ZOOLOGY NOTES

BY
WALI-UR-RAHMAN
COORDINATOR SERICULTURE

PAKISTAN FOREST INSTITUTE,

PESHAWAR

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 BIOLOGY
The scientific study of living things is called biology. There are two branches of
biology (i) Zoology and (ii) Botany.
Zoology: Zoology is the scientific study of animals.
Botany: Botany is the scientific study of plants.

Zoology
Branches of Zoology: Important branches are as follows.
 Morphol : Study of form and structure of animals.
ogy
Physiology : Study of function of different systems of animals.
Anatomy : Study of internal structures of animals.
Embryology : Study of development of animals from egg to adult form.
Taxonomy : Study of classification of animal into groups on the basis
of structural similarities.
Difference between animals and plants
Both animals and plants are living objects. Both take in food, grow, respire and
reproduce. In spite of these resemblances they differ from one another in certain
respects which are;
 Cells of plants are surrounded by a firm cell wall made up of cellulose. Cells
ofanimals are not surrounded by cell wall but a cell membrane.
 Majority of plants are stationary or fixed to one place with the exception of
some algae (Micro plants). Animals generally have the power of locomotion or
moving from place to place with the exception of some sponges (sponge
animals).
 Plants usually possess green coloring matter known as chlorophyll. Animals
do not possess any chlorophyll.
 Plants take in inorganic salts from the soil in the form of solution. Animals take
solid complex food which they obtain from plants or animals. (Vegetables and
meat).
 Plants are usually branched. Animals are un- branched.Growth of plants is
generally restricted to the tips organs. Growth of animals is seldom restricted
to the tips of organs.

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Protoplasm: (Protos, fist, plasma, form)
Protoplasm is the physical basis of life. It is a semi fluid, translucent living
substance enclosed in the cells. Protoplasm is a complex system and includes
many materials, both organic and inorganic.
Chemical composition of protoplasm
Protoplasm contains elements, organic and inorganic compounds as follows;
 Elements
Four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen make up from 80 to 99%
of protoplasm; carbon compounds are abundant in it and considered the most
characteristic of elements that present in protoplasm. Although there are about
92 elements, only 12 to 14 are found in appreciable quantities as follows:
Oxygen…………………………………76%
Carbon …………………………………10.5% 99%
Hydrogen………………………………10.0%
Nitrogen…………………………………2.5%
Sodium, phosphorus, potassium,
Sulpher, Calcium, Iodine … 1.0%
Magnesium, Chlorine, Iron
 Organic compounds: Organic compounds are as under:
o Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are composed of carbon hydrogen and oxygen. They are readily
oxidized and potential energy stored in them is converted into heart, motion and
growth etc. Examples starches, sugars, cellulose, glycogen etc.
o Proteins
Proteins are the most complex organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphure and sometimes phosphorus.
o Lipids
Lipids or fats are made up of carbon hydrogen and oxygen but may also contain
nitrogen and phosphorus. They are stored in the body as reserve food and
oxidize and serve principally as fuel for producing energy.
Examples: Fatly acids, Glycerol, steroids, cholesterol etc.
o Enzymes
These are protein like substances which bring about chemical changes in other
substances without themselves undergoing any change. Enzymes are essential

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for various process in the animal body. Special enzymes exist for breaking down
carbohydrates, other for proteins and still other for fats.
Examples: Ptyalin, pepsin etc.
o Nucleic acids
A group of complex organic compounds present in small amount. They are
messengers in the body and function in transmission of heredity, serve in protein
synthesis and control of cellular activities.
Examples: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
 Inorganic compounds: Following are inorganic compounds.
o Water
Water is a very important constituent of protoplasm making up 60-90% by height
of it. It serves as solvent for inorganic and many organic compounds exist in the
protoplasm. Water gives watery nature to protoplasm thus making rotoplasmic
streaming and diffusion.
ii. Inorganic salts
Many salts are present in protoplasm. The most abundant of these are sodium,
potassium, phosphorus and calcium salts which combine with other substances
to form chlorides, sulphates, nitrates, carbonates and phosphates. Salts are used
in building protoplasm. They also play an important part in life processes and are
of importance in the growth of bones, since these consist largely of phosphates
and calcium carbonates.
iii. Protoplasmic energy
The complex organic compounds of protoplasm contain a large amount of
potential energy. When these compounds are oxidized the potential energy is set
free as kinetic energy which is utilized by the living body for carrying out its vital
functions or activities. For example;
C6H12O6 (Glucose + 602  6C02 + 6H20 + Energy.

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 Animals Cell
A small mass of protoplasm, enclosed in a cell membrane, containing a nucleus,
nuclear and other materials. It is a building unit of the body of an organism.
i. Size and shape: Some cells are microscopic while other are large as, for
example eggs of birds, hen.
ii. Shape: Shape may be spherical cubical, flat, oval or elongate.
iii. Discovery: Robert Hooke (1635-1703) of England discovered the cell when
looked through his microscope at a thin piece of cork, he noted box like
compartment in it which he called as cells.
iv. Structure: A typical animal cell, surrounded by a cell membrance, contains a
spherical body in the centre of protoplasm known as nucleus. Nucleus is
surrounded by a nuclear membrance having large pores at intervals. This divides
the protoplasm into two portions. (i) Nucleoplasm and (ii)
Cytoplasm.Nucleoplasm: Nucleoplasm contains;
a. Chromosomes
These are elongate, thread like bodies composed of DNA and proteins. These
bear the basic unit of heredity called genes. Number of chromosomes is definite
for each species. For example man has 46 chromosomes in the nucleus.
b. Nucleolus
Nucleoli are dark staining bodies, generally oval bodies one or more per nucleus.
Nucleoli are responsible for manufacturing and sending to cytoplasm the protein
systhesizing organelles called ribosomes which are sites of protein synthesis in
the cytoplasm.
c. Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is differentiated into a non-granular viscous region, ectoplasm and a
granular fluid region, endoplasm. Ectoplasm lies close to the cell membrane and
is more dense. In the endoplasm there are numerous bodies and inclusions as
under:
i. Protoplasmic bodies
ii. Metaplasmic bodies
Protoplasmic bodies
These are living bodies and perform vital functions. These bodies are as follows:

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a. Mitochondria
These are small granules or rod like structures scattered in the cytoplasm.
Modern research has shown that these are the sites of chemical reactions that
extract energy from food stuff and make it available to the cell for its innumerable
energy demanding activities. They are double wall vessels.
b. Golgi bodies or Golgi apparatus
They are thread like and usually lies close to the nucleus in the form of loops and
parallel to each other. They are involved in the secretion of various chemical
products.
c. Centriole
Just close to the nucleus there is a dense region called centrospheres or
centrosome. In the centre of centrosome there are small dark bodies, cylindrical
in shape, close together, oriented at right angle to each other, called centrioles.
Centroiles play important role in the cell division.
d. Ribosome
These are small cytoplasmic organelles that function in protein synthesis.
Robosomes are formed by the nucleoli of the nucleus and exported to cytoplasm
for their function.
e. Lysosomes
Single membrane bounded organelles. These are sub-cellular organelles which
stores digestive enzymes.
f. Peroxisomes
Single membrane bounded organelles containing powerful oxidative enzymes.
Metaplasmic bodies
These are non-living bodies. They are either stored particles of food or products
of the activities of the cell. These include crystals, droplets of various kinds,
water, oil liquid food, wastes, starch grains and yolk grains.
Other bodies like vacuoles occur in unicellular animals. These are cavities filled
with a watery fluid.
Endoplasmic reticulum: This is a system of membrane enclosed fluid fill
spaces. These tubules form a network in the cytoplasm. The channels of this
system serve as routes for transport of materials between the various parts of
cytoplasm and the nucleus forming a communication network. Ribosomal RNA
travel from the nucleus to the cytoplasm through these channels. When

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ribosomes are present on the E.R. it is called rough E.R. When ribosomes are
absent on the E.R. it is called smooth E.R.
Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are polynucleotide chains, in which units known as nucleotides are
linked to each other by ester linkages. There are two types of nucleic acids viz.
Ribonucleic acid (abbreviated as RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid
(abbreviated as DNA). DNA is generally located inside the nucleus, while RNA is
concentrated in the cytoplasm. DNA is made up to deoxyribonucleotides, which
RNA is composed or ribonucleotide.
RNA is a single polynucleotide chain, while DNA is composed of two
polynucleotide chains which are coiled round each other in the form of a double
helix. The two helices are held together by weak hydrogen bonds which are
horizontally placed. These hydrogen bonds link two nitrogenous bases present
on opposite DNA helices. There are two hydrogen bonds between A and T and
three hydrogen bonds between C and G.
The amount of DNA is fixed for a particular species, as it depends upon the
number of chromosomes. The amount of DNA in germ line cells (sperms and
ova) is almost half to that of somatic cells.
DNA functions in the cell with the help of RNA. There are three types of RNA
molecules viz. messenger RNA (abbreviated as mRNA), ribosomal RNA
(abbreviated as rRNA) and transfer RNA (abbreviated as tRNA). All these three
types of RNAs are synthesized from DNA in the nucleus and then move out in the
cytoplasm to perform their characteristic functions. Ribosomal RNAs alongwith
protein constitute ribosomes, which are the sites of protein synthesis. Transfer
RNAs pick up amino acids and transfer them to ribosomes, where they are linked
to each other to form protein. Messenger RNA carries the genetic information
from DNA to ribosomes, where amino acids are arranged according to the
information in mRNA to form specific protein molecules.

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 Cell Division
There are two types of cell division.
A. Mitosis or indirect cell division
Mitosis is a process of cell division in which the number of chromosomes remain
the same or diploid. In this process the nucleus passes through many
complicated stages, resulting in the equal division of chromatin. The process
consists of the following phases.
i. Prophase: First of all the centrosome, if not visible before, comes into view and
divides into two halves. The centrosomes move apart but keep close to the
nucleus. As the two centrosomes separate from each other fine fibres appear
between them, forming a spindle shaped figure known as the nuclear spindle. At
the same time each centrosome becomes surrounded by radiating fibres or astral
rays which farm an aster. In the meantime the chromatin network of the nucleus
thickens and breaks up into a number of rod-shaped, V-shaped, U-shaped or
spherical structures known as chromosomes. The number of chromosomes is
always constant for a particular species (for example 46 for man, 24 for frog).
The chromosomes gradually contract and become shorter and thicker and exhibit
a tendency to split longitudinally into two daughter chromosomes. Mean while the
nucleolus or nucleoli and nuclear membrane disappear and the two centrosomes,
come to the opposite directions, stretching nuclear spindle on the place of the
nucleus. The spindle is narrow at its two ends known as poles and broad in the
middle region or equator. It consists of two sets of fibres, the continuous fibres,
which extend from pole to pole and half spindle fibres which extend from pole to
the equator. The chromosomes arrange themselves around the equator of the
spindle, forming a ring called the equatorial plate.
ii. Metaphase: Each chromosome becomes attached by its spindle attachment to
half spindle fiberes. Each chromosomes splits longitudinally into two so the
number of the chromosomes becomes double. The two daughter chromosomes
of each pair lie close to each other around the equator of the spindle.
iii. Anaphase: The two daughter chromosomes separate from each other and
move along the fibres to opposite poles of the spindle. When they have came
close to the poles of the spindle, the anaphase ends.
iv. Telophase: The daughter chromosomes at each pole of the spindle unit to
form the chromatin network. The nuclear membrane appears around the

