Mustapha Khokhar AP European History

Restructuring the Postwar World: 1945 - Present

1. Contemporary Age: Cold War, Communism, and Colonial Revolutions Why did the international situation in 1945 encourage the development of the Cold War? What may be said about the possible attitudes and motives of the Soviets in the early postwar years? Of the USA?

Even before World War II ended, the U.S. alliance with the Soviet Union had begun to unravel. The United States was upset that Joseph Stalin, the Soviet leader, had signed a nonaggression pact with Germany in 1939. Later, Stalin blamed the Allies for not invading German-occupied Europe earlier than 1944. Driven by these and other disagreements, the two allies began to pursue opposing goals. Despite agreement at Yalta and their presence on the Security Council, the United States and the Soviet Union split sharply after the war. The war had affected them very differently. The United States, the worlds richest and most powerful country, suffered 400,000 deaths. But its cities and factories remained intact. The Soviet Union had at least 50 times as many fatalities. One in four Soviets was wounded or killed. Also, many Soviet cities were demolished. These contrasting situations, as well as political and economic differences, affected the two countries postwar goals 2. How would you summarize the major episodes of the Cold War between 1945 and 1948?

Europe now lay divided between East and West. Germany had been split into two sections. The Soviets controlled the eastern part, including half of the capital, Berlin. Under a Communist government, East Germany was named the German Democratic Republic. The western zones became the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949. Winston Churchill described the division of Europe. Churchills phrase iron curtain came to represent Europes division into mostly democratic Western Europe and Communist Eastern Europe There was also economic turmoila scarcity of jobs and food. In 1947, U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall proposed that the United States give aid to needy European countries. This assistance program, called the Marshall Plan, would provide food, machinery, and other materials to rebuild Western Europe. Beginning in the late 1950s, the United States and the Soviet Union competed for influence not only among the nations of the world, but in the skies as well. Once the superpowers had ICBMs (intercontinental ballistic missiles) to deliver nuclear warheads and aircraft for spying missions, they both began to develop technology that could be used to exploreand ultimately control

space. As these alliances were forming, the Cold War threatened to heat up enough to destroy the world. The United States already had atomic bombs. In 1949, the Soviet Union exploded its own atomic weapon. President Truman was determined to develop a more deadly weapon before the Soviets did. He authorized work on a thermonuclear weapon in 1950.These conflicts marked the start of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. 3. Analyze the nature and significance of the Marshall Plan. What may be said of the motives behind it? What were/are the results?

Much of Western Europe lay in ruins after the war. There was also economic turmoila scarcity of jobs and food. In 1947, U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall proposed that the United States give aid to needy European countries. This assistance program, called the Marshall Plan, would provide food, machinery, and other materials to rebuild Western Europe. As Congress debated the $12.5 billion program in 1948, the Communists seized power in Czechoslovakia. Congress immediately voted approval. The plan was a spectacular success. Even Communist Yugoslavia received aid after it broke away from Soviet domination. 4. Explain the steps taken toward economic and political interaction in Western Europe. What obstacles to unity appeared? How did the Soviets view these developments?

U.S.-Soviet relations continued to worsen in 1946 and 1947. An increasingly worried United States tried to offset the growing Soviet threat to Eastern Europe. President Truman adopted a foreign policy called containment. It was a policy directed at blocking Soviet influence and stopping the expansion of communism. Containment policies included forming alliances and helping weak countries resist Soviet advances. Much of Western Europe lay in ruins after the war. Trumans support for countries that rejected communism was called the Truman Doctrine. It caused great controversy. Some opponents objected to American interference in other nations affairs. Others argued that the United States could not afford to carry on a global crusade against communism. Congress, however, immediately authorized more than $400 million in aid to Turkey and Greece. 5. Describe the military arrangements made for the defense of Western Europe... What problems arose in connection with these arrangements?

While Europe began rebuilding, the United States and its allies clashed with the Soviet Union over Germany. The Soviets wanted to keep their former enemy weak and divided. But in 1948, France, Britain, and the United States decided to withdraw their forces from Germany and allow their occupation zones to form one nation. The Soviet Union responded by

holding West Berlin hostage. Although Berlin lay well within the Soviet occupation zone of Germany, it too had been divided into four zones. (See map on next page.) The Soviet Union cut off highway, water, and rail traffic into Berlins western zones. The city faced starvation. Stalin gambled that the Allies would surrender West Berlin or give up their idea of reunifying Germany. But American and British officials flew food and supplies into West Berlin for nearly 11 months. In May 1949, the Soviet Union admitted defeat and lifted the blockade. Vocabulary:

San Francisco Conference - San Francisco Conference, formally United Nations Conference on International Organization, (April 25June 26, 1945), international meeting that established the United Nations. The basic principles of a worldwide organization that would embrace the political objectives of the Allies had been proposed at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944 and reaffirmed at the Yalta Conference in early 1945. Great Power veto - A great power is a nation or state that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength and diplomatic and cultural influence which may cause small powers to consider the opinions of great powers before taking actions of their own, and they had the power to veto, or the right to reject a decision or proposal. Truman Doctrine - The Truman Doctrine was a policy set forth by the U.S. President Harry S Truman in a speech on March 12, 1947 stating that the U.S. would support Greece and Turkey with economic and military aid to prevent their falling into the Soviet sphere. Historians often consider it as the start of the Cold War. Truman stated the Doctrine would be "the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." Truman reasoned, because these "totalitarian regimes" coerced "free peoples," they represented a threat to international peace and the national security of the United States. Marshall Plan - The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was the large-scale American program to aid Europe where the United States gave monetary support to help rebuild European economies after the end of World War II in order to prevent the spread of Soviet communism. The plan was in operation for four years beginning in April 1948. Berlin Blockade - The Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 12 May 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of postWorld War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Allied control. Their aim was to force the western powers to allow the Soviet zone to start supplying Berlin with food and fuel, thereby giving the Soviets practical control over the entire city. European Coal and Steel Community - The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was a six-nation international organization serving to unify Western Europe during the Cold War and create the foundation for the modern-day developments of the European Union. The ECSC was the first organization to be based on the principles of supra nationalism. Rome treaties - The Treaties of Rome is the term used to refer to the legal foundation of the European Community, which came into force on 1 January

