MODULE II.
NATURE OF SCIENCE
Biology is the science of life or the study of living things.
Biologists could study anything from macroscopic to submicroscopic levels of the
organisms that inhabit a living planet.
Molecular biology and Biochemistry- study biological processes at the molecular
and
chemical level such as interactions and regulations of DNA, RNA and proteins.
Microbiology- study of microorganisms.
Neurobiology/Neuroscience- study of the nervous system.
Paleontology- study of fossils to determine life’s history.
Zoology- study of animals.
Botany- study of plants.
Basic Properties of Life
1. Chemical Uniqueness: Living systems demonstrate a unique and complex
molecular
organization.
-basically made of atoms, combined to form molecules that reacts
chemically inside the cell and form more complex macromolecules.
-these four macromolecules or biomolecules such as nucleic acid, proteins,
carbohydrates and
lipids that plays important role to maintain bodily functions.
2. Complexity and Hierarchical Organization.
Levels of organization of the human body:
atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and
the human organism.
3. Reproduction:
TWO forms: sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction- requires union of two gametes (egg cell and sperm cell).
Asexual Reproduction- can produce offspring without gametes.
4. Genetic program: This genetic material is called the DNA or deoxyribonucleic
acid. Along with RNA or ribonucleic acid. These components are important in the
synthesis of protein.
5. Metabolism- Organisms maintain themselves by acquiring nutrients from their
environments.
Two types of Metabolism
1. Anabolic Metabolism- produces complex materials from simpler ones.
(constructive) Ex. Photosynthesis
2. Catabolism- form simple substances from complex ones (destructive).
Ex. Cellular Respiration
6. Development- All organisms pass through characteristic stages in their life cycle.
This change or transformation form one stage to another is called metamorphosis.
7. Environmental interaction: in order to survive in their habitat.
To interact means to respond to the stimuli present in their environment. The ability
to respond is called irritability while the ability to withstand the changes in their
environment and survive is called adaptation.
8. Movement: Living systems can move or transfer from one place to another by
energy used.
The Scientific Method
Biology is a body of science. Biology as science applies scientific method in
gathering truths.
Science is a form of knowledge which covers general truths or the operation of
general laws acquired and tested by the scientific method.
scientific method is a method of research with defined steps that include
experiments and careful observations.
steps of the scientific method:
1. Observation.
2. Asking a question.
3. Forming a hypothesis or prediction.
4. Testing a hypothesis or prediction.
5. Analyzing results.
6. Report results.
Science does not claim to “prove” anything because scientific understandings are
always subject to modification with further information. Meaning, in science,
what is true today may not be true tomorrow.

Diversity of Life
The existence of several branches and sub disciplines signifies how diverse life on
earth is. The source of diversity is evolution, the process of gradual change during
which new species arise from older species.
MODULE III. BIOMOLECULES
Macromolecule is an extremely large molecule called a polymer made up of many
smaller molecules called monomers.
found in the cell, tissues and the food we eat.
composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorous.
Four Important Macromolecules
a. Carbohydrates
b. Proteins
c. Lipids
d. Nucleic acids
Organic Biomolecules
 Carbohydrates are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in
1:2:1
ratio. It plays two important functions: as primary energy source (glucose,starch
and glycogen) and for cell strengthening (component of plant cell wall and
invertebrate’s exoskeleton).
Carbohydrates are classified according to sizes.
a. Monosaccharides- simple sugars.
b. Disaccharides- double sugars. Two simple sugars joined together. This has to be
broken down to monosaccharide form to enter the bloodstream.
c. Polysaccharides- complex sugar, or long chain or long branching chain of simple
sugar.
 Lipids are fatty substances insoluble to water but can be dissolved in acetone
and alcohol. it also has carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but usually oxygen is
outnumbered by carbon and hydrogen.
The most abundant lipids are fat, phospholipids and steroids.
Forms of lipids and their role in the body:
1. Fats- secondary energy source of the body.
a. Triglycerides (Neutral fat)- most abundant type of fat (95%) in human body.
(provides protection and insulation to body organs. This is the major source of
energy in the body.)
b. Trans fat- are hydrogenated fatty acids often branded to increase the risk of
heart disease.
c. Saturated fat- fatty acid with single covalent bond between carbons that
solidifies at cold temperature.
d. Unsaturated fat (Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats)- fatty acid with
double covalent bond between carbons that remains liquid when temperature
drops.
2.Phospholipids- contains glycerol and two fatty acids link to a phosphate group.
most abundant component of the cell membrane that allows cell to be selectively
permeable to any substances that enters or leaves.