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chromatin network and thus two daughter nuclei are formed. Meanwhile a
construction or furrow appears in the cytoplasm of the cell. The furrow gradually
deepens and ultimately divides the cell into two daughter cells, each having a
daughter nucleus. The spindle and astral rays disappear, but the centrosomes
may persist in each daughter cell.
v. Interphase: A short period in which replication of genetic materials takes place
and new chromatids are formed.
Significance of mitosis
Each of the chromosomes separates into two parts longitudinally in such a
manner that each of the thousands of chromatin granules which make up a
chromosome and are responsible for genes, is equally divided. Heredity factors
or genes are transmitted from parents to offspring by means of chromosomes. If
the daughter cells are to have the same characters as the parent cell, it is
necessary that each gene should be divided into two, so that each daughter cell
may receive an identical set of genes. In mitosis the halving of chromosomes is
so thorough and exact that not only their number but also their shapes and sizes
remain constant in the daughter cells.
B. Meiosis or indirect cell division
Meiosis is a process of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is
reduced to half.
Cells containing two chromosomes of each type (one from male and one from
female) are called diploid, while cells containing only one of each type of
chromosomes (one either of male or female) are called haploid. Complete
meiosis involves two successive division sequences which results in four new
haploid cells, the first one accomplishes the reduction in the number of
chromosomes and the second one separates the chromatids. The same 4
stages, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase occur during meiosis.
These are as follow;
First meiotic division: i. Prophase
The individual chromosomes come slowly into view, become shorter and hicker.
The nucleoli disappear gradually and finally the nuclear membrane also is appear
and the spindle is organized. The number of each pair of homologous
hromosomes move together and come to lie side by side. This pairing process is
known as synapses. A synaptic pair can be seen to consist of two identical
double stranded chromosomes by this time, hence called tetrad, because

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theymake up a total of four chromatids. At the end of prophase they move
towards the equator.
ii. Metaphase
Synoptic pairs arrange themselves on the equator in a ring. Each pair is attached
to the half spindle fiber called microtubule.
iii. Anaphase
The two double stranded independent chromosomes with separate centromeres
of each synaptic pair move away from each other towards opposite poles of the
spindle. Anaphase ends when chromosomes have reached their poles.
iv. Telophase
Double stranded chromosomes on their respective polesbecome enclosed in new
nuclear membrane as the spindle disappears. Each daughter nucleus in this case
receives half number of chromosomes.
v. Interphase
Following the telephase there is a short period of interphase in which no
replication of genetic material occurs as chromosomes are already double
stranded.
Second meiotic division
i. Prophase
Second series of division is comparable to mitotic division except that haploid
number of chromosomes is present in daughter cell. Each haploid double
stranded chromosome moves to the spindle independently and arrange
themselves on the equator with half spindle fibres attached to the centromeres.
ii. Metaphase
The centromeres of each double stranded chromosome uncouple.
iii. Anaphase
The new single stranded chromosomes thus formed move away from each
other towards opposite poles of the spindle.
iv. Telephose
The new nuclei formed are haploid containing single stranded chromosomes.
In summary, the first meiotic division produces two haploid cells obtaining double
stranded chromosomes. Each of these cells divides in the 2 nd meiotic division;
thus a total of four new haploid cells containing single stranded chromosomes,
are produced.

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 Classification of animals
The basic unit of building stone in biological classification is the species (singular
and plural both are species). A species is a group of individuals which closely
resemble one another and breed freely among themselves.
Two or more species with certain common characters form a group known as
genus (plural genera). In turn genera having common characters constitute a
large group known as family. Families having common characters combined into
a larger group “Order”. The orders with common characters make a more larger
group called class. Many classes having characters in common constitute a big
group known as phylum (Plural-phyla). All the phyla together comprise the animal
kingdom.

The Scheme of classification of Leaf (species)---------------

animals is like a tree having many Fine Stem (genus)---------
leaves (species), with one to many Twig (family)-----------------
on a fine stem (genus), several Little branch
stem on a larger twig (family), two (order)------------------------
or more of these on a little branch Longer branch
(Order), a number of these on a (class)------------------------
larger branch (class), and these on Main branch
the main frame work (phyla), the (phyla)-----------------------
whole forming a tree (kingdom).
Diagrammatic illustration of classification
Speciesgenerafamiliesorderclassesphylaanimalkingdom
Binomial nomenclature
The scientific method of designating organisms by Latin or Latinized worlds, the
first the generic and the second the species is call bionomial nomenclature. The
system was introduced by a Swedish biologist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778). He
gave to each plant and each animal two names: a genus name and a species
name. For example scientific names of;
i. Man Homo sapiens
ii. Cat Felis domesticus
iii. Dog Canis familiaris
iv. Frog Rana tigrana

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 Characteristics of important phyla
A. Group Invertebrata
Phylum Protozoa
 Unicellular animals.
 Reproduction is;
 Asexually- by binary fission and
 Sexually- by conjugation.
 Encystmant is common.
 Nutrition is either holozoic or holophytic.
Classes
i. Rhizopoda (Amoeba) ii. Ciliata (Paramecium)
iii. Flagellata (Euglena) iv. Sporozoa (Plasmodium)

Phylum Porifera
 Body wall perforated or porous which lead to canals and these canals
enter into central body cavity.
 Multicellular animals.
 Commonly called sponges.
 All aquatic animals but a few live in fresh water.
 They have skeleton compose of silica or calcium.
 They possess the ability of regeneration.
 Reproduction by budding and also sexually by sperm and ova.

Classes
i. Calcaria (Grantia) ii. Demospongia (Bath sponge)
Phylum Coelenterata
 Radial symmetry.
 Possession of coelenteron.
 Diploblastic- body composed of ectoderm and endoderm- a non
cellular mesogloea in between them.
 Tentacles present bearing nematocysts.
 Sexual/ a sexual reproduction present.
Classes
i. Hydrozoa (Obelia, Hydra) ii. Scypozoa (Jelly fish)
iii. Actinozoa (Corals/Seanemone) iv. Cteonophora (Crab-jellies)

Phylum Platyhelminthese
 Bilateral symmetry.
 Acoelomate (No body cavity)
 Free living and parasitic
 Digestive cavity present.
 Mouth used for taking food and expelling residues(one opening)
 No blood vascular system
 Exceretory system in the form of flame cells
 Majority are hermaphrodites

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 Live on land, fresh water and seawater.
Classes
i. Turbellaria (Planaria) ii. Cestoda (Tape-worm)
iii. Trematoda (Liverfluke)

Phylum Nematoda (Round worms and thread worms)

 Bilateral symmetry.
 Round bodied or cylindrical.
 A complete alimental canal present
 Pseudocoelome present
 No blood vascular system
 Nervous system present.
 Most animals are hermaphrodites
 Free living as well as parasitic animals.
Classes
i. Nematoda (round worm, hook worm)

Phylum Annelida (The segmented worm)

 Bilateral symmetry.
 Body segmented.
 Complete digestion system present.
 Nervous system complete.
 Bisexual or monoecious (hermaphrodites)
 Coelome presset.
 Excretory system in the form of nephridia)
 Most animals are marine
Classes
i. Oligochaeta (Earthworm) ii. Hirudinea (Leech)
iii. Polychaeta (Neries)

Phylum Arthropoda (Animals with jointed appendages)

 Bilateral symmetry
 Body segmented
 Jointed appendages are presnt such as legs, antennae
 Body has three regions- head, thorax and abdomen
 Body covered with hard covering called cuticle.
 Highly developed nervous system present
 All other systems complete.
 Open circulatory system present
 Unisexual or dioecius (an animal is either male or female)
 Land and water dwellers
Classes
i. Crustacea (Cray fish/Crab) ii. Arachnida (Scorpion/Spider)
iii. Insecta (Insects) iv. Chilopoda (Centipedes)
v. Diplopoda (Millipedes)

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 Phylum Mollusca (Shelled animals)

 Bilateral symmetry, some asymmetrical

 Most animals have shell on their bodies and a few without shell
 All systems are well developed
 A fleshy foot is present
 May be fresh water, marine, living in moist places or on mountain
Classes
i. Gastropoda (Snail/Slug) ii. Cepalopoda (Octopus/Squid)
iii. Amphineura (Chitin) iv. Pelecypoda (Oyster)

Phylum Echinodermata (The spiny- skinned animals)

 Radial symmetry- body like disc or biscuit or may be star like or
elongated
 Exclusive marine animals
 No head no segmentation
 Water vascular system present
 Endoskeleton present
 Specialized digestive and reproduction system present
 Respiratory and circulatory systems poorly developed
 Sexes are separate
Classes
i. Asteroidea (Star fish) ii. Echinoidea (Sea Urchin)
iii. Holothuroidea (Sea Cuumber)
B. Group vertebrata
Phylum Chordata
 Notochord in the embryonic stage and vertebral colu
backbone in the adult stage present in all vertebrates. In lower
chordates only notochord is present.
 Gill slits are sets of opening in the pharyngeal region. However in
aquatic animals functional gills are present.
 Hollow dorsal central nervous system lying in the vertebral column.
All systems are well developed.
 Circulatory system is closed.
 Unisexual or Dioecious-sexes are separate.
 Well developed endoskeleton present.
Characters of Classes
Class Pisces
 Bilateral symmetry
 Respiration by means of gills
 Paired and unpaired fins present
 Body usually covered with scales
 Endoskeleton present
 All aquatic- Live in fresh water as well in sea water

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 Sub Classes
i. Elamobranchi (Scoliodan) ii.Teleostomi (Rahu,Rira Rita, Sea horse)
Class Amphibia
 Gills present in the larva or adult.
 Respiration by lungs as well as by skin.
 Skin glandular.
 Claws are absent.
 Nasal sacs open into the mouth.
 Heart consist of sinus venuses, two auricles, one ventricle and
truncus artriosis.
 Renal portal system is present.
 Cloaca is present.
 The ureters are the urino-genital ducts in the male.
 In female the ureters and oviducts open separately into cloaca.
 The animals are oviparous.
 Metamorphosis takes place.
Orders
i. Urodela (Saiamander) ii. Anura (Frog, oads)
iii. Apoda (Caecilians)
Class Reptilia

 The body is covered with scales.

 Respiration by means of lungs, no gill-respiration at any stage.
 Teeth are present except in the turtles and tortoises.
 The heart consists of two auricles and one ventricle divided by a
septum.
 There are two aortic arches.
 The reptiles are oviparous.
 The eggs are protected by calcareous shell.
 No metamorphosis.
Orders
i. Order Squamata(Lizards,Snakes)
ii. Order Chelonia (Turtle, Tortoise)
iii. Order Crocodilia (Alligators)

Class Aves (Birds)

 They are warm-blooded animals.

 The body is covered with feathers.
 Fore-limbs are modified into wings.
 The mouth is provided with toothless beak.
 Pectoral muscles are well developed.
 Sternum possesses keel.
 Air-sacs are present.
 Nostrils are surrounded by ear
 Third eye-lid is well developed.

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 Aortic arch curves towards right.
 Heart consists of two auricles and two ventricles.
 Right ovary and oviduct are absent.
 They are oviparous.

i. Ratitae (Kiwis, Ostrich) ii. Carinatae (Pigeon, Hen, Crow)

Class Mammalia
 They are warm-blooded animals
 The body is covered with hair.
 Mammary glands are present
 Pinna is present.
 Diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.
 Teeth are heterodont
 Anus and urino-genital apertures are separate.
 Heart consists of two auricles and two ventricles.
 Aortic arch curves towards the left side.
 There are four optic lobes (corpora quadrigemina).
[
i. Sub-class Prototheria (Egg laying mammals)
ii. Sub-class Metatheria (Pouched mammals)
iii. Sub-class Eutheria (Placental mammals)
Orders of Sub-class Eutheria
 Order Edentata - Pangolin (scaly ant-eater).
 Order Rodentia - (Rat)
 Order Insectivora - (Hedgehog)
 Order Chiroptera - (Bat)
 Order Carnivora - (Cat, Dog)
 Order Cetacea - (Whale)
 Order Ungulata - (Camel, Sheep)
 Order Probocidae - (Elephant)
 Order primates - (Monkey, Man)

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 Digestive System in Animals
Although both the nutritional requirements and the basic process of digestion are
essentially alike in protozones and all types of animals, the details of processing
of food is often very different. Protozones take their food by a mechanism called
phagocytosis, food vacuole. No specialized permanent digestive structures are
present in amoeba. However paramecium has a permanent structure that
function in feeding. There is an oral groove, a ciliated chamber located on one
side of the body which leads to a mouth and cytopharynx where a food vacuole is
formed and circulates in the body. An anal pore is present on the posterior side.
In coelenterates digestive cavity called gastro-vascular cavity has one opening
surrounded by tentacles and function both as mouth and anus. Coelenterates are
extremely carnivorous. They have stinging structures called nematocysts. In
coelenterates extra cellular digestion and intra cellar digestion takes place.