1958. European Economic Community (Common Market) - The European Economic Community (EEC) (sometimes simply known as the European Community, also known as the Common Market in the English-speaking world) was an international organization created with a view to bring about economic integration (including a common market) among its six original membersBelgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. European Defense Community - The European Defense Community (EDC) was a plan proposed in 1950 by Ren Pleven, the French President of the Council (name of Prime Ministers until 1958), in response to the American call for the rearmament of West Germany. The intention was to form a pan-European defense force as an alternative to Germany's proposed accession to NATO, meant to harness its military potential in case of conflict with the Soviet bloc. Brussels treaty - The Treaty of Brussels was signed on 17 March 1948 between Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, as an expansion to the preceding year's defense pledge, the Dunkirk Treaty signed between Britain and France. As the Treaty of Brussels contained a mutual defense clause, it provided a basis upon which the 1954 Paris Conference established the Western European Union (WEU). NATO It is also called the (North) Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty, which was signed on 4 April 1949. NATO headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, and the organization constitutes a system of collective defense whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. Council for Mutual Economic Aid - Comecon was an economic organization under the organization of Soviet Union comprising the countries of the Eastern Bloc along with a number of communist state selsewhere in the world. The Comecon was the Eastern Bloc's reply to the formation of theOrganization for European Economic Co-operation in western Europe. Warsaw Pact - Warsaw Pact, was a mutual defense treaty between eight communist states of Eastern Europe in existence during the Cold War. The founding treaty was established under the initiative of the Soviet Union and signed on 14 May 1955, in Warsaw. The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon), the regional economic organization for the communist states of Eastern Europe. Soviet Union, Soviet Satellites and Communist China - The Soviet Union was a single-party stateruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A federal union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly-centralized government and economy. Soviet satellite states refers to Communist satellite states of the Soviet Union, in the Eastern bloc. Communist China refers to the territories of China controlled by the Communist Party of China from 1927 to 1949 during the Chinese Civil War with the Nationalist-led Republic of China.

Soviet Union and Soviet Satellites

1.

How and in what stages did communism spread in Europe during and immediately following the war? What major political and economic changes took place under the new regimes?

As World War II drew to a close, the Soviet troops pushed the Nazis back across Eastern Europe. At wars end, these troops occupied a strip of countries along the Soviet Unions own western border. Stalin regarded these countries as a necessary buffer, or wall of protection. He ignored the Yalta agreement and installed or secured Communist governments in Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Poland, and Yugoslavia. The Soviet leaders American partner at Yalta, Franklin D. Roosevelt, had died on April 12, 1945. To Roosevelts successor, Harry S. Truman, Stalins reluctance to allow free elections in Eastern European nations was a clear violation of those countries rights. Truman, Stalin and Churchill met at Potsdam, Germany, in July 1945. There, Truman pressed Stalin to permit free elections in Eastern Europe. The Soviet leader refused. In a speech in early 1946, Stalin declared that communism and capitalism could not exist in the same world. 2. Discuss the political atmosphere in the USSR during Stalins last years.

The Soviet Union saw NATO as a threat and formed its own alliance in 1955. It was called the Warsaw Pact and included the Soviet Union, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania. In 1961, the East Germans built a wall to separate East and West Berlin. The Berlin Wall symbolized a world divided into rival camps. However, not every country joined the new alliances. Some, like India, chose not to align with either side. And China, the largest Communist country, came to distrust the Soviet Union. It remained nonaligned. 3. How would you characterize the Soviet leaders since Stalins death and the changes they introduced?

Among the Communist leaders in Moscow, Stalin's death provoked a mixture of grief, relief, and anxiety for the future. With no clear successor evident, the Council of Ministers and the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet publicly declared a form of collective leadership. But this merely masked the beginnings of a bitter power struggle. Georgi Malenkov was appointed chairman of the Council of Ministers, in effect premier, with Lavrenti Beria as his deputy and chief of state security. Molotov returned as foreign minister and Nikolai Bulganin as minister of the armed forces. Nikita Khrushchev's role was not entirely clear initially, but his name was listed first among the five secretaries of the party secretariat. Malenkov was also appointed first secretary of the Communist Party, Stalin's old position, but nine days later he was forced to surrender this post (which in six months would fall to Khrushchev) when the new leadership decided that all the top offices should never again be held by one person. Still, to the West, it seemed that the progressive Malenkov, then just fifty-one years old, was emerging as Stalin's heir.

Dignitaries from throughout the Communist world assembled in Moscow to pay final respects to the man who had been their unchallenged leader, the generalissimo who had defeated fascism. Zhou Enlai, China's premier and foreign minister, was one of the pall bearers; the others were leading members of the Politburo. While Zhou was in Moscow, Malenkov and Molotov met with him to discuss the war in Korea, which they all wanted to end. Mao Zedong had already decided separately on this, so within a fortnight of Stalin's death, Pyongyang was ordered to resume the armistice talks in earnest. Then, in one of his first speeches, Malenkov hinted at a new mood of coexistence with the West. "There is no disputed or unsolved question," he stated, "which could not be settled by peaceful means with any foreign country, including the United States." Less than a month after Stalin's death, the Presidium approved a general amnesty for anyone who had been sentenced to a term of less than five years' imprisonment. All those who had been arrested in Stalin's final days were released, as were tens of thousands of other political prisoners. The socalled Doctors' Plot, which had punctuated Stalin's final months, was now described as a "provocation and fake." 4. Summarize postwar Soviet economic developments. What persistent problems continued to trouble the economy?

For many millions of Soviet citizens, the death of Stalin in March 1953 was a shattering event. For decades Stalin had been the "father" of the nation, and many grieved as if they had lost a family member. Tens of thousands of ordinary Russians wept openly in spontaneous and genuine displays of public grief when crowds gathered in Moscow to pay their last respects; several mourners were killed in the crush to file past the bier. In spite of his brutal repression and his rigorous control of the economy, Stalin was still hugely popular throughout the Soviet Union. His death marked the end of an era; for most Soviet citizens it had been an era of greatness for their country. 5. What major changes were discernible in the Soviet satellites after Stalins death?

