. Ahmad Salem

 • Optimum pH is the enzyme’s preferred pH to work in, giving its maximum rate of
activity.
• Different enzymes have different optimum pHs, depending on their site of action.

Pepsin, an enzyme which works in the stomach has a very

low optimum pH, because it needs to work in the acidic
stomach environment.
Amylase, an enzyme which works in the saliva of the mouth
has a fairly neutral optimum pH, as the pH of the mouth is
fairly neutral.

• Change in pH on either side of the optimum temperature (decrease OR increase) will

denature the enzyme. The extreme pHs will also destroy the bonds that hold the
protein structure.

3. Enzyme or substrate concentration:

• Increasing concentration of the enzyme or the substrate, increase binding energy
between molecules together, so the rate is faster.

4. Surface area:
Increasing surface area, more contact
between enzyme and substrate, so
faster rate of reaction.

Enzyme Investigations
Amylase is an enzyme that digests starch (a polysaccharide of glucose) into maltose (a
disaccharide of glucose). Starch can be tested for easily using iodine solution.
Investigating the Effect of Temperature on Amylase
Starch solution is heated to a set temperature
Iodine is added to wells of a spotting tile.
Amylase is added to the starch solution and mixed well

Biology CIE OL - 23/2024 Dr. Ahmad Salem

Every minute, droplets of solution are
added to a new well of iodine solution
This is continued until the iodine stops
turning blue-black (this means there is
no more starch left in the solution as the
amylase has broken it all down). Time
taken for the reaction to be completed
is recorded
Experiment is repeated at different
temperatures. The quicker the reaction is
completed, the faster the enzyme is working
Investigating the Effect of pH on the Working of the Enzyme Amylase
Place single drops of iodine solution in rows on the tile

Label a test tube with the pH to be tested. Use the syringe to place 2cm3 of amylase in the
test tube. Add 1cm3 of buffer solution to the test tube using a syringe

Use another test tube to add 2cm3 of starch solution to the amylase and buffer solution,
start the stopwatch whilst mixing using a pipette. After 10 seconds, use a pipette to place one
drop of mixture on the first drop of iodine, which should turn blue black.
Wait another 10 seconds and place another drop of mixture on the second drop of iodine
Repeat every 10 seconds until iodine solution remains orange brown.
Repeat experiment at different pH values – the less time the iodine solution takes to remain
orange brown, the quicker all the starch has been digested and so the better the enzyme
works at that pH.

Biology CIE OL - 23/2024 Dr. Ahmad Salem