Flatworms, Planaria for example, has more developed digestive system. Mouth is
located on ventral surface in mid body. It opens into a tubular pharynx which
leads to a branched gastro vascular cavity. Mouth acts as mouth as well as anus.
Earthworm has a complete digestive system starting from mouth and ending on
anus. The system comprises lips, mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx, esophagus,
crop, gizzard and intestine. The intestine is folded inwards making a fold called
typhlosole. This increases the inside of intestine for absorption the end products
of the food components.
Digestive system of cockroach consists of a stomodaeum front gut, a mesenteron
(mid gut) and a proctodaeum (hind gut).
 Stomodaeum or front gut has mouth, buccal cavity, hypoharynx,
esophagus, crop and Gizzard. Ducts of salivary glands open into the floor
of the buccal cavity.
 Mesenter on (mid gut) acts as stomach which has hepatic caecae.
 Proctodaeum or hind gut has ileum, colon, rectum and anus. From the
anterior end of ileum arise a large number of long, thread-like tubules
called malpighian tubules.
Digestive system of Frog comprises of a buccal cavity having upper and lower
jaws and tongue, a pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
cloaca and cloacal aperture.

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The digestive system of human being is comprised of;
i. An oral cavity having 32 teeth in upper and lower jaws, a tongue and 3
pairs of salivary glands.
ii. A pharynx-a chamber where respiratory passage and esophagus open.
iii. Esophagus is long tube running downward through the throat and
thorax and connecting to the stomach. Food is pushed by peristalsis
movement through esophagus to enter to stomach.
iv. Stomach lies slightly to left side just below the lower rib. It has cardiac
sphincter at the upper end and pyloric sphincter at the lower end.
v. Small intestine is the place of digestion and absorption. First portion of
intestine is called duodenum which leads to a very long coiled tube the
ileum. The entire intestine of an adult man is 23 feet long and an inch
in diameter.
vi. Large intestine or colon. At the junction of small intestine and colon
there is a blind sac called vacuum. In humans at the tip of vacuum
there is a small finger like process called appendix. The last portion of
the large intestine is called rectum which functions as a storage
chambers for the feces until defection. The opening of the rectum is
called anus.
Human Digestive System: It consists of the following parts;
Mouth or oral cavity- It has;
i. Lips
ii. 32 teeth in upper and lower jaws namely;
a. Incisors = 8 (4 in front of upper jaw and 4 in lower jaw)
b. Canines = 4 (2 in upper jaw and 2 in lower jaw)
c. Premolars = 8 (4 in upper jaw and 4 in lower jaw)
d. Molars = 12 (6 in upper jaw and 6 in lower jaw)
iii. Tongue for manipulation of food
iv. Salivary glands: Three pairs of salivary glands open into the oral
cavity. These are;
a. Parotid – 2 (Open at the base of upper jaw)
b. Sub-lingual – 2 (Open under the tongue)
c. Sub-maxillary – 2 (Open at the base of lower jaw)
Salivary glands contain starch digesting enzyme, thiocyanate ions and
mucin.
Pharynx- It has;

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 i. Air passage from nose ii. Food passage from mouth
iii. Opening of the food tube iv. Opening of the air tube
Esophagus
A tube connecting pharynx and stomach and passes through neck and thorax
is called esophagus.
Food moves through the esophagus by peristalsis movement.
Stomach- It has;
i. Cardiac sphincter on the upper end.
ii. Pyloric sphincter on the lower end.
iii. Gastric glands in the stomach.
iv. Cross muscle fibers forming thick wall of stomach for churning the food.
Small intestine-It has;
i. Duodenum – A U shaped 1st part in which open;
a. Pancreatic duct from pancreas
b. Bile duct from liver
ii. Jejunum – It is a short 2nd part of the intestine.
iii. Ileum – It is 3rd part of the intestine in which present;
a. Intestinal glands b. Villi c. Microvilli
Colon or large intestine-It has;
i. A vacuum at lower end.
ii. Appendix at the lower end of the vacuum.
iii. Ascending colon – part of colon runs upwards on the right side of the
abdomen.
iv. Transverse colon – part of colon runs transversely on the middle of the
abdomen.
v. Descending colon – part of colon runs downwards on left side of the
abdomen.
Rectum – Last part of the digestive tract a little bit wider.
Anus – Last opening of the digestive tract.

Digestive System of Frog

Digestion system of Frog consists of the following parts:
Mouth Cavity or Buccal Cavity: It has;
i. Upper Jaw which is immovable contains a row of conical teeth, called the
maxillary teeth.
ii. Lower jaw which is movable but without teeth.
iii. In the roof of buccal cavity in the middle of front part a group of vomerine teeth

19
 are present for holding the prey.
iv. Just behind the upper jaw in roof of buccal cavity there are two openings, the
internal nostril or internal nares leading upward to a small nasal chamber which
open to the exterior by external nostril.
v. Behind the internal nares there are two rounded projections of eyes.
vi. Tongue is large; fleshy located on the floor of the buccal cavity and attached at
anterior end just behind the tip of lower jaw. Posterior end is free and bilobed. On
the surface of this tongue there is present a sticky substance for catching the
prey. No salivary glands are present in the buccal cavity.
Pharynx- Buccal cavity leads to a narrow pharynx. In the pharynx there are 2
opening of eustachian tube on the roof leading to the middle ear cavity which is
externally closed by tympanic membrane. Pharynx leads to 2 openings;

i. Opening of esophagus
ii. Glottis-a slot like opening at the floor of pharynx just behind the
tip of the tongue which leads to lungs.
iii. Opening of the vocal sac in male.
Esophagus or Gullet - It is a short wide tube which opens to stomach.
Stomach: Stomach has two ends.
i. Cardiac end lined by cardiac sphincter.
ii. Pyloric end lined by pyloric sphincter.
Small intestine: It has;
i. Duodenum, bile duct, pancreatic duct, hepato-pancreatic duct.
ii. Ileum which is 4-5 inches long
Large intestine or Rectum – It is a wide portion of the intestine.
Cloaca – It is a small chamber where urino -genital duct opens on the upper side
while urinary bladder is present on the lower side.
Cloacal aperture – It opens to exterior.
Digestion in Animals
Chemical break-down of complex non-diffusible food components to simpler
or diffusible substances by the action of enzymes (catalysts) during its
passage in the alimentary cannel is called digestion.
Food components
Carbohydrates (starches), proteins and lipids or fats are main food
components for digestion.

20
Digestion in invertebrates
In invertebrates two types of digestion are found.
i. Intracellular digestion – digestion with in the cells.
ii. Extra cellular digestion – digestion outside the cells.
In amoeba and paramecium intracellular digestion takes place. Food particles are
taken by pseudopodia and a food vacuole is formed and circulated in the
cytoplasm. Enzymes from endoplasm digest the food particles.
In hydra and Planaria extra and intra cellular digestion takes place. The food
particles are circulated in the gastro-vascular cavity by flagellary cells and
contraction and expansion of the body wall. Certain enzymes are secreted and
digest the food particles and the digested end products are absorbed by the cells.
Some food particles are engulfed by pseudopodia and intra cellular digestion
takes place.
The food of the earthworm consists of dead animals and plants contained in the
earth. It feed on the earth and the nutrition materials contained in the earth are
digested by the intestinal enzymes. The digested end products are absorbed by
the blood and circulated in the body for their use.
Digestion in Man
Chemical break-down of complex food substances into simpler and diffusible
units by the action of enzymes is called digestion. Enzyme is a substance that
acts as catalyst in the process of digestion.
There are 3 steps of digestion in man.

 Oral digestion: Digestion in mouth

 Gastric digestion: Digestion in stomach
 Intestinal digestion: Digestion in intestine
Oral digestion: Partial digestion of carbohydrates takes place in the
mouth.
Food containing carbohydrates, proteins and fats is chewed by teeth and
manipulated by tongue.
3 pairs of salivary glands secrete saliva which contains;
i. Ptyalin or amylase- an enzyme which acts upon carbohydrates
and partially converts to Glucose.
Carbohydrates+ptyalinMaltose+Glucose.
ii. Thiocyanate ions-kill microbes

21
 iii. Mucin-lubricates food
The bolus moves by peristaltic movement into stomach through esophagus. The
cardiac sphincter prevents the food from entering to the esophagus.
Gastric digestion: Digestion of proteins occurs in the stomach.
i. HCL, present in the stomach, neutralizes ptyalin and make the medium
acidic and kills bacteria.
ii. Pepsin, an enzyme, acts upon proteins and convert to peptones and
glucose.
- Proteins+pepsinPeptones+Glucose
iii. Rennin, an enzymes found (in babies) convert proteins of milk
(paracascein) to peptones.
- Paracascein+pepsinpeptones
Food in semi-fluid form called “chime” inters to small intestine. The pyloric
sphincter prevents the food back to the stomach.
Intestinal digestion: Two principal sources of enzymes are present in the
intestine.
A. Pancreatic enzymes:
These are amylase, trypsin and lipase. These enzymes digest carbohydrates,
proteins and fats as follows.

i. Carbohydrates+amylasemaltose.
ii. Proteins+trypsinpeptones
iii. Fats+lipasefatty acids+glycerol (entire)
iv. Bile from gall bladder emulsifies fats and neutralizes acids and make
the medium alkaline also contain antiseptic substances.
B. Intestinal enzymes: These are maltase, sucrase, lactase and erepsin.
They act as under;
i. Maltose+maltaseGlucose (entire)
ii. Sucrose+sucraseGlucose (cane sugar)
iii. Lactose+lactaseGlucose (milk sugar)
iv. Peptones+erepsinamino acid (entire)
The end products, salts and vitamins are absorbed by the blood through the wall
of intestine and the undigested food inter into large intestine. Water absorption
takes place mainly in large intestine.
Absorption
The taken up of liquid or other substances by cells by diffusion is called

22
absorption.
Small intestine is the site of absorption. The internal surface of the intestine is
greatly inlarged by folding or finger like outgrowth known as villi. On villi there are
present microvilli. All substances are absorbed into blood capillaries present in
villi. These capillaries join the hepatic portal system. Villi also contain lymph
vessels which make a lacteal or lymphatic system for absorption of fats.
Lymphatic vessels open into posterior vena cava near heart.
The absorbed glucose and amino acid inter to portal system which empties in
liver and the liver convert extra glucose into glycogen as reserve food.
The rest glucose run by hepatic vein and enter into large ascending vena cava to
the right auricle of heart. The heart distributes these substances to all cells of the
body. Glucose is oxidized in the cells and produce energy as follows:
C6H 12O6 (glucose) + 6O2  6CO2 6H2O + energy
This energy is used in daily activities.

Blood vascular system or circulatory system or

circulation in animals
Circulation is the process by means of which a liquid carries substances
throughout the body of animals. In higher animals this circulation is effected by
organs and tubes or vessels which are collectively known as circulatory system.
There are three types of circulatory systems in animals.

