255

staqos glass, ii) hydraulically connected. The may be constructed of steer

circular discs of asbestos cement or any inert light materia: of high durability mounted on of sufficient The disc usually vary between 1 to 4 m and thickness upto 10 mrn. A driving mechanism comprising of motor and a reduction gear

iii)

A reactor module consists of a discs mounted on a shaft driven by motor through reduction Several modules may be arranged in parallel and/or", series to meet the flow and effluent quality requirements, 14.3.3 Design And Operational Parameters Several process parameters affect the of RBC as a biological treatment Some of the important parameters include (i) hydraulic loading (ii) hydraulic retention time (iii) influent substrate loading (iv) disc rotational speed (v) disc area available for biologicai growth and (VI) disc submergence, The hydraulic loading rates vary depending upon the influent concentration and desired quality of effluent, with typical value around 110 litres per day sq.rn. of surface area of discs for primary settled domestic wastewater correspondinq organic loading may be Kg BODJsqm of surface area/Day for of 200 mg/I for primary settled The hydraulic hr. can result BOD removal The disc rotational speed retention period of 1 to usually varies from 2 to 6 rpm. The disc SUbmergence is usually between 40 Reductions of 90 % in BOD and SS could be in the disc chamber and about one hour in the sertlinq basin. to kWh per of BOD ""moved with a loss of head of energy consumption corresponds to about to kwh per kwh/person/year for other biological treatment units like ASP, at detention penods of 1 . The energy consumption varies from less than ern through the This person per year in comparison to 1016 oxidation ditch lagoons.

STABILIZATION PONDS
ponds flowsewaqe and biodeqradable detonuon extendinq from to in is stabitizcd in pond Pond systems. in is photosynthesis aerated laqoons. used as tertiary in wast treatment maturation ponds.

basins desiqned and wastes Stabilization ponds cornparativelv lonq Durinq this putrescible orqamc matter between bacteria and alqae. throuqh mochanicat aeration than alqal discussed in chapter 13. loaded ponds secondary ettluents and of

Under many situations in warm countnes pond systems arB to construct and compared to conventional also do not operational staff and their performance does not fluctuate day to of pond systems IS the that requrre but is In addiuon, land on the relatively large of a qrowinq city investment. Pond systems considered as an when of of existing planned life time costs various treauncnt and compared

15.1 15.1.1

CLASSIFICATION Aerobic
Aerobic wastes (prirnarv kept shallow basis only. to
whlel)

ponds on

aerobic conditions penetration throuqhout BOD loadinqs of qrowth

used for liquid depth kq/ha.d pond

used

15.1.2 Anaerobic
anaerobic
somoumos for

Dependinq on temperature detention would in 01 to conserve problem.

snenqth industrial of municipal sludqes. BOD of and day BOD reduction. Such with minimize requirement. an odour

as

tor

15.1.3 Facultative
pond aerobic by this processes. discussion at the anaerob.c conditions cheCk aqainst odour evolution trom of pond is corn to that of conventional pond and most treatment of this Chapter theretore confined to ponds

15.2

MECHANISM OF PURiFICATION
In svstorns by stabilization pond svrubiotic orqanics aerobic where supplied atqal photosvnthes.s. incorninq sewaqe IS to

..

pond the

shown In

256(A)

AEROBIC

RAW WASTES 02 SETTLEABLE SOLlDS SETT ORGANICS

DEAD C BACTERIA DEAD CEL L S GBES - ORGANIC

I
I

FAOJLTATIVE NEW CELLS

IEFFLUENT+ ALG L BACTERiAl CELLS

)//!PiI)i

f/ i

EROBIC CONDITION

CHJ+C0 * N H3 2

FIG.15.aSYMBIOTtC

RELATIONSHIP

AND

FUNCTIONING OF

A FACULTATIVE

STABILIZATION POND.