Between 1945 and 1949 Stalin created a Russian empire in Eastern Europe. This empire included Poland, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and East Germany. Each had a Communist government. In the West they were called satellites because they clung closely to the Soviet Union like satellites round a planet. After Stalin's death, Nikita Khrushchev was the dominant next Soviet leader. He and more moderate Soviet leader allowed satellite countries more independence, as long as they remained allied powers with the Soviet Union. This changed the perspectives in many of the eastern European countries as they slowly started active protests. Hungary and Czechoslovakia were from the first countries that started revolutions. Generally, the satellite countries, which included Georgia and other eastern European countries, were able to form their own government after their encounter with the rampage of Russian Communism.

6.

What trends in the satellites were observable for about a dozen years after 1956? How did the Soviet leaders react to developments in Czechoslovakia in 1968? In Poland in the period after 1945?

There were anti-government riots in Czechoslovakia as well, and strikes in Hungary and Romania. There was even a prisoners' strike in Siberia. The Soviets saw behind these events a well-orchestrated campaign to undermine the Soviet Union and its allies, part of Dulles's "rollback" of communism in Eastern Europe. The power struggle in the Kremlin now reached new intensity. Molotov, the old revolutionary, continued to see the Cold War as a clash between two opposing systems. He believed wholeheartedly in the Marxist/Leninist line that capitalism would ultimately destroy itself, and his diplomacy exploited what differences he could discern between the United States and its West European allies. However, for Malenkov and Beria, both of whom owed their power base entirely to Stalin, the Cold War was seen in strictly practical terms. After Stalin's death Beria took more direct control of the Soviet nuclear project. Without consulting his colleagues, he ordered scientists in the closed city of Arzamas-16 to race ahead with developing a hydrogen bomb to rival America's thermonuclear weapons. If Soviet strength rested on ever more powerful nuclear weapons and he was in charge of developing them, Beria calculated, then he would control the mainsprings of Soviet power. But this sort of arrogance was no longer acceptable inside the Kremlin. Within days of the quelling of the rising in East Germany, Khrushchev became convinced that Beria was preparing to make a grab for absolute power. Malenkov concurred, and he denounced Beria at a meeting of the Presidium. Times had changed. Vocabulary

Peoples democracies: A political organisation that, while supporting the campaign for civil rights for Northern Ireland's Catholic minority, stated that such rights could only be achieved through the establishment of a socialist republic for all of Ireland. It was founded on 9 October 1968 at Queen's University Belfast. Iron curtain: Symbolized the ideological fighting and physical boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991. On either side of the Iron Curtain, states developed their own international economic and military alliance Jan Masaryk: Czech diplomat and politician and Foreign Minister of Czechoslovakia from 1940 to 1948. Marshal Tito:A Yugoslav revolutionary and statesman, ruling in various roles from 1945 until his death in 1980. While his presidency has been criticized as authoritarian, Tito was a popular public figure both in Yugoslavia and abroad, viewed as a unifying symbol for the nations of the Yugoslav federation Cominform: The common name for what was officially referred to as the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties. It was

the first official forum of the international communist movement since the dissolution of the Comintern Execution of Beria: Beria was appointed, in 1938, head of the NKVD, the dreaded secret police. Executed in 1953 Constitution of 1977: On October 7, 1977, the third and last Soviet Constitution, also known as the Brezhnev Constitution, was unanimously adopted. The official name of the Constitution was "Constitution (Fundamental Law) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Gierek: A Polish communist politician. Solidarity: the integration, and degree and type of integration, shown by a society or group with people and their neighbors.It refers to the ties in a society that bind people to one another Khrushchev: Led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War. He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, and as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, or Premier, from 1958 to 1964. Khrushchev was responsible for the partial de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union, for backing the progress of the early Soviet space program, and for several relatively liberal reforms in areas of domestic policy.

Space Race: A mid-to-late 20th century competition between the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (US) for supremacy in space exploration. Between 1957 and 1975, the Cold War rivalry between the two nations focused on attaining firsts in space exploration, which were seen as necessary for national security and symbolic of technological and ideological superiority Brezhnev: The General Secretary of the Central Committee (CC) of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union(CPSU), presiding over the country from 1964 until his death in 1982 Andropov: A Soviet politician and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 12 November 1982 until his death fifteen months later. Brezhnev Doctrine: Was a Soviet Union foreign policy, first and most clearly outlined by S. Kovalev in a September 26, 1968 Pravda article, entitled Sovereignty and the International Obligations of Socialist Countries. Leonid Brezhnev reiterated it in a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers' Party on November 13, 1968. Imre Nagy: A Hungarian communist politician who was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the People's Republic of Hungary on two occasions. Nagy's second term ended when his non-Soviet-backed government was brought down by Soviet invasion in the failed Hungarian Revolution of 1956, resulting in Nagy's execution on charges of treason two years later. Dr. Zhivago: A 20th century novel by Boris Pasternak, first published in 1957 in Italy. The novel is named after its protagonist, Yuri Zhivago, a physician and poet. It tells the story of Zhivago's life and how it is

affected by the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent Russian Civil War.The book was made into a film by David Lean in 1965 Solzhenitsyn: A writer, who, through his often-suppressed writings, helped to raise global awareness of the gulag, the Soviet Union's forced labor camp system particularly in The Gulag Archipelago and One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, two of his best-known works. Gulag Archipelago: A book by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn based on the Soviet forced labor and concentration camp system. The three-volume book is a narrative relying on eyewitness testimony and primary research material, as well as the author's own experiences as a prisoner in a gulag labor camp. Eleventh Five-Year Plan: A set of goals designed to strengthen the country's economy between 1981 and 1985. The plan was presented by the Chairman of the Council of Ministers Nikolai Tikhonov at the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Sputnik: The first artificial satellite to be put into Earth's orbit. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Unionon 4 October 1957 Gomulka :A Polish Communist leader. He was the de facto leader of Poland from 1945 to 1948, and again from 1956 to 1970. Janos Kadar: A Hungarian communist leader and the General Secretary of the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party, presiding over the country from 1956 until his forced retirement in 1988.