Non-specialized
This is found in lower animals. This includes:
a. Streaming
In amoeba a definite streaming of protoplasm takes place and as a result
the absorbed food substances are carried to all parts of the cell.
b. Cyclosis
In paramecium, the movement of the food vacuoles follows a definite
path, thus allowing absorption of the food substances by the cytoplasm in
all parts of the cell.
c. Gastro vascular movement
In hydra movement of the liquid in the gastro vascular cavity is brought
about by contraction of the body and the flagella of the cells that line the

23
 cavity. As there are two layers of cells in the body of hydra, hence an
elaborate circulatory system is not necessary. In planaria there is a much
branched intestine or gastro-vascular cavity which makes distribution of
materials quite simple.

Open system
Closed system

In this type special organs takes part in the blood circulation but blood flows in
tubes called blood vessels, hence called closed system. In invertebrate well
developed closed system is found in earthworm. In earthworm at the anterior end
present 5 pairs of lateral hearts which are connected to a dorsal vessel and ventral
vessel. Dorsal vessels collect the blood from all parts of the body by means of blood
capillaries and take to the hearts. The hearts pump blood through ventral vessel to
all parts of the body.

All vertebrates have the same closed blood vascular system but differ in structure of heart
and type of respiration in different groups. For example fishes have 2 chamber heart,
amphibian 3 chambered, reptiles 4 chambered but incomplete while birds and mammals
have complete 4 chambered heart. Similarly in fish’s blood is oxygenated in gills, in frog
through general body surface and shallow lungs while in reptiles, birds and mammals
through lungs but from shallow to more complex structure of lungs. The 4 chambers of
human heart are (1) right auricle (2) right ventricle (3) left auricle (4) left ventricle.
Blood vascular system in earthworm
Dorsal blood vessel

Runs from 14th segment backwards in between the alimentary canal and
the body wall. It collects blood from the posterior body region. In each
segment there are;
i. Transverse vessels – Open into dorsal vessels
ii. Commissural vessel – Ventrally connected with the sub
neural vessel. Open into dorsal vessels.

Ventral blood vessel

It distribute blood to the posterior region. It lies below the

alimentary canal. It has;
i. Ventro–integumentary vessel.
In each segment supplying blood to body wall.

24
 ii. Ventro-intestinal vessel: Supplying blood to the intestine.

Sub-neural vessel
Run along the mid ventral line beneath the ventral nerve cord.
It collect blood from the ventral region of the body wall and
send to dorsal vessel through commissural vessels.
. Hearts
In 7th, 9th, 12th and 13th segment there are present 4 pairs of
hearts connecting dorsal and ventral blood vessels. These
are;
i. Lateral hearts – 7th and 9th segment

Supply of blood

Dorsal vessel
In first 14 segments the dorsal vessel supply blood to the pharynx,
nephridia, esophagus and gizzard and hearts.
Ventral vessel
Supply blood to the body wall and reproductive system.
Sub-neural vessel
On entering this region divides into 2 lateral esophageal vessel which
run on the right and left side of the esophagus. In each segment it
receive blood by means of a pair of vessels and send blood to ventral vessel
from which it is supplied to dorsal vessel.
Supra-esophageal vessel
Collect blood from the gizzard, esophagus and supply to ventral vessel.

Blood vascular system in human being

It consists of;
 Heart having 4 chamber (i) right auricle (ii) right ventricle
(iii) left auricle (iv) left ventricle.
 Aorta + Arteries + Arterioles + Blood capillaries + Venules + Veins
 Posterior vena cava or inferior vena cave or post canal
 Anterior vena cava or superior vena cava or precavel
 Pulmonary artery + Lungs + Pulmonary veins

25
Two types of circulation are present in human being.

Pulmonary circulation
It has the following routs;
i. Right auricle ii. Right ventricle iii. Pulmonary artery
iv.Lungs v. Pulmonary veins
Blood from upper and lower parts of the body is collected by blood vessels, called
veins, and carried to right auricle of the heart. By the contraction of this chamber
the blood is forced into the right ventricle. Contraction of the right ventricle sends
the deoxygenated blood to lungs through pulmonary artery. Here blood is
oxygenated and is returned to left auricle through 4 pulmonary veins.
Systemic circulation
It has the following routs;
i. Left auricle Left ventricle ii. Aorta iii. Arteries iv. Capillaries v. Venules vi. Veins vii.
Precaval viii. Post caval
When the left auricle contracts, it forces the blood into the left ventricle. Left ventricle
then contracts and pushes the blood into a very large artery called aorta. Aorta makes an
arch and runs posteriorly along the mid dorsal wall of the thorax and abdomen. On the
way aorta sends branches to heart, head, arms, stomach, intestine, liver, pancreas,
kidneys, legs etc. Each of these arteries make arterioles which, in turn, makes fine
arteries called blood capillaries, embedded in the tissues. Here oxygen, nutrient,
hormones and other substances move out of the blood into the tissues. The blood then
runs from the capillary bed into tiny veins which fuse to form larger and larger veins and
empty into one of the two very large veins, the anterior vena cava, which drains the head
neck and arms and posterior vena cava which drains the rest of the body. This is
systemic circulation.

The Blood : Blood is a complex substance called fluid tissue.

Composition : Blood is composed of 2 mediums.
i. Blood plasma:
It is extra cellular medium containing a liquid called blood plasma. Blood plasma
constitutes 50-60% of the blood. It contains 90% of water in which dissolved the
nutrients, salts, proteins, wastes, oxygen and hormones and antibodies.
ii. Blood cells:
Blood cells constitute 40-50% of the blood. The blood cells are called blood
corpuscles. There are 3 types of blood carpuseles.

26
 a. Erythrocytes (Red blood corpuscles)
These are biconcave-disc-shaped cells without nuclei. In normal blood there are 5
millions of erythrocytes per cubic mm of blood. Their life time is 120 days. Red
colour is due to the presence of hemoglobin. They are destroyed @ 2 million per
second but regularly formed. They are formed in the bone-marrow. Deficiency of
R.B.C. causes a disease called Anemia.
b. Leukocytes (white blood corpuscles)
They are of irregular shape. They are mainly formed in spleen, also in lymph nodes
and bone marrow. Their functions are;
- To protect body from infections by engulfing the invading organisms
(phagocytes)
- Aid in tissue repair of regeneration.
- Aid in absorption from the intestine.
- Help in blood protein maintenance.
- Aid in clotting of the blood.
c. Thrombocytes (blood platelets)
They are small round bodied, help in clothing of the blood. Some times
people are born without substances of blood clotting and the condition is
known as hemophilia.
Functions of Blood

i. Blood regulates body temperature.

ii. Blood transports oxygen from the lungs to all cells and brings back
carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs.
iii. Blood transports digested food from the alimentary canal to all cells.
iv. Blood carries hormones from glands to various parts of the body.
v. Blood brings waste matters from the cells to the kidneys to expel them
out.
Blood Groups
There are 4 types of human blood, according to the presence and absence in red
blood corpuscles of certain agglutinating substances known as A & B. Some
persons have both these substances and their blood group is AB, Some have A
only, hence blood group is A and some have B only with blood group B and still
other have neither A nor B in their blood hence make blood group O.

27
 RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS

The exchange of gases i.e. obtaining oxygen from the surrounding medium and
giving off carbon dioxide in the animal body is known as respiration.
Many small animals have no respiratory organs or systems. In these animals the
exchange of gases is direct from air or water through general body surface to
tissue cells. In higher animals respiration is more complex and consists of two
stages i.e. external respiration, the exchange between the environment and the
respiratory organs and internal respiration, the exchange between the body fluids
and the tissue cells. Normally free oxygen is utilized in respiration but some
intestinal parasites live in the absence of free oxygen. The process of respiration
which takes place in the absence of free oxygen is called Anaerobic respiration
and the process in which free oxygen is utilized is called Aerobic respiration.
Methods of respiration
Animals obtain oxygen by one or another of the following principal methods:
Simple Diffusion
Many aquatic animals obtain oxygen direct from their environment. In unicellular
animals (amoeba) gaseous exchange takes place through the cell membrane to
and from the surrounding water. In sponges, coelenterates and other lower soft
bodied invertebrates, the gases diffuse through epithelial cells and thence to
those deeper in the body. Earthworm and many other similar animals take
oxygen and give off carbon dioxide through the moist skin. In these animals
oxygen from the air defuses through the cells of the skin into the blood capillaries,
lying just beneath it. The oxygen is then carried through the blood to various
organs where it diffuses from the blood into the cells. Similarly carbon dioxide
diffuses to the air from the body.
Tracheae
Insects and certain other arthropods have fine air tubes called tracheae which
lead from the body surface. Tracheae divide to finest branches called as
tracheoles. These tracheoles reach all interior organs and end on the surface of
tissue cells, which form a net work. The end of tracheoles is filled with fluid
through which oxygen and CO2 diffuse to and from the adjacent tissue cells.
Exterior opening of tracheae are called spiracles which in many insects have
valves or lids. Larvae of damsel fly and may flies are aquatic. They have small

28
sac like out growths on their abdomen, called tracheal gills through which
diffusion of gases occur in water. Dragonfly nymphs have rectal gills through
which gaseous exchange occurs. A diving water beetle comes on the surface of
the water and takes down a silvery bubble of air under the wings from which
oxygen diffuses into the tracheal system.
Blood Gills
In many aquatic animals respiration takes place by means of specialized
structure called gills. These gills are supplied with blood capillaries. The
exchange of gases occur between the surrounding water and the blood with in
the gills. Young larvae of frog have external blood gills, but fishes and many other
aquatic animals possess internal gills. In fishes the gills are formed as paired
pouches at the sides of the pharynx. Gill slits open to the pharynx and exterior. A
fish take water into the mouth and then force it out through the gill slits during
which exchange of gases occur.
Lungs
All land vertebrates including the aquatic reptiles birds and mammals have lungs
for respiration. A lung is a chamber lined by moist epithelium and supplied with a
net work of blood capillaries, where atmospheric air is used. The lungs of frog are
a pair of thin walled membranous sacs, the inner surface of which contains
numerous shallow pits. The reptile lungs contain many interior portions. In birds
and mammals these interior portion are subdivided into microscopic
compartments. The lungs of birds contain special chambers called air sacs which
help in respiration.
The human respiratory system starts from the mouth through an opening called
glottis. Glottis is supported by a cartilaginous frame work, the larynx. Larynx is
connected to a flexible tube called Trachea that divides into two branches,
bronchi, one to each lung. In the lungs the bronchi divide into many branches
called bronchioles. Each bronchiole ends in a sac having many small chambers
called as alveoli or air sacs. Air sacs surrounded by blood capillaries where
exchange of gases occurs. Air is inhaled through nostrils, enter to larynx and
trachea and finally in air sacs through bronchi and bronchioles. The exchange of
gases occur in the air sacs where oxygen is taken by the blood in the blood
capillaries and transported to all body parts while carbon dioxide is given off
which leaves the lungs when animals exhale.