257 and water. In addition. some of the end products of partial anaerobic decomposition such as volatile acids and alcohols. which may permeate to upper layers are also oxidized aerobically. The settled sludge mass originating from raw waste and microbial synthesis in the aerobic layer and dissolved and suspended organics in the bottom layers undergo stabilization through conversion to methane which escapes the pond in form of For each kg 01 BODullimate stabilized this manner. 0.25 kg of methane is formed. Another reaction which sometimes occurs in the anaerobic layers or 0,35 is conversion of hydrogen SUlphide to sulphur photo-synthetic bacteria. If present in sufficienl numbers they give a distinct pink hue to the pond appearance.

15.2.1

Aerobic and Anaerobic Reactions

The depth of aerobic layer III a facultative pond is a function of solar radiation, waste characteristics, loading and temperature. As the organic loading is increased, oxygen production by algae falls short of the oxygen requirement and the depth of aerobic layer decreases. Oxygen diffusing from top layers is quickly and completely utilized. Further, there is a decrease in the photo-synthetic of turbidity inhibitory effect of higher concentration of organic activity of algae

Gasification of organic matter to methane is carried out in distinct steps of acid production by forming utilization by methane Production of methane is fundamental to BOD reduction by anaerobic metabolism. if the second step does not proceed satisfactorily there is an accumulation of organic acids in the pond bottom which diffuses towards the top layers. Further more, under such conditions the pH of the bottom layers may go down. This would result in compJeteinhibition of methane bacteria and the pond may turn completely anaerobic due to accumulation of end products of partial anaerobic decomposition, Imbalance between the activities of The waste may the two sets of microorganisms in a pond may result from two possible contain substances which would retard the activity of methane producing organisms and not treatment of domestic municipal affect the activity of acid producers to the same extent. wastewater such a condition, however, would rarely arise. The other reason for the imbalance may be much more rapidly with a fall in temperature of the pond, The activity of methane bacteria stops at temperatures decreasinq temperature as compared to the acid termers and gas 15 Thus, round warm temperatures and sunshine provide environment for operation ot Iacuttative ponds.

15.2,2 Diurnal Variations

Both the dissolved oxygen and pH of the pond are subject to diurnal venation to photosvntnetic activity of algae which is related to incident solar radiation. A high oxygen afternoon hours, concentration upto about 4 times the saturation value may be observed Simultaneously, the pH value may reach a maximum of 9,0 or more due to the conversion of carbondioxide to oxygen. Towards the evening or in night, when activity decreases in bolh dissolved oxyqen and pH In properly deSigned ponds, or stops. there is a gradual at any time at the dissolved oxygen does not completely disappear trorn the top beneficia! as increases die oft rate of faecal bacteria pH

15,2.3 Odour Control

In a facultative pond. the nuisance with anaerobic due to presence of in top The foul srnelling end products of which to the top oxrdised an to a pH compounds sucn organic acids nvoroqen sulphide. whicn would otherwise in top cause odour problems. are ionised held hack solution. votatilise from the surface at the pond

15.2.4 Algae
In stabilization significant

Scenodesurnus. Hydrodictyon Chlarrwdornonas Ankistrodesmus and algae which include Oscillatoria. Sprrulina. Anacystis, Chlorella. Scendesrnus and Hydrodictyon possess high oxvqon donation capacitv unit it IS not practical to promote of part.cutar of in a pond which will on factors as temperature. characteristics of and intensity of Concentration pond is usually in which qives the pond effluent a typical colour Floating blue develop in ponds during summer They undesirabte restrict leadinq to reduction in aerobic also encouraqe insect

15.3

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
is apparent that rational of pond Into aerobrc of stabilization ot traction of incominq BOD load should predict which aerobic would simple to is ecosvstem is on of experience and understandinq of criteria

From consideration of matter. It however. to taken aorobicallv The facultative escapes reactions one lay

15.3.1

Areal Organic Loading

for pond expressed at location Two rnethods The pond location to Indian has related the orqaruc will on also on percentaqe of methods have been discussed of

minimum o! BOD that would have to

perruissible loading to the keep the pond odour

recornrnerideri

are

TABLE 15.1 PERMISSIBLE ORGANIC LOADINGS AT DIFFERENT LATITUDES

iN)