1.

Communist China Summarize the main stages in the conflict between the Kuomintang and the Communists after 1927 (Watch China in Crisis). What explanations can e advanced for the triumph of the Communists?

In World War II, China fought on the side of the victorious Allies. But the victory proved to be a hollow one for China. During the war, Japans armies had occupied and devastated most of Chinas cities. Chinas civilian death toll alone was estimated between 10 to 22 million persons. This vast country suffered casualties second only to those of the Soviet Union. However, conflict did not end with the defeat of the Japanese. In 1945, opposing Chinese armies faced one another. a bitter civil war was raging between the Nationalists and the Communists when the Japanese invaded China in 1937. During World War II, the political opponents temporarily united to fight the Japanese. But they continued to jockey for position within China. Under their leader, Mao Zedong, the Communists had a stronghold in northwestern China. From there, they mobilized peasants for guerrilla war against the Japanese in the northeast. Thanks to their efforts to promote literacy and improve food production, the Communists won the peasants loyalty. By 1945, they controlled much of northern

China. Meanwhile, the Nationalist forces under Jiang Jieshi dominated southwestern China. Protected from the Japanese by rugged mountain ranges, Jiang gathered an army of 2.5 million men. From 1942 to 1945, the United States sent the Nationalists at least $1.5 billion in aid to fight the Japanese. Instead of benefiting the army, however, these supplies and money often ended up in the hands of a few corrupt officers. Jiangs army actually fought few battles against the Japanese. Instead, the Nationalist army saved its strength for the coming battle against Maos Red Army. After Japan surrendered, the Nationalists and Communists resumed fighting. 2. Describe the major political and economic developments under the Communist regime in China in 1949. Which features were similar in Soviet experience and which were different? How would you assess the balance sheet of achievements for Maos programs?

The renewed civil war lasted from 1946 to 1949. At first, the Nationalists had the advantage. Their army outnumbered the Communists army by as much as three to one. And the United States continued its support by providing nearly $2 billion in aid. The Nationalist forces, however, did little to win popular support. With Chinas economy collapsing, thousands of Nationalist soldiers deserted to the Communists. In spring 1949, Chinas major cities fell to the well-trained Red forces. Maos troops were also enthusiastic about his promise to return land to the peasants. The remnants of Jiangs shattered army fled south. In October 1949, Mao Zedong gained control of the country. He proclaimed it the Peoples Republic of China. Jiang and other Nationalist leaders retreated to the island of Taiwan, which Westerners called Formosa. China had split into two nations. One was the island of Taiwan, or Nationalist China, with an area of 13,000 square miles. The mainland, or Peoples Republic of China, had an area of more than 3.5 million square miles. The existence of two Chinas, and the conflicting international loyalties they inspired, intensified the Cold War. Mao Zedongs victory fueled U.S. anti-Communist feelings. Those feelings only grew after the Chinese and Soviets signed a treaty of friendship in 1950. Many people in the United States viewed the takeover of China as another step in a Communist campaign to conquer the world. 3. What seem to have been Maos objectives in the purge of the 1960s? What were the results?

To expand the success of the first Five-Year Plan, Mao proclaimed the Great Leap Forward in early 1958. This plan called for still larger collective farms, or communes. By the end of 1958, about 26,000 communes had been created. The average commune sprawled over 15,000acres and supported over 25,000 people. In the strictly controlled life of the communes, peasants worked the land together. They ate in communal dining rooms, slept in communal dormitories, and raised children in communal nurseries. And they owned nothing. The peasants

had no incentive to work hard when only the state profited from their labor. The Great Leap Forward was a giant step backward. Poor planning and inefficient backyard, or home, industries hampered growth. The program was ended in 1961 after crop failures caused a famine that killed about 20 million people 4. How would you evaluate Maos role in the Chinese Revolution? What changes have been introduced in the last thirty years?

Mao was determined to reshape Chinas economy based on Marxist socialism. Eighty percent of the people lived in rural areas, but most owned no land. Instead, 10 percent of the rural population controlled 70 percent of the farmland. Under the Agrarian Reform Law of 1950, Mao seized the holdings of these landlords. His forces killed more than a million landlords who resisted. He then divided the land among the peasants. Later, to further Maos socialist principles, the government forced peasants to join collective farms. Each of these farms was comprised of 200 to 300 households. Maos changes also transformed industry and business. Gradually, private companies were nationalized, or brought under government ownership. In 1953, Mao launched a five-year plan that set high production goals for industry. By 1957, Chinas output of coal, cement, steel, and electricity had increased dramatically. 5. What role has Communist China played in world affairs in 1949? What sources of friction were there with the United States, North Korea and the Soviet Union?

After Jiang Jieshi fled to Taiwan, the United Stateshelped him set up a Nationalist government on that small island. It was called the Republic of China. The Soviets gave financial, military, and technical aid to Communist China. In addition, the Chinese and the Soviets pledged to come to each others defense if either was attacked. The United States tried to halt Soviet expansion in Asia. For example, when Soviet forces occupied the northern half of Korea after World War II and set up a Communist government, the United States supported a separate state in the south. China Expands under the Communists In the early years of Maos reign, Chinese troops expanded into Tibet, India, and southern, or Inner, Mongolia. Northern, or Outer, Mongolia, which bordered the Soviet Union, remained in the Soviet sphere. In a brutal assault in 1950 and 1951, China took control of Tibet. The Chinese promised autonomy to Tibetans, who followed their religious leader, the Dalai Lama. When Chinas control over Tibet tightened in the late 1950s, the Dalai Lama fled to India. India welcomed many Tibetan refugees after a failed revolt in Tibet in 1959. As a result, resentment between India and China grew. In 1962, they clashed briefly over the two countries unclear border. The fighting stopped but resentment continued. For decades, China had been in turmoil, engaged in civil war or fighting with Japan. So, when the Communists took power,

they moved rapidly to strengthen their rule over Chinas 550 million people. They also aimed to restore China as a powerful nation. 6. Of what significance has the existence of the Communist regime in China been for international communism?