3. Steroids – are complex alcohols with fatlike properties.
Most important steroid is cholesterol, found in the cell membrane, raw material of
Vitamin D, steroid hormones and bile salts.
 Proteins are large complex molecules composed of amino acids as its building
block. It accounts the 50% of the organic matter of the body and performs the
most varied functions.
Roles of proteins in the human body:
1. Structural component of hair, nails, tissues and organs (collagen,
keratin)
2. Hormone production can also be protein based (growth hormones,
insulin)
3. Facilitate the transport of substances in the cell (transporter proteins)
4. Provides bodily strength such as those found in the bone, cartilage
and tendons (collagen).
 Nucleic acid is the largest biological molecules in the body. building blocks
called nucleotides.
two most important forms of nucleic acids are the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
and
ribonucleic acid (RNA) which differ in all aspects.
 Water makes up a large portion of the substances in a living organism.
 Salt, Acids, Bases and Buffers
Salt are ionic compounds containing cations other than H+ and anions other than
OH-. Salts contain charged particles, they are also called electrolytes capable of
conducting electrical current.
Acids and bases are also electrolytes that release ions either H+ or OH- when
dissociate with water. The concentration of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions can be
measured in units called pH or power of hydrogen.
MODULE III: CELLULAR STRUCTURE AND BASIC FUNCTION PART 1
Cell is the basic functional unit of life.
Cohesive function is attributed to each of the cell parts called the organelles
suspended within the living substance known as the protoplasm.
The study of cell dates back from the time it was first observed under the
microscope in 1674 by the scientist named Robert Hooke.
Experiment confirmed that:
1. All living things are composed of cells and cell products.
2. A single cell is the smallest unit that exhibits all the characteristics of life.
3. All cell come only from preexisting cells.
There are two types, a prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
Unit 1. Cell Structure and Functions
structures are found in a eukaryotic cell:
1. Plasma membrane or cell membrane- It regulates the entry and
exit of molecules in the cell through its pliable structure.
-the outermost covering that serves as barrier between the internal and the external
environment of the cell.
Its structure is mainly composed of a phospholipid bi-layers, proteins and
carbohydrates.
a. Phospholipid molecule
b. Membrane proteins
c. Carbohydrates
2. Nucleus- the membrane bound compartment that houses the genetic material
and function as the “control center of the cell’. Inside the nucleus is a spherical
particle suspended within the nucleoplasm called nucleolus where RNA and some
proteins in ribosomal production are synthesized.
3. Cytoplasm- this is the cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma
membrane.
The cytoplasm components are the organelles, and the ground substance, cytosol
that is semi-fluid in texture due to mixture of inorganic and organic compounds in it.
4. Endomembrane organelles- the metabolic machinery of the cell.
Structure and functions of each organelle:
a. Mitochondria- are membrane-bound cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular)
They make most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP),a molecule
that cells use as a source of energy.
b. Endoplasmic Reticulum- is a continuous membrane system that forms a
series of flattened sacs within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
Two types of ER
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and a smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER).
RER is used to support the expenses which cannot be conveniently issued
official receipts/invoice.
SER is a type of endoplasmic reticulum consisting of tubular vesicles that
lack ribosomes on the outer surface and is involved in the synthesis and
storage of lipids.
c. Golgi Apparatus- can also be called Golgi bodies. It is also a cell
organelle that helps process and package proteins and lipid molecules,
especially proteins destined to be exported from the cell.
d. Lysosomes- it is regarded as “the suicide bag of the cell” or “the
demolition site of the cell”.
Lysosomes carry out intracellular digestion via phagocytosis or autophagy.
e. Peroxisomes- contain powerful oxidase enzymes that detoxify reactive
oxygen species or free radicals such as hydrogen peroxides and turn them
into water. These structures are numerous in the liver and kidney cells.
f. Non-membranous organelle- these are structures in a cell which are not
made of membranes but still perform relevant and important functions in a
cell.
a. Ribosomes- cellular particle made of RNA and protein that serves as the
site for protein synthesis in the cell.
b. Cytoskeleton- helps cells maintain their shape and internal
organization, and it also provides mechanical support that enables cells
to carry out essential functions like division and movement.
Three components of Cytoskeleton
1. Intermediate filaments- support cell shape and fix organelles in place.
2. Microfilaments- involve in cell motility and producing changes in the
cell shape.
3. Microtubules- determine the overall shape of a cell and guide
movement of the organelles.
C. Centrioles- made of fine microtubules
Pair in an animal cell which together referred to as
centrosome.
D. Cilia and Flagella
Cillia are short, whip like cellular extensions that move substances along its
surface while Flagella are longer projections that enables a cell to move.