32

175
200

225
250
1

275

12

for

recommondcd BOD in wastes. at in

for municipat sewaqe inclusive of applicable to towns at sea and

BOD sky

259 The values of organic loading given in 15.1 be modified for elevations above sea level by dividing by factor of +0.003 ELl where EL IS elevation of the pond site above MSL in hundred meters. An increase tne pond has to made the sky for less than 75% of the days. For every decrease in sky clearance below pond area Increased by Another design approach, on area BOD loading to the ambient temperature on the solar radiation: 20T Where month of the year, 120 warm relates the permissible would on

(15.1 )

design organic load, kg BOD,jha. d and T

average temperature during coldest

The designs based on the two methods wherever possible should checked aqainst ponds are intended to serve small communities or prudent to adopt lesser BOD so as to fully ensure 15.3.2 Detention Time and Hydraulic Flow Regimes

well as other methods experience in the When the are to residences, it be

The flow of sewage through a pond can approximate plug or complete mixing. which are two extreme ideal conditions, If BOD exertion described by a first order reaction, the pond efficiency is given by: For Plug flow

( 152)

for Complete Mixing

Kr

( 153)

Where L, and BOD reaction rate constant The value of k varies temperatures above 15 The values

t time, and 800 0,05 and 0.2 per and is independent of for secondary tertiary ponds,

In practice the regime betvveen two and is described as dispersed ditterent deqrees of intermixing, chatacterized by dispersion flow. The efficiency of treatment numbers, be determined as given in section 13,8 for lagoons. Dispersion numbers determined by ponds vary 0,3 1,0, of mixing would give a conservauve and is Dispersion numbers for stabilization dispersion number or assumption of complete

260 15.3.3 Depth Having the surface and detention capacity or volume of a pond. becomes necessary to consider depth of the pond only in to its limiting values. Shallow depths in facultative ponds will allow growth of aquatic weeds in the ponds. The optimum range of depth for facultative ponds is 1.0 1.5 m. When from and detention period works out than 1.0m, the should increased to 1.0 rn. keeping surface unchanged. 15.3.4 Sludge Accumulation rate of sludge accumulation in facultative ponds depends primarily on the suspended solids concentration in the influent The reported rate of sludge accumulation ponds treating municipal sewage ranges from 0.05 to 0.10 m'!capita!year. A value of 0.07 forms a reasonable assumption in In multiple ponds operated series. most of the sludge accumulation the pnmary Continued sludge accurnutation in ponds over many years cause (i) sludge carryover into the (ii) development of aquatic weeds, (iii) reduction in pond efficiency due to reduction desludqinq at intervals ranging in the detention period, Facultative ponds therefore 6 to 12 years. 15.3.5 Bacterial Reduction reduction in ponds is analogous to BOD reduction described in 15.3.2 above, except constant is replaced by bacterial dieoff constant. and inputs and outputs are the BOD reduction in terms of bacterial concentrations N, and . It rs customary to use completely mixed calculatinq reduction. This gives a conservative design. Overall conditions reduction 'n ponds of equal detention 't' in qiven by

A commonly value of other temperatures may

11
where

for fecal bacteria at 20 degree C is 2.0 per day. by:

value of

(15.5)
values

constant at T and

C respectively.

15.4 15.4.1

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS Site Selection

Facultative pond sites should located as far away as practicable (at least 200m) from habitations or any area likely to be built up within a reasonable future period. If practicable the pond should be located SUCll that the direction of wind is towards uninhabitated areas. The pond location should be downhill of ground water supply source to avoid their chemical or bacterial attention is this regard and porous soils and in fissured rock formations. should not to flooding, Wherever possible, the elevation of the site pond to the effluent by gravity to rcceivinq streams. The site should an unobstructed sweep of wind across the pond, open to the sun not shaded by trees. Advantaqes should taken of natural while ponds. pond