29
 EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Excretion is the process of elimination of wastes resulting from metabolism,
(chemical constructive and destructive process in the body). Microscopic and
small animals such as protozoan, porifera, coelenterates have no specialized
excretory organs. Amoeba and various other fresh water protozonas have one or
more contractile vacuoles responsible for the elimination of wastes mostly
ammonia. Excretion in sponges and coelenterates occurs by diffusion from body
cells into the epidermis and thence into the water. In flootworms there is present
a system of cells called flame cells. These cells collect wastes from the body fluid
and discharge to outside through numerous pores in the body wall.
Among insects and a few other arthropods the principal excretory organs are
slender tubes called malpighian tubules attached to the anterior end of hind gut.
These tubules collect wastes from the body fluids and discharge them into the
hind gut. In many higher invertebrates the excretory organs are tubular structures
called nephridia. In the earthworms each segment contains a pair of nephridia.
The inner end of each has a ciliated funnel which collect wastes from the body
and discharge by an opening called nephridiopore.
In vertebrates the principal excretory organs are two kidneys. From each kidney a
common collecting tube, the ureters, carries the wastes posteriorly. In
amphibians, reptiles and birds the two ureter discharge into the cloacae, to which
a urinary bladder connects in amphibians and reptiles. In mammals the ureters
connect directly to the urinary bladder. Urinary bladder opens into a tube called
urethra which passes through the penis in the male. Kidneys are supplied with
blood capillaries where filtration of wastes or urine occurs from the blood. Urine is
carried to the urinary bladder by means of ureters and discharged to exterior by
means of urethra.
Excretory system in man
Excretory system in man is composed of the following organs.
 A pair of bean shaped kidneys, brownish in colour, 4” – 4.5” in length.
 A pair of ureters, one from each kidney.
 A urinary bladder.
 A urethra, passing through the penis in man, and open at upper side of
the opening of vagina in female
30
Structure of kidney
There are three regions of a kidney.
 Cortex – the outer region.
 Medulla – the inner region containing the pyramids, made up of tubules.
 Pelvis – the cavity receiving the ureter.
Renal artery and renal vein are present in each kidney for supply and removal of
the blood. Millions of functional units, called nephrons, are present in each
kidney. Each nephron has the following parts.
i. Bowman’s capsule ii. Glomerulus iii. Convoluted tubule
A convoluted tubule has 3 parts as under;
i. Proximal convoluted tubule ii. Loop of Henle iii.Distal convoluted tubule
Convoluted tubules are connected to collecting tubule which opens into pelvis by
means of papillare.
Formation of urea – Deaminization – the liver splits excess NH 2 radicals of amino
acid. NH2 is then changed to NH3 (ammonia) which is combined with CO2 to form
urea.
2NH3 + CO2  CO (NH2)2 Urea + H2O

31
 REPRODUCTION

The ability of animals to produce new living individuals is known as reproduction.

Two types of reproduction occur in animals.
Asexual reproduction
In this type of reproduction new individuals derive from one parent animal without
involving sex cells or gametes. It occurs in lower animals by the following ways:
a. Binary fission: In this type an individual divides into two equal halves,
after which each attains the original form. Examples-Amoeba and
paramecium.
b. Multiple fission or sporulation: In this type an individual divides into
many fragments. Example-plasmodium.
c. Budding: Budding is the process of reproduction in which a new
individual arises as an out growth, or bud, on an older animal, that
grows to the form and size of original one. Examples- sponges, hydra.
d. Regeneration: Certain animals reproduce the lost parts of body by
regeneration. For example if tail or head portion of a Planaria is cut it is
reproduced by the process of regeneration.
e. Parthenogenesis: It is a process of embryonic development in which an
egg develop to young one without the union of sperm. For example
development of male of honeybee.
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is the process in which new individual develop from sex cells
produced by the parents. Typically two cells of different kind (male and female)
unit to form a new individual.
Unicellular animals reproduce sexually by a process called conjugation in which
two individuals apply themselves on ventral surfaces, exchange sex material
called gametes and then separate multiply by binary fission. Example-
paramecium.
In multicellular animals male and female produce free sex cells or germ cells.
Germ cells of male are called sperm or spermatozoa and that of female eggs or
ova. The germ cells are produced in sex organs known as gonads, the sperm in
testis (plural testes) and the ova in ovaries. Most animals have glands and other
parts associated with the gonads to form a reproductive system, that aids in the

32
reproductive process. In man the male reproductive system comprises a pair of
testes, a pair of vas deferens, a pair of seminal vesicles and penis while the
organs of female reproductive system are a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, a
uterus and vagina. In male prostate gland and cowper’s gland aid in copulation.
In some invertebrates, as earthworms and flatworms, both male and female
reproductive systems are present in one individual and termed as hermaphrodite
or monoeious. All vertebrates have separate sexes that is each individual is
either male or female and termed as dioecious.
In sexual reproduction the union of a mature sperm and an ovum is known as
fertilization. Fertilization of the egg is completed when the two nuclei of gametes,
that is one from the sperm and one from the ovum fuse and the resulting sell is
known as Zygote. In many invertebrates, some marine fishes and frogs and toads
fertilization of the eggs occurs outside the female body and called external
fertilization. In this case male and female either come close to one another or
male clasps the female and eggs and sperms are shed freely into the water. In
animals in which fertilization is internal such as nematodes some molluscs,
earthworms, arthropods, some fishes, all reptiles, birds and mammals the male
transfers its sperms directly into the genital organ of the female by definite
copulation. During copulation a male inserts its copulatory organ called penis into
the female’s genital organ called vagina and discharges sperm into uterus where
fertilization occurs. In some insects, for example bees, ants etc. reproduction
occurs through the development of unfertilized eggs. This process is called
parthenogenesis.
Hormonal control of female reproductive cycle
Hormones are chemical substances which regulate the sequence and timing of
events in reproduction. This is best understood in mammals. First a growth
stimuling hormones (GSH) causes a young female to become sexually mature,
being capable of producing nature eggs. During maturing of the egg primary egg
cell is surrounded by a cellular sac called follicle. Growth of the follicle and egg is
stimulated by a hormone called follicle stimulating hormones (FSH), released by
anterior pituitary gland. The follicle itself release a hormone known as Estrogen
which brings estrus or heat in female sex. As the follicle reaches its full size, it
ruptures and releases the egg. At the some time pituitary gland secretes another
hormone called luteinizing hormone (LH) which transforms the ruptured follicle

33
into a structure called carpus luteum. Corpus luteum then release progesterone
(a hormone) which together with estrogen prepare the uterus to receive a
fertilized egg and mammary gland to nourish newborn. If pregnancy occurs the
corpus luteum is retained by luteutropic hormones, (LTH), produced by pituitary
gland and its secretion (estrogen) depress FSH and prevents growth or maturing
of other follicle. After birth or in case that pregnancy fails, corpus luteum
disappears and permit FSH to promote growth of the egg and follicle once again.
In lower mammals such as rats, cats, dogs and cattles estrus cycle occurs with
no discharge of blood while in higher primates and human menstrual cycle takes
place in which menstruation or discharge of blood occurs at the end of the cycle.
Patterns for nourishing and protecting the Embryo
During development of embryo a constant supply of food and oxygen and
elimination of waste products occurs. Moreover the embryo is protected by
various coverings from external shocks. For example a large amount of food is
stored in the Frog’s eggs. The eggs are laid in water from which oxygen is
obtained by diffusion and the stored food is utilized for nourishment. The embryo
with in the egg is protected by fertilization membrane. In eggs of fishes a yolk sac
is present which receives numerous blood vessels from the embryonic
membrane. The diffusible yolk is absorbed by the vessels and carried to the
developing embryo. In terrestrial egg laying vertebrates, reptiles and birds,
certain embryonic membranes develop besides yolk sac. The first membrane,
just beneath the egg shell, is called the chorion. The second membrane is known
as Amnion which surrounds the embryo and encloses a fluid which keeps the
embryo moist and protect from any shock. Another membrane, the Allantaos is
richly supplied with blood and functions in gas exchange and excretion.
In the majority of mammals practically no food is stored in the eggs and
development is completely within the uterus. The amnion which is formed has a
protective function comparable to that in reptiles and birds. The chorion, however,
is the layer next to the tissues of the mother and in man, for example, becomes
concerned directly with nutrition, gas exchange and excretion. An allantois
appears during the development of the human embryo but has no function. A rich
supply of blood vessels in the chorion is connected with the vessels of the
embryo’s body by way of vessels in the umbilical cord. The part of the wall of the
uterus in which the young human embryo becomes embedded, together with

34
extensions of the chorion, constitutes the placenta. The attachment between
mother and embryo is such that diffusible substances carried by the blood can
pass from one to other. The embryonic membranes are not permanent
structures. When the reptile or bird hatches, the embryonic membranes are left in
the shell. After the birth of a mammal its embryonic membranes are expelled from
the uterus of the mother.

35
 Nervous System

The internal and external environment of the animal body is controlled by a

sensitive structure called nervous system.
A. Nervous system of invertebrates
i. Amoeba
No nerve fibers, conductivity of protoplasm control the body
ii. Paramecium
Nerve fabrils are present. There is a specialized region in the cell
called motorium which acts as coordinating and relay centre.
iii. Hydra
A nerve net is present in the body. There is no central control but
impulse can move at any direction in a diffused pathway.
iv. Planaria
A bilobed mass of nerve tissue is present in the head region called
brain. Longitudinal nerve cords run through the body which has cross
connections.
v. Earthworm
A nervous system is present in earthworm. It consists of;
a. Brain or a pair of supra-pharyngeal ganglia on upper side of the head.
b. A pair of circum-pharyngeal connectives which run downwards on
each side of the pharynx to connect with sub-pharyngeal ganglia.
c. A pair of sub-pharyngeal ganglia on the ventral side of the pharynx.
d. A fused ventral nerve cord enclosed in a sheeth. It sends 2 pairs of nerves
in each segment.
vi. Grasshopper
Nervous system of grasshopper is composed of;
a.A brain or a pair of fused ganglia called supra-esophageal ganglia.
b.A pair of circum-esophageal connectives which run downwards on
both sides of the esophagus.
c. A pair of fused sub-esophageal ganglia on the ventral side
connecting the circum-esophageal connectives.
d. A pair of nerve cord having 2 fused ganglia in each segment.
e. A pair of lateral nerves arise from each ganglion.

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B. Nervous system in vertebrates
A complete nervous system is present in vertebrates for coordinating the
external and internal environment of the body.
Nervous system is composed of nerve fibers jus like the telephone wire. A
nerve fiber contains a number of functional units called neurons which are
bonded together to form a nerve fiber. Although there may be thousands of
neuron fibers in a single nerve, each is insulated from all others and conduct
impulses independently of the others.
A neuron consists of 3 parts.
i. Dendrites ii. Cell body iii .Axon
Neurons are wrapped in myelin sheeth.
Nervous system in human being
The following 3 types of nervous systems are present in human being.
Central nervous system: It is composed of the following parts.
i. Brain – It comprises;
 Fore brain
 Mid brain
 Hind brain
ii. Spinal cord – It has 5 regions
 Cranial region in the head
 Cervical region in the neck
 Thoracic region in the thorax
 Lumber region in the abdomen
 Sacral region in the lower abdomen

Somatic or peripheral nervous system.

This system, in coordination of the central nervous system, control the
pathways or stimuli of the external environment. This work in the form of reflex
arcs. A reflex are contains 3 types of neurons.
i. Sensory neuron – Its one end is in the receptor cells and the
other in the spinal cord.
ii. Inter neuron or associate neuron – It lies in the spinal cord one
end synopsis with the sensory neuron and the other with the
motor neuron.

37
 iii. Motor neuron – Its one end synopsis with the inter neuron and
the other lies in the effector cells of mussel.
Autonomic nervous system.
This system controls the internal environment of the body. This system is not
under the control of the man’s will – It function automatically without awaring
of them. It innervates the heart, glands, smooth muscles of digestive system,
respiratory, excretory and reproductive system and blood vessel. It has two
parts.
i. Sympathetic system (Thoraco lumber)
The nerve fibers arise from the servical, thoracic and lumber
region of the spinal cord.
ii. Parasympathetic system (craniosacral)
Nerve fibers arise from the cranial and sacral regions of the
spinal cord.