Unit 2. Membrane Transport
A. Selective permeability means it could allow substances to pass through
while excluding others.
Two ways and several types are associated to each:
Simple Diffusion-does not require the assistance of membrane proteins.
Facilitated Diffusion- the passive movement of molecules across the cell
membrane via the aid of a membrane protein.
Osmosis- diffusion of water molecules across a semi-permeable
membrane.
B. Active Transport- energy in a form of ATP is spent by the cell during
transport process.
Other mechanism where active and passive transport are impossible is
the vesicular transport, also known as bulk transport.
Vesicular Transport- involves the expenditure of ATP when substances
move but not exactly crossing the plasma membrane.
Two type of vesicular transport:
a. Exocytosis- “out of the cell”
b. Endocytosis- “into the cell”
Forms of Endocytosis:
a. Phagocytosis- “cell eating”
b. Pinocytosis- “cell drinking”
c. Receptor-mediated endocytosis- cell takes in specific target
molecules by binding with receptor proteins.
Unit 3. Cell Reproduction: Mitosis and Meiosis
Cellular reproduction is a process by which a cell duplicates itself.
Cellular reproduction occurs in both somatic cells and germ cells.
Somatic cells are the term used to refer to all cells in the body except
the sex cells. Germ cells are those that produce egg and sperm.
A single somatic cell of human produces two daughter cells
chromosomes (23 pairs) while a single sex cell forms 4 daughter
cells with haploid number of chromosomes (23 chromosomes each).
Cell Cycle: The Process:
Cell life cycle or cell cycle constitutes a series of changes a cell goes
through from the time of its birth until it divides.
It has two general phases; interphase followed by mitosis.
Mitosis is the phase where nucleus divides (karyokinesis) then followed
by the division of its cytoplasm (cytokinesis).
Interphase- cell spend time in growing, metabolizing and maintaining
itself.
Phases of Interphase:
• G1 phase (Gap 1 phase)- growth phase in the cell cycle.
• S phase (Synthesis phase)- DNA is replicated during this phase as
well as duplicates the centriole. This phase lasts between 8-10 hours.
• G2 phase (Gap 2 phase)- cells grows more, synthesize protein and
organelles and prepare itself for mitosis. Last approximately 5 hours in
this stage.
•G0 phase- the resting phase where a cell temporarily stopped dividing
and rest prior to mitosis.
Mitosis phase (M phase)- two daughter cells are formed after this
process.
Subdivided into four phases:
-prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase where cytokinesis and
formation of two new cells happen.When cytokinesis is absent, the cell
appears to be prominently large with more than one nucleus.
Stages of mitosis:
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase. Cytokinesis typically
overlaps with anaphase and/or telophase.
Cell Cycle Control:
These control triggers provide a “stop” and “advance” signals critical
for maintaining the health of an organism and escape from these
controls can lead to cancer.
Factors that control cell division
• Essential nutrients- important for growth.
• Toxic substances- may alter growth or worst-case scenario is death of
the cell.
• Presence of growth factors - stimulates or suppress cell division.
Cell density- when cells are tightly packed, it stops to grow.Certain
molecules also program some cells to die, a process called apoptosis.
Meiosis is a reduction division process where each of the four gametes
(or sex cells, egg or sperm) formed contain half the number of
chromosomes from the diploid state of 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs.
Unit 4. Cellular Metabolism
Metabolism refers to the total chemical changes brought by chemical
reactions inside the cell.
Two categories of metabolism:
• Anabolism- energy- requiring process that builds larger molecules by
combining smaller molecules. Ex. Photosynthesis
• Catabolism- energy-requiring process that breaks down larger
molecules into simpler form. Ex. Cellular respiration
MODULE III: CELLULAR STRUCTURE AND BASIC FUNCTION PART 2
How exchanges of molecules happen in multicellular cells.
 Animal
three types of intercellular junctions:
A. tight junctions- are multiprotein junctional complexes whose canonical
function is to prevent leakage of solutes and water and seals between the
epithelial cells.
B. Desmosomes- specialized adhesive protein complexes that localize to
intercellular junctions and are responsible for maintaining the mechanical
integrity of tissues.
C. gap junctions- specialized intercellular connections between a multitude
of animal cell-types.
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration:
Photosynthesis uses sun’s energy into chemical energy usable by cells.
Cellular respiration uses the chemical energy in food into energy the cells
can use.
Photosynthesis- a process by which carbon dioxide and water with the
aid of sunlight are converted into glucose and used as food by the plants
and oxygen as by-product.