should

261

15.4.2 Pretreatment It is desirable to provide medium screens and grit removal devices before facultative ponds. 15.4.3 Construction in Stages In cases where the design flow will materialise only in the course of time, it is important to design facultative ponds in multiple cells and construct the cells in staqss. Otherwise. the small flows in the initial years may not be able to maintain satisfactory water levels in the ponds and objectionable weed growths and mosquito breedinq may develop in the installations. Construction staqes will also reduce initial costs and on the performance data of first stage 15.4.4 Multiple Units Multiple cells are recommended all except small installations (05 ha less). Multiple cells in parallel facilitate maintenance as any unit can be taken out of operation for desludging or repairs without upsetting the entire treatment process. The parallel system also provides better distribution of settled solids. Multiple cells in series decrease dispersion numher and enable better 800 and coliform removal and reduced algal concentration in effluent. The series system implies a 800 loading in the primary cells and to avoid anaerobic conditions III these cells, they should have 6570% of the total surface area requirements. A parallel series system possess the advantages of both parallel and series operations. A convenient arrangement this system consists of fhree cells of equal area. of which two are in and serve as primary ponds and the third serves as secondary pond in series. Individual cell should not exceed 20 ha in 15.4.5 Pond Shape The shape should be such that there are no elongated portions, in planning future stages based

Rectangular ponds lenqth not exceeding the are to Maximum basin length of 750 m is generally The corners should always be rounded to accumulations of matter and to avoid dead pockets. 15.4.6 Embankment Ponds are usually constructed partly in excavation and partly in embankment. The volume of cutting and the volume of embankment should be balanced to the extent possible in to economise construction costs. Embankment materials usually consist of excavated ftom the pond site. material should he fairly impervious and free of veqetation and debris. The embankment should be compacted sufficiently. top. width of the embankment should be atleast 1.5 m to facilitate inspection and maintenance. The free should he at least 0.5 m in ponds less 0.5 ha in area. In larqer installations. the free board should be desiqned for the probable wave heiqbts and sbould be at least 1.0m. Embankment slopes should he designed and protection proposed erosion. Outer on nature of are generally height of embankment horizontal to 1

262
are made when the tace unprotected. Inner slopes should not exceed 4 growth of aquatic pitched slopes flatter, when the face is to the

outer taces of embankments protected aqainst erosion ov turfing. The inner erosion growth of rnarqinal faces should preferably be completely pitched to eliminate problems rouqh stone revetrnent or with plain concrete slabs stones with vegetation. Pitching may packing. pitchinq IS not possible. least pitching trom a height 0.30'1 above line to 0,30'1 below water line necessary and the above the line of pitchinq should be tutied to the top of embankment.

15.4.7 Pond Bottom

The pond bottom should be level. with averaqe elevation. should relatively impervious to the bottom should is it should well compacted elevations not and losses fractured rock than 0.10 m from the The soil of to seepaqe Where the must avoided

of

15.4.8 Pond Inlets

The conveying raw sewaqe to the pond, whether by qravrrv or by purnpinq, should be terminated in flow measuring chamber close to the pond, There should be sufficient fall from to pond that measuring weir may not be the the measuring pond installation is parallel the measurinq chamber should have flow splitting provision and there should to each cell. of may be designed to averaqe velocity of 0.3rnls. should be serni-tlexfble and should properly maintain inside the pond. pond cell is of for every 0.5 1.0 In the pond is small. a sinqle be so located as to avoid shortcircuitinq outlets and should be extended into less. The drscharqe size should be provided pond is getting up. In Inlets should be provided alonq inlet ot the pond of pond area. This requuement applies also to sinqle inlets pond shall to outlets. inlets should not be upwind of the tor one-thiro to the pond lenqth 15 to 20 horizontal and at half depth. A concrete apron of discharqe to prevent of pond bottom,

Pond Outlets
MUltiple tor ha for as to avoid short circuiting. termer case or weir boxes. In depth of 0.25 m below the water drawn along with the except in small ponds prov.ded at the same rate as outlets should so with to the inlets rnay consist eitner of pipes projecting into the ponds and in the later hanging submerqeo to a be to ensure that algal scum is not

When the outlet structure is a weir is to provide plates so that in pond can altered if required, pond eftluent IS to used the operating tarrninq and involves pumping. should to a sump of capacity minutes at the of purnpinq). All plplnq should provided With valves to facilitate operation and maintenance.

Pond Interconnections
Pond interconnections ponds interconnections such that the ettluent one cell in multiple cells These aerobic zone

be introduced at the bottom of the may by pipes through the separating At upstream ends. should submerged about 0.25 m the downstream provided facing downward, to short circuitinq by thermal care taken to orosion of the embankment.