China was facing external problems as well as internal ones in the late 1950s. The spirit of cooperation that had bound the Soviet Union and China began to fade. Each sought to lead the worldwide Communist movement. As they also shared the longest border in the world, they faced numerous territorial disputes. After the failure of the Great Leap Forward and the split with the Soviet Union, Mao reduced his role in government. Other leaders moved away from Maos strict socialist ideas. For example, farm families could live in their own homes and could sell crops they grew on small private plots. Factory workers could compete for wage increases and promotions. Mao thought Chinas new economic policies weakened the Communist goal of social equality. He was determined to revive the revolution. In 1966, he urged Chinas young people to learn revolution by making revolution. Millions of high school and college students responded. They left their classrooms and formed militia units called Red Guards Vocabulary

Kuomintang: Translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party, was one of the dominant parties of the early Republic of China, from 1912 onwards, and remains one of the main political parties in modern Taiwan Chang Kai-shek and the Nationalists: A political and military leader of 20th-century China Chiang was an influential member of the Nationalist Party, the Kuomintang (KMT), and was a close ally of Sun Yat-sen. He became the Commandant of the Kuomintang's Whampoa Military Academy, and took Sun's place as leader of the KMT when Sun died in 1925 Taiwan: Officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China now governs the island of Taiwan (known in the past as Formosa), which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other minor islands. Peoples Republic of China: Officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is the world's most-populous country with a population of over 1.3 billion. The People's Republic of China is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party of China Mao Tse-tung: A Chinese Communist revolutionary, guerrilla warfare strategist, Marxist political philosopher, and leader of theChinese Revolution. He was the architect and founding father of the People's Republic of China

 Great leap forward: An economic and social campaign of the Communist Party of China (CPC), reflected in planning decisions from 1958 to 1961, which aimed to use China's vast population to rapidly transform the country from an agrarian economy into a modern communist society through the process of rapid industrialization and collectivization. Peoples communes: The highest of three administrative levels in rural areas of the People's Republic of China during the period of 1958 to 1982-85 until they were replaced by townships. Cultural Revolution and the Little Red Book: A social-political movement that took place in the People's Republic of China from 1966 through 1976. Set into motion byMao Zedong, then Chairman of the Communist Party of China, its stated goal was to enforce socialism in the country by removing capitalist, traditional and cultural elements from Chinese society, and to impose Maoist orthodoxy within the Party. The revolution marked the return of Mao Zedong to a position of absolute power after the failed Great Leap Forward. The movement politically paralyzed the country and significantly affected the country economically and socially. Chou En-lai: The first Premier of the People's Republic of China, serving from October 1949 until his death in January 1976. Zhou served under Mao Zedong and was instrumental in consolidating the control of the Communist Party's rise to power, forming foreign policy, and developing the Chinese economy. Gang of Four: The name given to a political faction composed of four Chinese Communist Party officials. They came to prominence during the Cultural Revolution (196676) and were subsequently charged with a series of treasonous crimes. The members consisted of Mao Zedong's last wife Jiang Qing, the leading figure of the group, and her close associates Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, and Wang Hongwen. Teng Hsiao-ping: A Chinese politician, statesman, and diplomat. As leader of the Communist Party of China, Deng was a reformer who led China towards a market economy. While Deng never held office as the head of state, head of government or General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (historically the highest position in Communist China), he nonetheless served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 to 1992. Polycentrism: The principle of organization of a region around several political, social or financial centres. Examples of polycentric cities include the Ruhr area in Germany, and Stoke-on-Trent in the UK.

Empires into Nations

1.

Describe the British rule in India and what has happened since 1947.

The British rule over India changed the course of history in India. The British came to India at the start of the seventeenth century. This was the time when the British East India Company was established in India to break the Dutch monopoly over spice trade. With time the East India Company increased its powers and started to administer the country. However its policies were disliked by Indians and together they revolted against the company. This led to the downfall of the company and the administration of India went directly under the Queen. In the following lines, you shall find information regarding the period when India was under British rule. Read about the British colonialism in India. The British annexed many princely states and formed laws and policies of their own. Slowly but rapidly the entire Indian sub continent came under the British rule. By mid nineteenth century, the British introduced the railways, telegraph and postal service in India. This was a move to establish their rule permanently in India. The first railway line was from Howrah in Calcutta to Raniganj in Bihar. The introduction of telegraph and postal services simplified communication all over the country. The British passed many acts that were met with dissatisfaction and resentment by the Indians. As a result the Indians formed large groups and revolted against the British. Each movement was brutally crushed by the British forces. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Lala Rajpat Rai, Subhash Chandra Bose, etc. arose and openly condemned the British. They were people's leaders who inspired the masses not to be afraid of the forces. Finally after 200 years of British rule, India gained independence from them on 15th August, 1947. Many innocent lives were sacrificed for this achievement and India was also separated from Pakistan. The partition of India and Pakistan spread incidents of brutality and horror in both the countries. But due to the effort of the leaders and the ever sacrificing masses, India was able to gain freedom from the British and progress till the present times. 2. How did the Dutch rule end in Indonesia? Comment on Indonesian political and economic developments since independence.

During the Second World War, Japan occupied Indonesia from 1942 to 1945 and controlled the trade and government of the archipelago and removed Dutch control during the war. The changing leadership allowed for national groups who resented Dutch imperialism to form and grow. After World War II, the Dutch regained control of Indonesia but only for a very brief period of time. The Dutch school that had been previously set-up produced new educated elites who eventually took control of the nationalist movement in Indonesia and expressed their contempt towards the Dutch rule. These new educated elites and reformers, such as Sukarno, led the Indonesian Revolution. In 1945, Sukarno was declared President and he established the Republic of the United States of Indonesia. The Dutch finally recognized their loss and liberated Indonesia from the colonial control in 1949, when Queen Juliana of Netherlands proclaimed that Inodnesia was free of Dutch rule. The Nationalist movement that arose while the Japanese were in power led to

expulsion of the Dutch. After colonialism ended in Indonesia, Sukarno remained president and established the guided democracy as the central governing method in Indonesia. 3. Describe the nature and outcome of the colonial struggle in Indochina. Of what continuing significance was this area of Asia for the contemporary world? (role change over time)