38
 Locomotion in Animals

Movement of animals from place to place either by internal streaming or

motion by various specialized structures is known as locomotion.
Types of movement or locomotion
Movements not involving muscles. (non-muscular movements)
a. Amoeboid movements
Some unicellular animals, for example amoeba moves from place to place by
flowing. It puts out from its body surface out growths called pseudopodia and
cytoplasm flows to the extended portions. By the continuous extension of a
pseudopodium and flow of cytoplasm into it the animal moves from place to
place.
b. Ciliary movement
Some protozoon’s (like paramecium) are provided with hair like processes
called cilia. The animals move by the lashing movement of cilia. The cilia lash
backwards and drive the animals forward through the water. Cilia lash
obliquely and the animal rotates on its body axes. Cilia in the oral grove
lashes vigorously thus paramecium swerves on its long axes.
c. Flagellary movement
Euglena possesses at the anterior end one or more long whip like out growths
called flagella. The flagella is trusted forward and pulled backwards in the
form of a spring which pulls the animals forward through the water.
Movements involving muscles but not skeleton (muscular non-skeleton
movement).
The movements of multi-cellular animals are due to contractions of the
muscular tissues of the body. Locomotion brought about by muscles is of the
following types.
a. Somersault movement
Movements in coelenterates are brought about by the expansion and
contraction of their basal contractile fibres. A Hydra, for example during
locomotion attaches its basal disc to a substratum in the water. Then it bends
over, and attaches its tentacles to the substratum. Now basal disc is freed and
assume a new position. Basal disc is again attached to the object by making a
loop and tentacles are freed. Repeating this process the animal moves.

39
 b. Looping or measuring movement
Some larvae of insects and leeches move with such looping movements as if
they are measuring the earth. In this case the posterior end is attached to the
solid surface and the body is stretched forward and the surface is gripped by
the anterior end. Then the posterior end is detached and fixed again close to
the anterior and making a loop. Anterior end is freed and body is stretched
again, thus results locomotion in the animals.
c. Creeping
An earthworm moves by means of a series of waves of muscular contraction
and relaxation which passes from the anterior to the posterior end. Some
Annelids (neries) are provided with locomotory appendages called parapodia
on each side. Parapodia are provided with muscles, contraction of which
cause them to move; snail move by means of a fleshy organ called foot.
d. Jet propulsion
i. Some aquatic animals, such as jelly fish, etc. take water into the
umbrella like body and force out the water from the umbrella acting as
a jet and propel the body forward.
ii. Octopus has foot modified to a funnel. The water is expelled from the
funnel and the animal move backward vigorously.
Movements involving muscle-skeletal relation
Most animals move through the action of muscles that are attached to a rigid
but jointed skeleton.
There are 3 types of joints;
i. Hinge joints in arm and legs.
ii. Gliding or pivotal joints such as front bones in elbow.
iii. Ball and socket joints of shoulders and hips.
There are 2 types of muscles attached to joints;
i. Flexor muscles such as biceps muscles in front of arm.
ii. Extensor muscles such as triceps muscles in the back of arm.
When a muscle shortens, bending or straightening occurs at the joint and
locomotion is the result of the action. Locomotion resulted by muscle skeletal
relation is of the following types:

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a. Crawling
This type of locomotion occurs in most insects and some lizard. Insects crawl
by means of three pairs of legs. During movement muscles attached to the
skeletal parts of the limbs, contract in opposition to one another.
b. Wriggling
A wriggling movement is brought about by the alternate contraction and
relaxation of muscles on opposite sides of the body. This type of locomotion is
found among snakes and some lizards.
c. Swimming
The majority of aquatic animals swim actively by means of appendages which
are usually flattened and moved like oars. In fishes locomotion is mainly
brought about by powerful movement of the tail and lateral paired fins. Marine
turtles have webbed fore limps which function like the fins. Aquatic mammals
such as sea lions and seals have no hind limbs, where tail serves as the
principal organ of locomotion. Most aquatic Arthropods swim by their
specialized locomotory organs.
d. Flight
Flight is the normal method of locomotion among birds which is effected by
beating the wings. A few birds such as ostrich have reduced wings and are
incapable of flight but have powerful running legs. Bat is the only mammal
which is capable of true flight by means of modified fore limbs as wings. Most
insects have membranous wings which typically function in locomotion. The
flying fishes possess large pectoral fins which enable them to glide for
considerable distance. The flying squirrels glide from a tree to the ground with
the help of folds of skin connecting the fore and hind limbs.
e. Walking
All quadrupeds (having four legs) walk by means of two pairs of limbs. During
walking the fore and hind limbs are alternately brought into action.
f. Walking erect
Birds, higher primates and human beings are bipeds. In birds and primates
the process of locomotion is more or less confined to the hind limbs. Man,
while walking, swings his arms and legs alternately.

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 ORIGIN OF LIFE
No one knowns that how, when and where life originated. There are speculations
and theories on the origin of life. In ancient time it was believed that living things
originated from non-living things. This belief was known as ABIOGENESIS which
persisted till 17th century. From Aristotle time (384-322 B.C) living thing were
supposed to arise spontaneously. It was believed that maggot arose from decaying
meat, insect from dew and frog and toads from mud. In 1652 a book was published
stating that if wheat grain and dirty shirt were put together in a pot and placed in the
dark mice could be formed from the interaction of wheat and the dirt of the shirt.
It was Redi Francesco (1626-1697) who disproved spontaneous generation by
conducting experiments and the abiogenesis was replaced by BIOGENESIS which
states that new life arises only from pre-existing life.
There are four principle theories on the origin of life.
Cosmozoa theory
Life might have reached the earth accidentally from some other source in the
universe in the form of simple protoplasm or in living form or a living cell. But any
meteor which enters the earth atmosphere become red hot and it is not possible for
life to come with it.
Special creation
Life have been created by some super natural power either once or at successive
intervals or each species has been created separately.
Spontaneous generation
Life originated repeatedly from non-living matter by spontaneous generation.
Naturalistic theory
It has been calculated that the earth was detached from the sun between 5 and 10
billion years ago. It was a glowing mass and not fit for life for a few billion years.
Some 4 billion years ago when earth cooled and watery hydrosphere condensed life
originated in the oceans. It may be speculated that in primordial seas conditions of
temperature, radiation and chemical construction favoured the formation of a large
variety of carbon compounds. Further random combinations among these
compounds resulted the formation of a small substance which was stable in nature.
It was a simpler aggregations of molecules which had fundamental properties of life.
By the passage of time and by gradual process this substance evolved into living

42
unicellular (single celled) organisms. The existing animals on the earth evolved from
these unicellur animals by the process of evaluation.
Abiogenesis
The hypothesis that living thing came from non-living thing is called Abiogenesis or
spontaneous generation.
Biogenesis
The hypothesis that new life comes only from preexisting life is called Biogenesis or
reproduction.

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 ORIGIN OF SPECIES OR ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Evolution
Evolution means a gradual and orderly change.
Organic evolution
Evidences show that the first living animals were extremely simple, and from them
have arisen, by a process of gradual and orderly change more and more complex
forms or animals. It means that now all existing species are the modified
descendants of pre-existing ones. This process is called organic evolution.
Evidences in favour of organic evolution
A brief overview of the evidences in favour of organic evolution is given below:
Evidence from classification
It is known, for example, that all the members of the phylum chordate have, at some
stage in their lives a notochord, pharyngeal gill slits and a dorsal hollow central nerve
tube. These remarkable resemblances can only be interpreted by assuming that all
the chordate had a common ancestor in the past.
Evidence from homology
In the skeletal system, for example, bone for bone correspondence can be seen in
diverse vertebrates. Despite their diversity of functions the internal anatomy of the
fore limbs of a bird, dog, whale, bat and human is remarkably similar.
The bones of forelimbs of various animals showing similarity in structure despite
wide differences in functions
Similarly in other systems though some differences can be seen, yet the
resemblances are more conspicuous. Such intrinsically similar structures are termed
as homologous structure. These can only be explained if we assume that all the
animals have evolved from a common ancestor.
Evidence from vestigial organs
In almost all the plants and animals some organs that serve no apparent purpose are
found. Such organs are called the vestigial organs. For example, the pelvic bones in
whales and certain snakes occur as embedded inside the muscles and thus do not
seem to perform useful function as these animals do not possess hind limbs. The
wings of such flightless birds as kiwi and ostrich are also examples of vestigial
organs serving no useful function, but had neither been lost completely nor modified
into different structures.

44
In the human body appendix, coccyx, nictitating membrane and ear muscles are
some of the example of vestigial organs.
Evidence from comparative biochemistry
The study of biochemistry in different animals and plants has revealed a great deal
of similarities among the various organisms. The amino acid sequences in proteins
and the similarities in the composition of DNA and RNA have confirmed that all living
organisms are related to each other.
Evidence from paleontology
Fossils are different sorts of remains of organisms that lived in the past geologic age
are no longer living now. An important evidence in favour of evolution is provided by
them. Over the years, some fossils have been found which present intermediate
stages leading from an ancient form to the modern form. Such graded series are
known as connecting links. Fossil horse is one of such series of fossils.
Evidence from embryology
The embryological development in all the vertebrates show striking similarities
particularly during the early stages of their development. They evidently are
indicative of close relationship between these animals. All these changes pass
through a stage during their development when the embryo possesses gill arches.
Only fishes go on to develop the gills, whereas in others they disappear. The idea
that embryological development repeats the developmental history of the species is
called the theory of Recapitulation.
Theories of organic evolution
Many theories have been proposed, but three are the most important, namely
(1) Lamarck’s theory (2) Darwin’s theory and (3) the Mutation theory.
Lamarck’s theory or theory of the inheritance of acquired
characteristics or Lamarckism.
Jean Baptist Lamarck (1744-1829) was a French biologist. He proposed his
theory in 1809 as “Philosophic Zoologoque.” There are 4 main features of his theory;
 Change in the environment
 New needs according to new environment
 Use and disuse of organs
 Inheritance of acquired characters

45
According to this theory animals under changed conditions of environment acquire
new needs. In order to satisfy these needs animals change their habits during their
life time by the greater use of certain organs and disuse of certain other. These
changes or acquired characters are preserved and transferred by heredity to next
generation. If next generation continue to live under the same changed conditions
they bring about more changes and again these changes are preserved and
transmitted by heredity to the still next generation. As a result of the accumulation of
such small modifications through a very large number of generations the species is
transformed into a new one. Thus according to Lamarck new species arise through
use and disuse of organs or through the development of new organs.
Examples of frequent use of organs
Ancestors of giraffes were like the horses. When they came to live in grassless land
of Africa, they were forced to browse upon the leaves of the trees. In order to reach
the leaves they made constant efforts to stretch their neck and forelimbs. As a result
of these efforts the length each of these parts of the body was slightly increased and
inherited to the off-spring which in their turn made a little addition to it. Thus by the
accumulation of such small increase through successive generations the fore limbs
became much longer the hind limbs and the neck was enormously elongated.
The enlarged skin between the toes as in ducks and other water kind are due
frequent use of organs.
Examples of disuse of organs
In order to escape the attack of mammals the lizard like ancestors of snakes
acquired the habit of gliding over the ground and of creeping through narrow spaces
of gross and holes. As a result of this habit maintain for a very large number of
generations, their bodies became very much elongated and their limbs, which were
not used, gradually disappeared.
Degeneration of eyes of cave dwelling animals and degeneration of teeth of whales
are similar examples of disuse of organs.
Objections
This theory was rejected on the basis that bodily modifications brought about by the
use and disuse of organs or directly by the influence of environment cannot affect
the germ cells and cannot be transmitted to the next, generation.