15.4.11

Other Aspects Inlet and pond cornplotetv of cattle and ponds ponds. through

Provision made rneasurement Wherever practicable. tacilities shoutu to drain (Jut to a sluice arranqement. trespassing, Public warninq boards should also up near pond is treatment

15.5

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

to sewaqe. first qraduallv to this

In cornrnissioninq pond, should to 30 ern and this hy periodicatty. small of qrowth naturatlv. without any artiticial bloom which mav or two, is at a rate not until pond is up. pond IS for two to to continuous int.ow of Once the is in norma: opernnon to check that they not examine there darnaqe tel It is to The environment in a facultative pond is at the water pockets will problem may growth of marqinal months. blue In mats of The rn attract tlies . growth of mats of ponds by bre akinq up ponds. Facultative extent eftectinq pond pertormance. of the sludqo as solid conditione. of to of may be only in fu s t and embankments should burrowinq animals do not mosquito mosquito larvae of embankments fully will Its control rnay qrow and horn boat and into

no

to ouours rernoval
Sink In

lonq rnav to out in sun, should that will

by of In rnulnce!l

accumulated to pond upto top sold construction

15.6

PERFORMANCE
taboratory 800 BOD 5S rnav in nuisanco on do not exort oxvqon oxvqen in the water

The alqae pond efftuent will BOD darkroom incubation will 53 values. range of 100 However. not discharged into the demand under conditions. In the by centinued photosynthesis.

Because of the above reasons, the standard 800 and SS tests are not considered useful tor evaluating the quality of facultative pond effluents. The quality is usually assessed based on the BODs of the filtered effluent, the assumption heing that the suspended solids in the effluent are all algae. The filtration procedure adopted for the test is the same as for the suspended solids test Well designed facultative ponds give about 80-90% BOD reduction based on the filtered BOD, at the affluent Facultative ponds also effect high bacterial reduction. the efficiency being particularly high in ser.es : Coliform and faecal streptococci removals are as high as rnulticell ponds operated Intestinal pathogens belonqinq to Salmonella and Shigella qroups are reported to be completely eliminated in stahilisation ponds Cysts 01 histolytica and helminthic larvae are also eliminated.

15.7

APPLICATIONS

The facultative pond is Simple and cheap to construct It does not require skilled operation and is easy to maintain. Properly designed. the pond also gives consistently good performance. The facultative pond has therefore become very popular for municipal and institutional sewage treatment The method is suited land is cheap and readily available and may be used for treating sewage either for discharge into streams or lakes or for use on land. The effluent from pond may he used lor pisicurture. The method is particularly useful for interim sewaqe treatment when due to lack of funds or due to flow In the initial stages. it IS considered Inexpedient to construct the treatment plant snvrsaqed ultimately. The facultative pond is also suited for the treatment of industrial wastes which are biodegradable provided the wastes are not coloured and do not contain substances toxic to algae. Because of level of performance In terms of pathogen removal and reliability. effluents from ponds having a minimum detenfion time of days can he safely used for irrrgation for crops which are not to be eaten raw. For unrestricted irrigation. series of pond systems may be designed to the microbial quality criteria for irriqation water,

CHAPTER 16

ANAEROBIC TREATMENT OF WASTEWATERS

16.1 INTRODUCTION of advantages over aerobic treatment no enerqy is required for oxygenation. mass of organic matter and of waste orqanic source of

Anaerobic of wastewaters has a number processes. namely. Ihe rnput of the system is low, as lower production of sludge (bioloqical synthesis) nutrient requirement due to lower biological synthesis production at bioqas which is material leads to

Anaerobic di98stion unit process municipal wastewater treatment has been in use since century. It is ernployed stahillzation of sludge solids frorn prirnary and the beginning of secondary sedimentation tanks either in closco or open lagoons. Anaerobic laqoons are also used for treatment of industrial process is considered a process requirinq diqesters of hydrauhc tirne (HRT), of high rate systems constructed treat concentrated In recent years wastes direct treatment of municipal wastewater. of anaerobic treatment technology for treatment of murucipal water has special significance in India of high energy savmqs and low capital and OM & R costs. This chapter briefly reviews various hiqh systems and summarizes the dosiqn also aspects of treatment must be in designs. 16.2 HIGH RATE ANAEROBIC SYSTEMS

