1.

In three (3) to five (5) sentences, compare and contrast the following:
a. prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
- The main difference between the two is that prokaryotic cells are
unicellular and eukaryotic cells may be unicellular or multicellular. This
means that prokaryotic cells make-up bacteria and eukaryotic cells
make-up plants and animals and are much more diverse. Prokaryotic
cells are way smaller than eukaryotic cells (at 0.2-2.0 micrometers and
10-100 micrometers respectively), prokaryotic cells have no nuclear
membranes while eukaryotic cells do and have a true nucleus, they
have simple and complex flagella respectively, prokaryotes have smaller
ribosomes than eukaryotes, and they reproduce via binary fission and
mitosis, respectively.
b. catalysts and enzymes
- A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a reaction. An
Enzyme protein that functions as a catalyst to speed up chemical
reactions in an organism’s body and serves to enable biological
important processes. Although both serve the same purpose and share
the fact that they are both sensitive to their environment, their main
differences lie in the fact that enzymes are a type of catalyst (they are
sometimes called biological catalysts) can only be found in living
organisms, and that they are all proteins.
c. passive and active transport
- Passive transport uses no energy and moves material randomly and
spreads it out from high concentration areas to low concentration areas.
Types of passive transports are called diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and
osmosis. Active transport, however, makes use of energy and actively
moves material to where they are needed from areas of low
concentration to areas with high concentration. Three major types of
active transports are phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated
endocytosis. Both are ways in which your body move materials in and
out of your body.
d. Sandwich Model and Fluid Mosaic Model
- The sandwich model was created by Hugh Davison and James Danielli
in which they thought and claimed that the cell membrane is like a
sandwich: a phospholipid bilayer between two layers of globular protein.
This model however was deemed outdated after the 1960’s after G.
Nicolson and S.J. Singer revised the model. The fluid mosaic model
shows a mosaic of proteins float in the fluid lipid bilayer like boats on a
pond.
e. Saturated and unsaturated fat
- Typically, saturated fats are found in a solid form at room temperature
(e.g., butter), increases levels of low-density lipoprotein and may clog
arteries if over-consumption is left untended. Chemically, saturated fats
are fatty acid chains are bonded to at least two hydrogen atoms and
usually contains as much hydrogen atoms as possible. Unsaturated fats
are usually found in liquid forms such as oil and is said to increase the
 amount of “good” cholesterol in the body as high-density lipoprotein
“grabs” the low-density lipoprotein to the liver. Chemically, unsaturated
fats have fatty acids with double bonds between one or more pairs of
successive carbon atoms.
2. Illustrate an animal cell or a plant cell and label the different ultra-
structure. Take a photo of your drawing and attach it to your paper.
 3. Using a table, briefly discuss the four (4) macromolecules that made
up an organism. See example below. In Example of Cell Ultrastructure list
at least three (3) ultrastructure of cell that mainly composed of that
macromolecule.
Macromolecule Subunit Structure/ Function/s Example of Cell
Ultra Structure
Component

Proteins Amino Acids Proteins are Provide cell Cell Membrane

polymers that are structure, send Chromosomes
composed of chemical signals, Nucleoli
amino acids. speed up chemical
reactions, etc.

Nucleic Acids Nucleotides A nucleotide is Stores and passes on Nucleolus

made up of three genetic information. Ribosomes
parts: a phosphate Mitochondria
group, a 5-carbon
sugar, and a
nitrogenous base.
The four
nitrogenous bases
in DNA are
adenine, cytosine,
guanine, and
thymine.
Lipids Glycerol One lipid molecule Provide cells with Cell Membranes
Fatty Acids that consists of long-term energy, Lysosomes
Phosphates three long make up biological Endoplasmic
hydrocarbon tails membranes. Reticulum
attached to
glycerol.
Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Mostly composed Provide cells with Cell Walls
Disaccharides of Carbon, quick/short-term Plasma Membranes
Polysaccharides Hydrogen, and energy, source of Cell Membranes
Oxygen atoms. dietary fiber.

4. Briefly discuss the interconnected function/s of nucleus, ribosomes,

endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and vesicles.
- The nucleus creates ribosomes, ribosomes create proteins in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum, and then the produced proteins and lipids get
transported to the transitional endoplasmic reticulum where they get
"butted" off in a vesicle to be transported to the vacuoles where they
can be stored or be used to patch the cellular membrane.
5. Cell membranes are selectively permeable, meaning they let some
things in but keep others out. Why might a cell want to do this? What
kinds of things would a cell want to keep out?
- The semi-permeable membrane of a cell serves as barriers and gate
keepers. They keep water out to prevent cell death due to hypotonic
cell death. This is also why it is easier to care for an under watered
plant than an over watered plant. They also keep out (if not, partially do
so) ions and large molecules while enabling the rapid transfer of
oxygen(inward) and carbon dioxide(outward) as they do in fact need
oxygen to function and carbon dioxide out to prevent hypoxia.
6. Discuss the different plant and animal tissues. Discuss their structure,
functions, localization, etc. You can use table/s to summarize your
answers.
- Plant tissues are generally categorized into two types, meristematic
tissues, and permanent tissues. Meristematic tissues are typically found
in the tips of roots and shoots and contain cells that are capable of cell
reproduction. It has three types:

Apical Meristems which are located and on the tips of roots and
shoots and are responsible for the growth of protoderms, which are
called dermal tissue; as in the "skin of the plant", ground meristems
which are responsible for the growth if non-vascular, food storing, and
structure holding tissues, and the procambium the help grow vascular
cells that transport material throughout the plant, Lateral meristems
which aid in the horizontal growth of the plant; widens the plant; and
Intercalary meristems are responsible for the repair of damaged plant
tissue, growth/ regrowth of stems/branches, and are located between
the old node tissue and leaf attachments.

Permanent tissues mainly deal in photosynthesis, the storage of

resources, and providing structure for the plant. oddly enough, these
tissues retain their functionality even after the tissue has died. They
come in three main types: Lining Tissues are generally called the
epidermis they can be likened to the "skin" of the plant. Made up of
several corky cells that are resistant to water called periderm.
Fundamental Tissues are non-vascular plant tissue that provides
protection, food and water storage, and structure to plants, and
Vascular Tissues are responsible for carrying material in and out of the
plant. It has two types: Xylem tissues transport water and dissolved
material via capillary action from the root, through the plant, and into
the leaves. At some point it "dies" when it matures, but still retains its
functionality and phloem tissue transports processed food from the
leaves to the rest of the sill living parts of the plant.

Animal tissues are much more diverse and varied than plant cells in
account of their more complicated structures and anatomy. Somatic
Cells are diverse and plays a physiological role while germinal cells are
essential for reproduction.
 Epithelial Tissues are Polygonal cells that nearly placed together
with very few or no extracellular matrix and they commonly cover body
surfaces or line body cavities. There are three types of Epithelial Tissue:

Simple Epithelium has one layer of cells and commonly covers

internal covers/ cavities. It also has three types:

Simple squamous epithelium are flat cells with a non-regular

outline, closely fitted together to form a sheet which covers the alveoli,
inner linings of blood vessels and covering mesothelium of body
cavities, simple cuboidal epithelium a box-shaped structure with brush
bordered cell linings that are usually found in kidneys, and simple
columnar epithelium are cylindrical shaped cells that secrete mucus
normally found in the stomach. Stratified Epithelium has more layers
and can be classified according to its topmost layer. Stratified squamous
epithelium is a multilayer of cell groups, often found in the skin that
protects the organism from bacterial invasion. It can be keratinized or
non-keratinized. Stratified cuboidal epithelium is multi-layered cube-
shaped cells fused in some glands. The stratified columnar epithelium is
stratified, elongated cell structures often found in the conjunctiva and
human salivary glands. Transitional epithelia are overlapping layers of
cells that line the uterus and urinary bladder. Glandular Epithelium
usually found in glands and can be classified according to their number
of cells, shape, type of secretion, presence of ducts, and the integrity of
those ducts

Muscle Tissues are elongated cells that typically compose around

40% of a mammal's body weight. It functions as a medium of
locomotion depending on its type and location. Skeletal muscles are
muscle fibers subdivided into sarcomeres and bound together by
vascular connective tissue. Controlled by the VNS, they perform
powerful, rapid contractions, but they, in turn, fatigue quickly. Usually
found in the trunk, limbs, and head. Smooth muscles are
bundled/sheeted spindle-shaped involuntary muscles controlled by the
neurogenic autonomic nervous system. It performs sustained rhythmical
contraction and relaxation, as in peristalsis in the walls of the intestines,
genitals, urinary and respiratory tracts, and the walls of the blood
vessels. Cardiac Muscles Cells terminally branched and connected by
special interdigitating surface processes, the intercalated discs. The
arrangement of the fibers is three-dimensional. It moves myogenically
but can be influenced by the ANS. It moves (or rather contrasts) in a
rapid but rhythmic manner and does not fatigue and is only found in the
chambers of the heart.

Connective Tissue are groups of tissue that structurally differ

according to their localization. They can be fibrous, elastic, reticular, or
collagenous. They are important for support, protection transport,
insulation, and repair. They are also responsible for blood cell
differentiation formation (hematopoiesis) and immunological responses.

Nerve Tissue is composed of densely packed interconnected nerve

cells called neurons (as many as 1010 in the human brain). Little
 intercellular space between them. Also contains receptor cells and is
frequently covered by vascularized connective tissue it receives stimuli
from the environment and internal signals, which produce relay
functionality. The functionality is dependent on synapses, which serve
as the site for the physiological relay of signals.