46
Examples
 August Wiesman (1870) cut tails of mice for 22 generation but each
progeny developed normal tails.
 If arm or leg of a man is mutilated during an accident his young ones are
reproduced with normal organ.
 Muslims are carrying out circumcision of their male children’s for centuries
but their children are born normally.
 Women bore their ear and nose since long but their children born
normally.
Neo-Lamarckism
Recent experimental researches show that some acquired characters affect germ
cells up to some extent and can be inherited. This revival of theory is known as Neo-
Lamarckism.
Examples
 Vegetative reproduction in plants
 Regeneration in earthworm
 Tower exposed the young potato beetles to extreme conditions of
moisture and temperature. No bodily modification in the beetles
occurred but their off-spring reared under normal conditions developed
different colors.
 Summer reared mice in warm and cold rooms. Mice reared in cold
room had longer tail and feet and ear as against those reared in warm
room. When reared both in the normal conditions the same differences
occurred.
The accumulated evidences indicated that mutilation or suddenly or exceptionally
acquired characters are not inherited but the action of some external stimulus,
continuing through many generations ultimately affect the somatic as well as the
germ cells and thus the acquired characters become heritable.

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 Darwin’s Theory or theory of natural selection or
Darwinism
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was an English man. He presented his theory in 1859
namely the origin of species by natural selection.
Main features of the theory
 Over production-reproduction in a geometrical ratio-2, 4, 8, 16, 32.
 Struggle for existence or competition.
 Hereditary variations. (Favourable and unfavorable).
 Natural selection or survival of the fittest.
 Structural modifications.
Over production
i. A paramecium divides 3 times a day if bread for 5 years at the
same rate the mass of protoplasm would be equal to 10 thousand
time of volume of the earth.
ii. Oyster lays 60 million eggs in a season. If progeny of a single
oyster survived and multiplied by at this rate for 5 generations the
heap of shall would be 8 times the size of the earth.
iii. The cod fish lays 7 million eggs in one breeding season, if all eggs
develop, the seas of the glob would soon be over populated with
cod fish also.
iv. The elephant which is the slowest breeder (30 – 90 years) produce 6
youngs in this period. Darwin calculated that a single pair would
produce in 750 years 19 millions descendants.
v. If bacteria keep on reproducing unchecked, this will result 2000 tons of
bacteria in 24 hours.
Struggle for existence or competition
Struggle for room, food and shelter and other adverse conditions of the environment.
There are 3 categories of animal’s competition.
i. Inter-specific struggle between members of different species one is
prayed upon the other.
ii. Intra-specific struggle between the members of the same species.
iii. Environmental struggle-extreme cold, heat, storm, moisture.

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Variations
In form, size, coloration, physiology, habits, and internal and external structures.
These variations may be most useful or favourable or less useful or unfavourable to
their environment.
Natural selection or survival of the fittest
During competition of the animals nature select the fittest, those individuals which
possess the most useful or favourable variations and eliminate the less fit, those
individuals which possess less useful or unfavorable variations. Individual selected
by nature survive and propagate their kind.
Structural modifications
The best adopted individuals survive and transmit their favourable variations to their
offspring. The selection process continues generation after generation and in the
course of very long time these variations accumulate to such an extent that the
species is modified into a new one. For species formation isolation is an important
factor. Isolation may be:
i. Eco-geographic ii. Habitat iii. Seasonal iv. Behavioral v. Gametogemic
Example
Evolution of modern giraffe can be courted as an example of Darwin’s theory. The
original population of Giraffe had some individuals with short necks and some with
long necks. The ones with long necks could eat leaves of the trees as well as grass
on the ground. During period of time the grass was scarce and the giraffe with long
neck could obtain more food than others and were more likely to survive and
reproduce. This favourable variation of long neck was inherited by the offspring. The
modern day long necked giraffe is the result of the process of evolution.

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 DE-VRIES MUTATION THEORY
Mutation means a sudden heritable modification of a character of an organism
caused by some sort of change in the germ cell.
Hugo De-Vries, a Dutch biologist, proposed his theory of mutation in 1901. He based
his theory on research which he did for many years on the plant, evening primrose.
He found that one variety of this plant was short in height while the other was tall.
Similarly he observed twelve different varieties in this plant. In the course of research
he observed that occasionally a plant appeared with totally new structure or form.
This new plant then bread true in later generations. De-Vries considered each of
these sudden changes to be a mutant.
According to De-Vries mutation theory new species arise suddenly by mutations
(change) and are distinct from the beginning. Mutation arises from internal causes
operating in genes contained in the germ cells and are therefore heritable. De-Vries
considers that new species appears mutants, but natural selection (through struggle
for existence) checks these new forms. If these mutants are better adapted to the
environment, they are selected and survive otherwise eliminated by the nature.
Natural selection does not act until mutations have occurred, and that its action is
subjected to the elimination of unsuitable mutant only.
Accordingly to this theory a giraffe with longer than normal neck would have been
produced by a mutation. When grass was not available the long necked giraffe and
its off-spring had an advantage over giraffes with necks of normal length. They
survived and multiplied in greater number. Eventually the long necked variety was left.
It is certain that mutations are due to changes of genes in the germ cells, but it is not
known as what causes or factors are responsible for these changes. The theory of
mutation therefore, is not explanation, but merely a statement of facts. It be regarded
as a modification of Darwin’s theory in which small gradual variations have been
replaced by mutations and the action of natural selection has been restricted. In fact,
mutation theory offers a method by which evolution is believed to have been brought
about with in a much shorter time than that imagined on the basis of Darwin’s theory
of natural selection.
We have learned that mutations are the main source of heritable variations and
provide the raw material for evolution on which natural selection operates. Only
favourable variations are selected by nature and are passed on to the next

50
generations. The unfavorable ones are weeded out. Accumulation of several
variations, generation after generation produces an organism very different from its
ancestors and this is how a new species originates.
Examples
Hundreds of mutations are known to have occurred among animals.
i. Fourteen or more mutations of one gene for eye colour in Drosophila have
been observed.
ii. A male lamb with short, bent legs is a result of mutation which appeared in
a flock of sheep in 1791 from which a famous Acon breed of sheep was
established.
iii. Albino is a type of mutation that is very common. In albino animals the
customary pigment is lacking and eyes are defective. The result is a pure-
white, pink-eyed animal. Albino do not succeeds well in their life as they
are easily seen by their enemies.
iv. The race of polled “Hereford” cattle arose from a hornless animal that
appeared in 1889 at Atchison, Kans.
Objections
 Mutation theory cannot explain adaptations which exist in nature for
instance, the phenomenon of protective resemblance and mimicry
cannot be explained on the basis of this theory. On the other hand they
can be much better explained if we assume that they are the result of
the gradual accumulation of small variations under the guidance of
natural selection.
 Mutants are hybrid and abnormal species. Primrose, for example, is a
hybrid which produces mutants from time to time. Although in other
organisms mutations are caused by changes in the germ-plasm, they
are, in many cases of abnormal characters and are of doubtful in
species formation.
 Mutation occurs very rarely in nature. Obviously if mutations are not of
general occurrence, they cannot form the raw material for natural
selection and can have no significance as a factor in evolution.

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 ADAPTATION
The fitness of organisms to their surroundings is termed adaptation. It bring about
an adjustment between organisms and their environments. Following are various
types of adaptation of animals.
Adaptation for protection
Many animals have shell on their bodies for protection. For example the shells of
turtles, armadillos and most mollucs. Some animals have special organs of
offence and defense. For example sting of bees and wasps and poison glands of
snakes and quill covering of porcupines. Some animals resemble their
surroundings in colour and form. For example green grass hoppers bugs, flies,
butterflies and caterpillars are as green as the plants on which they live. The
bears, foxes and owls of alpine and artic regions are snowy white, while the
desert animals, such as camel and lion tend to be brown or grey. Many forest
dwelling animals, such as Zebra and Leopard are spotted or striped and thus
blend with a background of light and shadow. The highest grade protective
resemblances is found in leaf insect, stick insect and dead leaf butterfly which not
only resemble to their host in colour but also in form. A palatable butterfly mimics
another unpalatable butterfly so that it may not be prayed by birds.
Adaptation to physical environments
Organisms are various modified to suit their habitats (physical environments),
such as land, air and water. Adaptation to physical environments is as follows:
a. Cursorial adaptation
Fast running animals on the ground have adopted this type of
adaptation. The body is relatively light and the fore and hind limbs
are lengthened. For example dogs, foxes and wolves, horses, deer
etc.
b. Fossorial adaptation
A number of mammals live under ground. The body is spindle
shaped with pointed snout. Example -moles.
c. Arboreal adaptation
Many mammals such as monkeys, squirrels are adapted to live on
trees.

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 d. Volant adaptation
Some mammals such as flying lemurs, flying squirrels can fly long
or short during which they are supported by wide folds of skin
between the sides of the body and extended limbs.
The bat is the only mammal which is true flier.
e. Natatiorial adaptation
In mammals, such as Dolphins, Seals, Whales, Walruses etc. which
are adapted to aquatic life, the body is like fish. The limbs are
modified into paddles.
Adaptation for food
Teeth of mammals have a great variety of adaptation for various kind of food.
Rats, mice, rabbits etc. have gnawing teeth while wolves, cats, bears etc. have
cutting and tearing teeth. Armadillos and scaly ant eaters are either provided with
incomplete teeth or without teeth. The whalebone whales are also without teeth.

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 ANIMALS BEHAVIOUR
What is behaviour?
Behaviour is the activity which is performed by any animal according to his needs
or environmental necessities. It is a biological process based on the functioning
of nervous, endocrine and muscular systems. All the functions and habits of the
animals constitute their behaviour, such as their sitting, movement, sleeping,
feeding, social contacts and taking care of their young ones. When the nature of
behaviour, its ecological and evolutionary importance is studied in its natural way,
it is called ethology.

Different kinds of behaviour

 Feeding behaviour
 Shelter seeking behaviour
 Antagonistic behaviour
 Behaviour of parental care
 Sexual behaviour
 Behaviour of communication and coordination
 Instinct behaviour
 Learning behaviour
 Social behaviour

 Feeding behaviour
Food is the basic need of all living organisms. Animals use different types of food,
some take solid and some take liquid food. The children of all mammals are
feeded upon milk, herbivores eat plants and carnivores use other animals as their
food, some from their surrounding. It indicates different methods of obtaining food
in animals, even the related animals may have different feeding mechanism. This
phenomenon is called feeding behaviour.

 Shelter seeking behaviour

A very important behaviour pattern is shelter seeking in animals. In this pattern
they protect themselves from climatic factors and enemies. This pattern is of
various kinds. Animals of same type live together to form groups, such as birds
sit on tress during night which provides them shelter. Group formation is also

54
common in insects, fishes, mammals and even in the unicellular animals. When
dry season comes, all Paramecium gather at the same place.

 Antagonistic behaviour
The animals also have the tendency of fight with others for their personal matters
or achievements, which may be shelter place, food or life partner. This behaviour
is known as antagonistic behaviour. Always there is competition for basic needs
of life among the animals. They want to get all these requirements in large
amount, many animals show antagonistic behaviour and they become ready to
fight with each other. In this fight one may be the stronger and winner, but every
time it is not necessary that weak individual is killed or tries to escape, the loser,
paws signs of compromise such as mice hold up their paws in a defensive way.
Any type of action which shows threat, attack, anger or fight is considered as
antagonistic behaviour.

 Behaviour of Parental care

It is a natural property of many animals that they take care of their children; it is
termed as behaviour of parental care. The brooding of eggs is important
characteristic of birds for a particular period till the chicks are hatched into birds.
Fishes, amphibians and reptiles also take care of their eggs. Parental care is also
seen in honey bees and termites. The young birds are very weak and unable to
take food. The parent birds look after them and provide food to them.
A highly advanced behaviour of parental care is exhibited by mammals,
especially in monkeys and man. At the time of birth the young one is quite
helpless. He entirely depends upon the milk of mother’s mammary gland. The
parents also provide shelter against the enemies and adverse environmental
conditions.
 Sexual behaviour
In adult stage the animals take part in reproduction. In this process they meet
with their opposite sex partner. They have attraction for each other, it is called
sexual behaviour. This behaviour is found in every type of animal. Some animals
select their partners. As a result of sexual behaviour their number is increased
and it helps in the survival of species.