High rates of conversion of methane can be by high concentration of a and preventing them from with the effluent. This concept is expressed as Sludqe Retentinn Tirne (3RT). SRT is defined as the ratio of mass of solids in the systern to thai escapinq frorn the Maximal 3RT is desirable for process and minimal sludge HRT the reactor volume thus costs, Other requirements of high rate systems are intimate contact between waste and the bioloqical solids and maintenance of temperatures. baSIC configurations of high rate anaerobic systems. 16.2.1 Anaerobic Contact Process

The Anaerobic Contact lAC) process. Fig.16, 1 is a stirred reactor In which biomass leaving with the reactor effluent IS a sedimentation tank and recvcled, thus The settling of the anaerobic sludqe may at times Biomass separation may be improved using The process to concentrated wastes containing refractory suspended matter. Continuous and complete in the reactor is not recommended since this may adversely affect settling of the sludge, On other hand. inadequate mixing may result in formation of zones inside the reactor. process been used for of industrial 16,2.2 Anaerobic Filter In Anaerobic Filter (AF) interstices between packing microbial are both entrapped as clumps of cells rn the and as biotilm attached to the surface of

packinq IS plastic or ceram.c urn bed reactor. A number of such rnunicipal wastewater. 16.2.3 Anaerobic Fixed Fllrns Reactor

of b.omass. have

rock of 15 to 25rnm or consisting of specitic surtace to is as upflow subrnerqed constructed tor of low strength

In Anaerobic Fixed Film (AFF) surfaces in It is particulates contained in with packinq of modular

Flg.1 (c), tbe microbial IS immobilized on fixed in downtlow to prevent accumulation of refractory slouqhed biofilm. The slouqhed biofilm is discharged in either unsubmerged The consisting of plastic providing a hiqh void to strenqth wastes

16.2.4

Fluidized and Expanded Bed Reactor (FB) incorporates an upllow filled A surface are a is by of biotilrn. allows passaq of particulates which could tor Expanded (EB) do not at lower uptlow in enerqv These of rnunicipai wastewater well.

a low density earner materia: plug a but complete fluidization can tor

16.2.5 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor Reactor ot bioruass upwards throuqh of At takes place Any biomass process is has used tor treatment of municipal and experience 16.3 16.3.1 microbial top of the reactor phase is directly and those containing at few locations and The between qassoudthe zone, matter. process limited performance

DESIGN AND OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS Organic Load and Sludge Retention Time

It customary to express orqamc wastewaters in of Biochemical (BOD) or Chemical (COD). In anaerobic the COD value is finding usaqe which to mass balance calculations, Reduction in COO for wastewater would norrnaliv to equivalent of BOD reduction, Table summarizes volumetric orqaruc used of fOI municipal wastewaters, TABLE 16.1 ORGANIC LOADINGS AND PERFORMANCE EFFICIENCIES OF SOME HIGH RATE ANAEROBIC REACTORS