7. Research about Stem Cells and scientifically answer this question: “If
there are stem cells found in everyone’s body right now, why would
scientists be interested in creating stem cells from embryonic cells or from
genetically-altered somatic cells?
- It is because the stem cells most people have in their bodies are
adult stem cells and can only regenerate one specific type of tissue and,
not only is it limited in its capabilities, but also in number. Scientists
want to create pluripotent stem cells from embryonic stem cells because
it may in fact be the key to a plethora of currently incurable diseases
(e.g., Parkinson’s disease) as embryonic pluripotent stem cells can turn
into any kind of cells (in this case, cells found in nervous tissue) to
replace the damaged nerve tissue. So why haven’t scientists used this
to cure people? The simple answer is they already have. Stem cell
therapy/transplant is used by doctors to treat leukemia patients by
transplanting bone marrow stem cells from a healthy specimen to the
leukemia patient, among other things. The problem does not lie in their
capabilities, but instead, it lies in the availability of embryonic stem and
the ethics surrounding genetic engineering. As one could make out from
the name, embryonic stem cell come from early-stage embryos (9-
weeks-old fetuses) to newborn babies (about 3-5 days old), hence most
of the stem cells used for research comes from adult donors and fertility
clinics (with the donor’s consent, of course) rendering embryonic stem
cell research difficult. Despite all this, scientists around the world have
made strides in learning about embryonic stem cells which may one day
aid humanity in their battle against humanity against such diseases.
8. Watch the video titled “Soon we’ll cure diseases with a cell, not a pill”,
a TED Talk by Siddhartha Mukherjee. Briefly answer scientifically his three
(3) questions in the end of the video.
Could your medicine be a cell, not a pill?
- Yes. As stated in the previous question, doctors already make use of this
in leukemia patients' bone marrows. They transplant stem cells from a
healthy, compatible donor into the patient. The stem cells then
regenerate damaged bone marrow tissue. Intrinsically it makes sense.
As Doctor Mukherjee mentioned, the revolution caused by antibiotics
caused a great perspective shift in the early medical community. As he
said, treating diseases had a simple formulaic solution that could be
summarized in six words: Have disease, take pill, kill something. So,
what of diseases with nothing to kill attached to them?
Could your medicine be an organ created outside your body?
- Yes, not only does it already happen, but stem cells could revolutionize
it. But how? If you think about what the question described is exactly
 what happens with organ donors and recipients. The recipients get
organs that are literally not created within their body, instead they
come from another source. Of course, that would mean that the donor,
if ever they were alive, would lose an organ. But what if this does not
have to be the case? From what Doctor Mukherjee told of the skeletal
stem cells for cartilage, one could theoretically recreate organs from
stem cells. So, the (seemingly) simple solution to diseases that require
organ transplant is to grow your own organ that's tailored to you (for
compatibility purposes) and have a doctor implant it into your body
when needed.
Could your medicine be an environment?
- Yes, it could be. In fact, a lot of recommendation for some diseases lie
in where and how one lives; your lifestyle heavily influences your health.
What you eat, do for exercise (if you do any), when, how and how much
you sleep, your vices, etc. will eventually affect your health. In
conjunction to what Doctor Mukherjee said, another way to see the
treatment of diseases, unlike the “kill something” part, is to instead grow
something. In that essence, one could see the environment the place
where one could grow the body. But grow what? Doctor Mukherjee used
an analogy with prisons as a pro-cancer environment, so what could be
considered an anti-cancer environment would be, one could say, is a
loving home that values health. In conclusion, your living conditions
heavily affect your health, and the environment may be crucial to the
treatment of a patient.
SOURCES:
1.
A. Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes: Comparing the different types of Cells
LINK:https://www.visiblebody.com/learn/biology/cells/prokaryotes-vs-
eukaryotes#:~:text=Prokaryotes%20are%20organisms%20that%20consist,are%20o
rganisms%20containing%20eukaryotic%20cells.
B. Lecture no.4
C. Lecture no.5
D. Lecture no.5
E. Lecture no.2
2. Plant Cells and Functions
Link: https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/backgrounders/plant-
cell-structures-and-functions
Plant Cells-Definition, Diagram, Structure, and Function
Link: https://byjus.com/biology/plant-cell/
3. Lecture no.2, Lecture no.4
4. Lecture no.4
Title: Endomembrane System
Link: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-structure-and-
function/cell-compartmentalization-and-its-origins/v/endomembrane-system
5. Lecture no.5
Title: Cell Membranes
Link: https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/cell-membranes-
14052567/#:~:text=Cell%20membranes%20serve%20as%20barriers,lipid%20b
ilayer%20but%20others%20cannot.&text=On%20the%20other%20hand%2C%
20cell,as%20sugars%20and%20amino%20acids.
6. Lecture no.4

7. Title: What are Stem Cells-Craig A. Kohn

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evH0I7Coc54
Title: Fetal Stem Cell
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/fetal-
stem-cell
Title: Effects of Aging on Stem Cells
Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5316899/#B23
8. Title: Soon We’ll Cure Diseases with a Cell, Not a Pill-Siddhartha Mukherjee
TED Talks
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qG_YmIPFO68
 Title: Impacts of Lifestyle on Health
Link:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4703222/#:~:text=Millions%20
of%20people%20follow%20an,caused%20by%20an%20unhealthy%20lifestyle
The effects of environmental factors on the patient outcomes in hospital
environments: A review of literature
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095263519300779