In the early 1900s, France controlled most of resource-rich Southeast Asia. (French Indochina included what are now Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.) But nationalist independence movements had begun to develop. A young Vietnamese nationalist, Ho Chi Minh, turned to the Communists for help in his struggle. During the 1930s, Hos Indochinese Communist party led revolts and strikes against the French. The French responded by jailing Vietnamese protesters. They also sentenced Ho to death. He fled into exile, but returned to Vietnam in 1941, a year after the Japanese seized control of his country during World War II. Ho and other nationalists founded the Vietminh (Independence) League. The Japanese were forced out of Vietnam after their defeat in 1945. Ho Chi Minh believed that independence would follow, but France intended to regain its colony. After 1975, the victorious North Vietnamese imposed tight controls over the South. Officials sent thousands of people to reeducation camps for training in Communist thought. They nationalized industries and strictly controlled businesses. They also renamed Saigon, the Souths former capital, Ho Chi Minh City. Communist oppression caused 1.5 million people to flee Vietnam. Most escaped in dangerously overcrowded ships. More than 200,000 boat people died at sea. The survivors often spent months in refugee camps in Southeast Asia. About 70,000 eventually settled in the United States or Canada. Although Communists still govern Vietnam, the country now welcomes foreign investment. The United States normalized relations with Vietnam in 1995. While the superpowers were struggling for advantage during the Korean and Vietnam wars, they also were seeking influence in other parts of the world. 4. What is meant geographically by the Muslim World? What important developments have taken place in the Arab states in the last sixty years? Geographically the Muslim World represents those states which are secularly known a Islamic Republics. Throughout the Middle East, oil industry wealth fueled a growing clash between traditional Islamic values and modern Western materialism. In no country was this cultural conflict more dramatically shown than in Iran (Persia before 1935). After World War II, Irans leader, Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, embraced Western governments and wealthy Western oil companies. Iranian nationalists resented these foreign alliances and united under Prime Minister Muhammed Mossadeq. They nationalized a British-owned oil company and, in 1953, forced the shah to flee. Fearing Iran might turn to the Soviets for support, the United States helped restore the shah to power. With U.S.

support, the shah westernized his country. By the end of the 1950s, Irans capital, Tehran, featured gleaming skyscrapers, foreign banks, and modern factories. Millions of Iranians, however, still lived in extreme poverty. The shah tried to weaken the political influence of Irans conservative Muslim leaders, known as ayatollahs, who opposed Western influences. The leader of this religious opposition, Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini, was living in exile. Spurred by his tape recorded messages, Iranians rioted in every major city in late 1978. Faced with overwhelming opposition, the shah fled Iran in 1979. A triumphant Khomeini returned to establish an Islamic state and to export Irans militant form of Islam. 5. What impact has the creation of the democratic state of Israel had on the Middle East? Determine three key reasons for the continuing conflict there.

The creation of the nation of Israel in 1948 forever changed the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East. Even before its independence was recognized by most of the rest of the world, the very concept of carving a Jewish state promised to bring trouble to the region. The initial problem stemmed from the inability of the architects of the state of Israel to find a satisfactory answer to the question of what to do with the Palestinians. The original idea of establishing dual Israeli and Palestinian state in Palestine seems to have been doomed to failure. Further destabilizing the already tenuous relationship between Israel and its Arab neighbors was the outcome of the Suez Canal Crisis, which in turn led to the Six Day War of 1967 in which Israel's quick victory not only left them in occupation of the West Bank and Golan Heights, but also demonstrated that the balance of military power in the region had demonstrably shifted. The impact of the Israeli military might in the Middle East could well be different today if the Yom Kippur War of 1973 been allowed to play out without US intervention. This attempt by Egypt and Syria to reclaim land lost during the Six Day War might have undone the sense of Israeli might if US intervention had not instead led to a ceasefire and, ultimately, to the Camp David Accords. Clearly, then, it is not just the presence of Israel that has led to the continued violence in the region. America's seemingly unqualified support for Israel at every turn has led to a deepening Arab nationalism, as well as the rise of Islamic fundamentalism, and along with that fundamentalism throughout the region has come the rise of terrorism. Many Arabs see the Palestinian Diaspora as being no different from its Jewish equivalent, yet western nations have taken little effort to help create a state for them. Israel, of course, can point the same finger at those Arab nations who offered little in the way of carving a homeland for the thousands of Palestinian refugees. 6. How did events in Iran reflect resentment at modernization? What form has anti-Western reactions taken?

Strict adherence to Islam ruled Khomeinis domestic policies. But hatred of the United States, because of U.S. support for the shah, was at the heart of his foreign policy. In 1979, with the ayatollahs blessing, young Islamic revolutionaries seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran. They took more than

60 Americans hostage and demanded the United States force the shah to face trial. Most hostages remained prisoners for 444 days before being released in 1981. Khomeini encouraged Muslim radicals elsewhere to overthrow their secular governments. Intended to unify Muslims, this policy heightened tensions between Iran and its neighbor and territorial rival, Iraq. A military leader, Saddam Hussein, governed Iraq as a secular state. 7. Describe the nature and outcome of the Algerian war for independence. How did it affect political developments in France?