 Behaviour of communication and coordination

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The animals can not live alone, they form groups and live together in a place.
They have contacts with each other according to their needs and desires. These
contacts are made physically and mentally. It is called communication and
coordination behaviour. This type of behaviour is necessary, because by contact
with other individuals they get many benefits in their life. One very important
benefit is their protection. They can communicate their problems to other animals.
Fishes, birds, cattles form groups. They communication with other members of
their group and coordinate accordingly. They travel together in the search of food,
shelter. By receiving a signal of danger they communicate massage to others.
The birds change their direction at once, the cattles stop grazing. Bees, ants and
other insects also have mutual communication and coordination among each
other.
 Instinct behaviour
The behaviour which is entirely controlled by genes is called instinct behaviour.
The instinct behavioral patterns are genetically inherited, preprogrammed and
automatic. This type of behaviour is common from protozoans to highly advanced
animals. In this behaviour there is no need of previous experience. When some
change occurs in the internal or external environment, the organism shows his
reaction to this stimulus.
New born seagull repeatedly pecks at a red mark on the mother’s beak, due to
which the mother regurgitate food. It is an instinct response. The red spot on the
bill of the adult herring gull chick is a point of stimulus to the other chick. Chicken
start feeding grains soon after hatching.
In instinct behaviour there is no possibility of any change or variation, which is
necessary for survival. This type of behaviour is more common in such animals
which have short life, poorly developed nervous system and have limited contact
with their parents. In some animals certain ability of this behaviour is developed
during the process of evolution and it is very useful for them.

 Learning behaviour
Learning is a long lasting adaptive change in behaviour resulting from
experience. It is the modification of behaviour in response to experience. The
most important feature of learning is that it is adaptive. The animal, having
learned habits, responds in ways that improve its survival and success in

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reproduction. Different animals, even of the same species, learn different things if
they live in different environment. In learning there are three important points:
i. Learning may become the cause of change in the characters and
processes which already exist in the body.
ii. Learning is necessary to keep fresh in memory for practical use.
iii. Learning is based on different processes such as (a) memory; (b) retrieval
of stored informations; (c) matching of past happenings; (d) decisions.
Learning can be divided into several categories:
i. Habituation ii. Conditioning iii. Latent learning
iv. Imprinting v. Insight learning

i. Habituation
It is the simplest form of learning and is not followed by either reward or
punishment. The animal gradually stops showing response to stimuli that are not
concerned to its life and are neither rewarding or punishing. Birds soon ignore the
speedy traffic on roads when feeding along road side or sitting on a tree. They
become habitual of the highway traffic, even some of them feed in the middle of
the road.
Some animals are disturbed by man, but when they live together for some time,
these animals live in a normal way without any disturbance. It is the habituation. It
is useful for them because they live in a better way and do not waste much
energy by disturbing again and again.

ii. Conditioning
When the learning is associated with reward or punishment, it is called
conditioning or conditioned reflex action. By learning, the animals change their
behaviour to get successive reward and decrease their errors or punishments, for
example, an expert driver shows automatic responses to drive a car or stop it at
once at the time of danger. An educated man can start writing quickly, but an
illiterate person can not do it. This is the conditioned reflex action.
This type of learning was first studied by a Russian Psychologist I.P. Pavlov.
Pavlov found out that when powdered meat was placed in a dog’s mouth, the dog
started salivating. He then added a new stimulus, ringing of a bell, at the time the
meat powder was provided. After the two stimuli had been presented jointly five
or six times the saliva began to produce. After that Pavlov found that the dogs

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salivated when bell was rung before the provision of powdered meat. In this way
a response was associated with an unusual stimulus, it is called conditioned
learning.
iii. Latent learning
When an animal stores information of his past experiences and later uses that
information to guide its behaviour, it is called latent learning.
This behaviour is not related to a particular stimulus and is not normally rewarded
or not due to any force.
When rats are kept in mazes (puzzled cage) with many blind ways, they learn
them within 2-3 days, although they may not get any reward at the end. After
getting experience they learn to run equally quickly through the maze, they can
utilize their latent learning. This type of behaviour is very useful to these animals
because they can protect themselves from predators which attack them. At that
time they make use of their latent knowledge about their burrows.
In the learning behaviour certain groups of cells in the brain control the
mechanism. These cells are of various kinds, they control memory, information,
intelligence and organization. In the process of learning many changes appear, to
understand these changes a special mechanism works, called neural
mechanisms.
All animals are not equal in their abilities to learn. Some are more intelligent and
have sharp memory than others. It is related to the inheritance and also to the
environment.
iv. Imprinting
It is a special kind of learning behaviour in which an animal learns in its early age
within a short time on the basis of its inherited properties.
It is a phenomenon whereby a young animal becomes attached to the first
moving object it sees or hears some sound and reacts to it as it would toward its
mother. This type of learning was first described in birds but is now known to
occur in sheep, goats, deers, buffalo and other animals whose young are able to
walk around at birth. Konrad Lorenz investigated this phenomenon in goose and
ducks. According to his observation the ducklings are able to walk just after
hatching develop an attachment with a mother figure and usually they follow a
large moving object, but normally this is not their actual mother. The following

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response or imprinting is of considerable value because the young birds remain
close to their parent and within the parent’s protective range.
v. Insight learning
It is the most advanced and complicated form of learning. It is the ability to recall
previous experience to show a new behaviour at the current moment. By using
his experience, memory and thinking the animal solves a new problem. He takes
decision at the moment.
Insight learning was demonstrated by Kohler in chimpanzees. When they were
blocked from obtaining some bananas hung out of reach, they piled up boxes to
get them or they used bamboo sticks to get apple which was placed out of their
arm’s reach. The chimpanzee figured out the solution without being taught.
 Social behaviour
It is a very important characteristic of animals that they do not pass an isolated
life, they forms groups because they survive and reproduce in better way. It is
necessary that many animals live together in a well organized manner in a
particular place. They communicate mutual and form their social group, it is
called social behaviour. Some examples of social behaviour can be mentioned as
follows:
i. In insects Termites, ants and bees form a society. In the hive the female
lays eggs. The young males and females take care of their brothers and
sisters. Each individual takes interest in the welfare, defense and
betterment of their hive or nest.
ii. Baboons live in groups and show many different social interactions.
Members of a troop compete and cooperate with one another. The strong
and powerful baboon becomes the leader of the group. He fights with
other animals and protects the whole group.
iii. Birds form flocks. The offspring of one brood (generation) remain with their
parents. Some species of gulls feed their young chicks with half digested
food regurgitated from their stomach.
iv. Fishes also live in shoals. Many fishes move from one place to another in
the form of groups.

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v. Jackals live in groups. The young jackals often remain with their parents
until the next generation is produced. The older offspring help their parents
to find food and defend their youngers.
vi. Man also form society. Human social system is similar to social carnivores.
In man’s society marriages are arranged to lead a well organized system
of life and to provide security to the family.
Advantages and disadvantages of social behaviour
Advantage
i. When animals form group, they survive and live in a better way.
ii. A group of animals is also protected against wind and environment toxins.
iii. They are more successful in hunting or in searching of their food than a
single animal.
iv. The animals can protect themselves form predators when they live in
groups.
v. In a social society of healthy and strong animals they have the liberty of
feeding and mating, as a result of which healthy and more children are
produced.
Disadvantage

i. One disadvantage of group living is higher exposure to diseases. Many

diseases can be transferred from one animal to another.
ii. There is a great competition of resources. The stronger animals get
more basic requirements than the weaker ones.
iii. There is a direct interference in the life of other individuals. Sometime a
fight starts among the members of group for necessities of life.

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 SHORT NOTES

Q. Name types of skeleton in animals

A. There are two types of skeleton in animals:
 Exoskeleton
 Endoskeleton
Q. What is exoskeleton?
A. Exoskeleton
It is found on the outer-side of the body and attached to the muscles. It provides
support to the body. The skeleton is according to the size of the animal body, but
in different animals it varies in structure. Some protozoans have a shell around
their body, for example, in Arcella the shell is made up of chitin and in Foraminifra
it is composed of calcium-carbonate. Radolaria have skeleton of silica.
In snails and clams exoskeleton is also in the form of a shell. In snail the shell is
spiral shaped, while in clams it consists of two halves which have a hinge joint.
In insects, prawn and cray-fish (Arthropodes) the exoskeleton consists of a hard
cuticle, composed of chitin. This skeleton also has joints, thus the animal can
move easily. Their body muscles also help in this process which are attached to
the exoskeleton on the inner side.
Q. What is endoskeleton?
A. Endoskeleton
In vertebrate animals skeleton is present inside their body, called endoskeleton. It
is made up of bones and cartilages. Some animals have completely cartilaginous
skeleton like shark and Dog-fish.
The bones and cartilages are arranged in a systematic manner and work as
levers. The muscles are attached to the skeleton.
In mammals endoskeleton consists of two parts:
i. Axial skeleton
It is composed of skull, ribs and backbone (vertebral column).
ii. Appendicular skeleton- It consists of limbs and girdles.
Functions of endoskeleton
i. It provides support to the body and makes it very strong.
ii. It helps in locomotion by working with muscles.
iii. It protects internal body organs like heart, lungs and brain etc.

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Q. Differentiate between exoskeleton and endoskeleton.
A.
Exoskeleton Endoskeleton
i. It is found on the outer side of i. It is found inside of the body
the body and attached to the and muscles are attached to
muscles. the skeleton.
ii. It is in the form of plates and ii. It is in the form of bones and
shells e.g. Turtle (plates) cartilage e.g. skull of Vertebrate
Arcella (Shell). (Bony), Shark (Cartilage).

Q. What is food chain?

A. Food is very important for all living organisms because it provides energy.
In an ecosystem the flow of energy occurs through a chain, for example plants
are eaten by herbivores and the herbivores are eaten by carnivores, thus the
food manufactured by plants travel from producers to primary consumers i.e.
herbivores and then to secondary consumers i.e. carnivores. “This stepwise
process through which food energy moves, with repeated stages of eating and
being eaten is known as food chain.”
Food chain represents various levels of nourishment. These levels are called
trophic levels. The green plants occupy the first trophic level. It is the primary
producer level. The herbivores form the second level or primary consumer level
and carnivores that eat the herbivores occupy third level or secondary consumer
level. In an ecosystem the food chain which represents different levels of
nourishment form a kind of a pyramid.
Food chain can be shown in the following way:
Producers (Plants)  Herbivores  Carnivores  Decomposers
Some food chains are very simple, for example:

Grass  Cow  Man

Q. What is food web?

A. Simple food chains are very rare in nature. In an ecosystem a living
organism can obtain its food from many resources and similarly different kinds
animals use the same organism as their food material. The type of food be
change according to the availability of food and age of animals, in the manner
many food chains are linked together in such a way that network is formed, it is
called food web. For example the grasshopper eats grass, grasshopper is eaten

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by frog and lizards, they are used by snails and snakes are used by hawk, plants
are also taken by rabbit, rabbit is eaten by hawk, rats also use plants, are eaten
by snakes and snakes are used by hawk as food, it indicates that many food
chains are linked together.
Q. What are renewable resources of environment?
A. Renewable Resources
These resources are available for living organisms according to their needs, they
are used continuously and can be available again and again. They can not be
consumed completely, so they are called renewable resources, such as water,
soil, plants, air, forests, wild animals, fishes, live stocks etc. Water is obtained
from rainfall and in every season, snow melts in summer and water flows in the
form of rivers and streams.

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