Reactor Type AF UASB

Organic 03 10

kg

Etilclency

65
20 50

75

70

267

GAS

MENTATION TANK RECYCLED SLUDGE

(a) ANAEROBIC CONTACT PROCESS

!
I

FEED

i RECYCLE ...1
I

(b)UPFLOW PACKED BED GAS

FEED
I

I
I

L
(e) DOWNFLOW PACKED BED

FEED (d) FLUIDIZED I EXPANDED BED GAS

t FEED
UPFLOW ANAEROBIC SLUDGE BLANKET

FIG.161:BASIC

CONFIGURATIONS SYSTEMS

OF HIGH RATE

ANAEROBIC

SRT which is a For AC and UASB it ranqes more 100 days 16.3.2 Hydraulic Load

parameter to 30 davs while operational

difficult to calculate anaerobic other systems it is estimated to be about

For dilute wastes, the minimum HRT at average flow may be 6 to 12 h for wastes containing suspended orqanic matter. In LJASB reactors where a sotttinq zone is provided. the averaqe hydraulic over tlow rate should not exceed 1 m/h tor tlocculent sludqe and 3 m/h tor qranular sludqe. The velocity throuqh por1 zone and zone for the two types ot sludqes should not exceed 3 and 12 The tace velocitres for FB/EB reactors depend on the charactenstics of the media used, 16.3.3 Effect of Temperature Activity ot methanoqenic bacteria is stronqly influeneed temperature. It approximately C rise in temperature in the range of to However. high micro-orqanism doubles for every rate anaerobic reactor compensates the decreased activities of the anaerobic concentration in orqanisrns at lower temperature 16.3.4 Excess Sludge production and Nutrient Requirement In UASB treatment systems directly treating municipal wastewater sludge production is to 07 kg dry matter/kq BOD reported to be 0.1 to 0.2 Kg dry rnatrer/rn" wastewater treated or removed. The sludge rs well stabrlized and dries drrectly on sand bed. The above reported quantity includes both inert matter present in waste and biological synthesis. The sludqe production due to anaerobic systems is of order of 0.01 to 0.1 kg VSS/kg COD removed. microbial synthesis The Inwer values are tor maintaininq bigh SRT values. Consequently. the requirement of nitroqen and phosphorus is also low. In addition to nitroqen and phosphorus. methanoqenic bacteria also require iron. cobalt. nickel and sulphide. These elements are usually present in municipal wastes have to be added to an industrial waste bet ore it can be treated anaerobically. 16.3.5 Tpxicity A at compounds which may be present in industrial wastes are reported to toxic to methanogenic organisms. Anaerobic bacteria most rrncro-orqanisrns can be acclimated to different levels at various toxicants. However. because of therr slow qrowth rate the acclimatization period be comparatively longer. Industrial wastewaters should be evaluated for their toxic effects before anaerobic treatment is adopted. 16.3.6 Recirculation Recirculation may be practiced tor dilution ot incorninq waste organic matter and/or biodeqradable toxicants. It also provides flow for fluidization in case ot FB/EB reactors. In case ot municipal wastewater. no recirculation is required except for fluidization rn FB/EB reactors. 16.3.7 Gas Yield and Utilization Metbane production can be directly related to deqree ot treatment on the basis of COD value of methane produced and COD reduction. Theoretically 0.35 rn" methane is produced per kq COD reduction. Bioqas contains and 3035% carbon dioxide. Since tor low strength wastes there is considerable throuqh put of liquid in a high rate anaerobic treatment system. the qases also escape tram the with the effluent in soluble form. For municipal wastewater. therefore. only 0.15 to 0.2 m' methane/kq COD removed be recovered. Further. because of considerahly hiqher solubility of carbon dioxide in comparison to methane, the off qas is enriched in rts methane content to about qO%.

269
The generation of bicqas is considered an asset anaerobic wastewater treatment It is true and strong industrial wastes where large amounts of gas be for anaerobic digestion of municipal wastewater the recovery is less. Furthermore, generated. However, in the case of for financial viability there should be an opportunity tor utilization of the gas. Direct use of biogas in institutions or house-holds is a more attractive option boiler houses in industries. utilization compared to generation of which requires greater initial investment and operational and maintenance cost.

16.4

PRETREATMENT
commonly unit operations for direct

Screening and grit removal anaerobic treatment.

16.5

EFFLUENT QUALITY AND POST TREATMENT

In the case of treatment of wastewaters, the effluent 800 can be expected to be about 50 mg/I assuming influent 800 of 200 mg/1. concentrated wastes 800 concentration more of the following posHreatment operations would be higher. Depending on the situation, one may be considered: i) Holding pond of one day detention pond followed by Fish pond/aqua culture

ii)

Aerobic treatment (aerated lagoons, oxidation pond, etc.)