In March 1954 Ahmed Ben Bella, an ex-sergeant in the French army, joined eight other Algerian exiles in Egypt to form a revolutionary committee that later became known as the National Liberation Front. A few months later , the FLN launched its bid for Algerian independence by coordinated attacks on public buildings, military and police posts, and communications installations. A steady rise in guerrilla action over the next two years forced the French to bring in reinforcements; eventually, 400, 000 French troops were stationed in Algeria. FLN strategy combined Abd al-Qadir's guerrilla tactics with deliberate use of terrorism. The guerrilla tactics effectively immobilized superior French forces, while indiscriminate murders and kidnappings of Europeans and Muslims who did not actively support the FLN created a climate of fear throughout the country. This in turn brought counterterrorism, as colons and French army units raided Muslim villages and slaughtered the civilian population. In 1956 the war spread to the cities. In May 1958 the colons and French army officers joined hands in Algiers to overthrow the French government, charging it with vacillation. A Committee of Public Safety demanded the return to office of General Charles de Gaulle, the wartime leader of the Free French, as the only one who could settle the war and preserve French Algeria. De Gaulle, however, was a realist. Once in power, he recognized that the war was unwinnable. In 1959 he announced his intention of allowing Algerians to choose between independence and continued association with France. In March 1962 a cease-fire was finally arranged between government and FLN representatives at Evian, France. In the longawaited referendum, held the following July, Algeria voted overwhelmingly for independence. The colons began a mass evacuation; before the end of the year most of them had left the country. 8. How did the British, French, Belgian and Portuguese end in subSaharan Africa? These new African states often appear to be a string of kleptocracies with a clear need to improve material and political rights of the citizens. Explain why this may be true.

When examining colonial Africa, Britain and France were the two major European powers involved in the colonization of Africa. Although the Germans, Belgians, Italians, and Spanish all had claims, they were for the most part minor in comparison to the African ambitions of Britain and France. France predominantly focused upon colonizing North Africa, especially along the Mediterranean and West Africa, extending down into the

northern regions of what is characterized as Sub Saharan Africa. The British colonized Sub Saharan Africa vigorously, but also pursued colonial aims in North Africa. Egypt was a major British colony in North Africa. France pursued a policy of creating a West to East African colonial empire, while the British focused on a North South axis of colonization. The two empires collided in the Sudan, which ended with France being expelled from modern day Sudan, and firmly entrenching Great Britain as the most powerful European power in Africa. The Belgians held small colonial claims in the Congo, and Italy had small claims along the East African Coast, present day Eritrea. Spain held a small colony in present day Mauritania, named Rio de Oro. Madagascar was colonized by the Portuguese. Germany held relatively small claims in southeast Africa, which were increased under the rule of Bismarck following the Franco-Prussian War. Overall, however, North Africa is usually associated with the French, while Sub Saharan Africa was largely controlled by the British. On February 12th 1941, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met to discuss the postwar world. The result was the Atlantic Charter. One of the provisions, introduced by Roosevelt, was the autonomy of imperial colonies. After World War II, the US and the African colonies put pressure on Britain to abide by the terms of the Atlantic Charter. When Winston Churchill introduced the Charter to Parliament, he purposely mistranslated the colonies to be recently captured countries by Germany in order to get it passed. After the war, the British still considered their African colonies as "children" and "immature"; they introduced democratic government only at the local levels. 9. In what sense does colonialism remain around the world today? (I dont mean the Falkland Islands, Guam, or Gibraltar)

Under a mile high ice, Greenland with only a handful indigenous people to talk of, is a colony and colonized by the Danish. It is the largest (with a minuscule population) colony. The next biggest colony is 'French Guiana' north of the mouths of Amazon in the Atlantic. Then there are plenty of Island territories scattered over Pacific, Indian Oceans and Caribbean Sea (grouped as West Indies). St.Pierre & Miquelin (Fr), Falkland Islands (Br), Annobon, Bonaire & Curacao (Dutch). 'Comoros', a group of 4 principal islands near Madagascar when given independence had a civil war on their hands, with 'Mayotte' breaking away and rejoining French Empire as France's Overseas Department. Perhaps it is because Comoros proclaimed a strong Islamic identity. Colonialism is a political term referring to keeping a country in a subordinate position and controlling its people and resources by another country. Though many countries have gained freedom the last few decades, the vestiges of colonialism still continue because, some of the countries are unable to manage themselves freely. Their internal situations are not conducive to development of healthy democratic institutions. Some other countries are not able to grapple with their problems of poverty and lack of education. Some African countries are very rich in natural resources but could not unite and work for their development. The developed countries go to them promising help but their quid pro quo is obviously long term control of natural resources. So colonialism is still very much alive in the world today.

Vocabulary

Muslim League: Founded by the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference at Dhaka (nowBangladesh), in 1906, in the context of the circumstances that were generated over the partition of Bengal in 1905. Being a political party to secure the interests of the Muslim diaspora in British India, the Muslim League played a decisive role during the 1940s in the Indian independence movement and developed into the driving force behind the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state in the Indian subcontinent Congress Party led by Nehru: One of the two major political parties in India, the other being the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). It is the largest and one of the oldest democratic political parties in the world. The party's modern liberal platform is largely considered center-left in the Indian political spectrum. Partition: The partition of British India on the basis of religious demographics. This led to the creation of the sovereign states of the Dominion of Pakistan (later the Islamic Republic of Pakistan) and the Union of India (later Republic of India) which took place in 1947, on August 14th and 15th, respectively Indria Gandhi: An Indian politician who served as the third Prime Minister of India for three consecutive terms (196677) and a fourth term (198084). Gandhi was the second female head of government in the world after Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, and she remains as the world's second longest serving female Prime Minister as of 2012. She was the first woman to become prime minister in India Bangladesh: A sovereign state located in South Asia. It is bordered by India and Burma and by the Bay of Bengal to the south. The capital (and largest city) is Dhaka, located in central Bangladesh. The official state language is Bengali. The name Bangladesh means "Country of Bengal" in the official Bengali language. Commonwealth of Nations: Formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fiftyfour independent member states. All but two of these countries (Mozambique and Rwanda) were formerly part of the British Empire, out of which the Commonwealth developed. Sukarno: The first President of Indonesia. Sukarno was the leader of his country's struggle for independence from the Netherlands and was Indonesia's first President from 1945 to 1967. He was replaced by one of his generals, Suharto (see Transition to the New Order), and remained under house arrest until his death. Ayatollah Khomeini: An Iranian religious leader and politician, and leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution which saw the overthrow of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran. Following the revolution, Khomeini became the country's Supreme Leader a position created in the constitution as the highest ranking political and religious authority of the nation until his death.

 Ghana: A country located in West Africa. It is bordered by Cte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south. The word Ghana means "Warrior King"and is derived from the ancient Ghana Empire. Kenyatta: Served as the first Prime Minister (19631964) and President (19641978) of Kenya. He is considered the founding father of the Kenyan nation. Zaire: The name of the present Democratic Republic of the Congo between 27 October 1971 and 17 May 1997. The name of Zaire derives from the Portuguese: Zaire, itself an adaptation of the Kongo word nzere or nzadi, or "the river that swallows all rivers" Guided Democracy: Also called managed democracy, is a term for a democratic government with increased autocracy. Governments are legitimated by elections that, while free and fair, are used by the government to continue their same policies and goals. Or, in other words, the government has learned to control elections so that the people can exercise all their rights without truly changing public policy Ho Chi Mien: A Vietnamese Marxist-Leninist revolutionary leader who was prime minister (19451955) and president (19451969) of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam). He was a key figure in the foundation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945, as well as the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the Viet Cong (NLF or VC) during the Vietnam War. Dine Bien Phi: The climactic confrontation of the First Indochina War between the French Union's French Far East Expeditionary Corps and Viet Minhcommunist-nationalist revolutionaries. The battle occurred between March and May 1954 and culminated in a comprehensive French defeat that influenced negotiations over the future of Indochina at Geneva. Geneva Agreement of 1954: A conference which took place in Geneva, Switzerland, whose purpose was to attempt to find a way to unify Korea and discuss the possibility of restoring peace in Indochina. Arab league: Officially called the League of Arab States, is a regional organization of Arab states in North and Northeast Africa, and Southwest Asia (Middle East). It was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members: Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan (renamed Jordan in 1949), Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. Yemen joined as a member on 5 May 1945. The Arab League currently has 22 members (including Syria, whose participation was suspended in November 2011) Nasser: The second President of Egypt from 1956 until his death. A colonel in the Egyptian army, Nasser led the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 along with Muhammad Naguib, the first president, which overthrew the monarchy of Egypt and Sudan, and heralded a new period of modernization, and socialist reform in Egypt together with a profound advancement of pan-Arab nationalism, including a shortlived union with Syria. Suez Expedition (1956): A diplomatic and military confrontation in late 1956 between Egypt on one side, and Britain, France and Israel on the

other, with the United States, the Soviet Union and the United Nations playing major roles in forcing Britain, France and Israel to withdraw. Great Satan: A derogatory epithet for the United States of America in some Iranian foreign policy statements. Occasionally, these words have also been used toward the government of the United Kingdom Nkrumah: The leader of Ghana and its predecessor state, the Gold Coast, from 1952 to 1966. Overseeing the nation's independence from British colonial rule in 1957, Nkrumah was the first President of Ghana and the first Prime Minister of Ghana. An influential 20thcentury advocate of Pan-Africanism, he was a founding member of the Organization of African Unity and was the winner of the Lenin Peace Prize in 1963. Apartheid: A system of racial segregation enforced through legislation by the National Party governments of South Africa between 1948 and 1994, under which the rights of the majority non-white inhabitants of South Africa were curtailed and white supremacy and Afrikaner minority rule was maintained. Apartheid was developed after World War II by the Afrikaner-dominated National Party and Broederbond organizations and was practiced also in South West Africa, which was administered by South Africa under a League of Nations mandate (revoked in 1966), until it gained independence as Namibia in 1990. Mobutu: The President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (also known as Zaire for much of his reign) from 1965 to 1997. While in office, he formed an authoritarian regime, amassed vast personal wealth, and attempted to purge the country of all colonial cultural influence, while also maintaining an anti-communist stance. Six Day War (1967): Fought between June 5 and 10, 1967, by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt (known at the time as the United Arab Republic), Jordan, and Syria. After a period of high tension between Israel and its neighbors, the war began on June 5 with Israel launching surprise air strikes against Arab forces. The outcome was a swift and decisive Israeli victory. Israel took effective control of the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. Yom Kippur War: Also known as the 1973 ArabIsraeli War and the Fourth ArabIsraeli War, was fought from October 6 to 25, 1973, between Israel and a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria. The war began when the coalition launched a joint surprise attack on Israel on Yom Kippur, the holiest day in Judaism, which happened to occur that year during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan Anwar al Sadat: The third President of Egypt, serving from 15 October 1970 until his assassination by fundamentalist army officers on 6 October 1981. In his eleven years as president he changed Egypt's direction, departing from some of the economic and political principles of Nasserism by re-instituting the multiparty system, and launching the Infitah economic policy

 Menacham Begin: A politician, founder of Likud and the sixth Prime Minister of the State of Israel. Before independence, he was the leader of the Zionist militant group Irgun, the Revisionist breakaway from the larger Jewish paramilitary organization Haganah. He proclaimed a revolt, on 1 February 1944, against the British mandatory government, which was opposed by the Jewish Agency. As head of the Irgun, he targeted the British in Palestine PLO: A political and paramilitary organization which was created in 1964. It is recognized as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people" by the United Nations and over 100 states with which it holds diplomatic relations, and has enjoyed observer status at the United Nations since 1974. Hezbollah: A Shi'a Muslim militant group and political party based in Lebanon. It receives financial and political support from Iran and Syria, and its paramilitary wing is regarded as a resistance movement throughout much of the Arab and Muslim worlds. The United States, the Netherlands,[5] the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and Israel classify Hezbollah as a terrorist organization, in whole or in part French Algerian War: A conflict between France and Algerian independence movements from 1954 to 1962, which led to Algeria gaining its independence from France. An important decolonization war, it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare, maquis fighting, terrorism against civilians, the use of torture on both sides, and counter-terrorism operations by the French Army. Nelson Mandela: Served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999, and was the first South African president to be elected in a fully representative democratic election. Before his presidency, Mandela was a militant anti-apartheid activist, and the leader and co-founder of Umkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing of the African National Congress(ANC). In 1962 he was arrested and convicted of sabotage and other charges, and sentenced to life in prison. Mandela served 27 years in prison, spending many of these years on Robben Island. Following his release from prison on 11 February 1990, Mandela led his party in the negotiations that led to democracy in 1994. As president, he frequently gave priority to reconciliation, while introducing policies aimed at combating poverty and inequality in South Africa