CHAPTER 17

SLUDGE THICKENING DEWATERING, DIGESTION AND DISPOSAL

17.1 INTRODUCTION

Organic sludges are important by-products of conventional wastewater treatment. The settlable solids that are originally present in raw sewage and those synfhesized and oio-tlocculated during biological treatment are settlinq tanks sludqe. The sludqes loose structures of particulate or Jlocculent solids with included The water content ot sludqes is relatively larqer as solids constitute only a small portion of the total sludqe volume Disposal of presents problems due to two important of (i) solids present sludges are chiefly orqan: putrescible and (ii) volume of sludqe many times that of its constituents unit operations and processes employed for treatment of sludges aid of orqanic matter and of volume sludqe by removing water. While reduction and of organic achieved by diqestion, incineration and composting, the treatment aimed removed of from sludqes include thickeninq, dewatering thickerunq or dewatennq IS adopted Jar reducino the volume of sludqe or increasinq the solids concentration to (a) pel mit Increased loadinqs to sludqe diqesters: (Il) increase teed solids (c) transport costs as in of raw concentration to vacuum sludqes: (el) minimize the land requirements as as handlinq costs when digested sludge has to transported to disposal on auxiliarv tha: otherwise when of

17.2

SLUDGE THICKENING
amount of savinq in unit trorn sludqe solids than can to diqestion and

This practice is adopted for separation be settlinq tanks. Thickeninq dewatering processes. types of (e) centrituqaticn.

practiced, viz

thickeninq, (b) air flotation, and

17_2,1 Gravity Thickening

most practice for concemrauon IS primary sludqe or combined prirnary but is not successful in WIth activate sludge independenttv. Gravity thickening of combined sludqe not effective when activated sludge exceeds of total weiqht. at thickeninq of activated have to

thickeners continuous or without addition of chemicals. Use of slowly revolvinq improves the Continuous tanks circular tanks with central and at des hvdraulic of 20,000 to 25,000 lpd/m". l.oadinq rates than 12,000 are likely to too solids to permit this loading it is to dilute with the

270

271

The surface concentration various

for
ot

of

are qiven

1 alonq with

Table 17.1

SURFACE LOADINGS AND SOLIDS CONCENTRATION

of Sludge
Solids concentration

90

140

10

25
40
45

50
tncktino

7 . 9
can
by providing

particularly with gassy

sludges.
Continuous rnostlv cucular of the underilow is by of influence the Undenlow time. 24 hours being required maximum fluctuation in to achieve qooo have to be to blanket excessive to provisions adequate sludqe pumpinq to maintain any underflow pumpinq; (e) protection water of about blanket up to 1 rn with rn. Concentration sludqe

with Durinq detention times sufficientlv below the overflow weirs to prevent

quantrtv of water needed; (b) concentration: continuous blanket

17.2.2 Air Floatation

Air floatation units of waste power

used costs,

of sludqe by air pressure or vacuum normally sludge units involve hlqher maintenance operation. of qrease material also control distinct 3 to 5 kq. per is then up

In pressure units, portion of the subnatant is prossurizeo em" saturated with pressure tank. the pressure influent before is into tlotauon in form of atmospheric pressure themselves to Thickened off while the subnatant to

272
vacuum type ploys air bubbles which of solids to to saturation and surface. by the not the vacuum to the to

efficiency of is polyetectrolytes. The addition of polvelectrolvtes the capture 90 to

of cherrucals alum and concentration but improves

17.2.3 Centrifugation
Thickeninq by centrituqation is to only when the space limitations sludge not the adoption of two methods This method involves maintenance and power disc or type. Disc centrrtuqes prone to costs. Centrifuges ernployed are of while latter type gives poor er of effluent

17.3

SLUDGE DEWATERING

Most of the mixed sludqe can be compacted to content of about 90% in itself by but mechanical with or without coaqulant or prolonged drvinq on open sludqo required to reduce the content The dewatering of ted sludqe is usually accomplished on bods which CD.n reduce the moisture content to But oil or in with the process. Where the required space for sludqe mechanical on vacuum filters. pres ses ceuuituqation heat could adopted. In most easy

ot

country, manaqe.

climate is tavorable tor open

IS

17.3.1

Siudge Drying Beds

This method can be is and sludge can be for conditiorunq, sludqe deposited on drained bed of sand and qravel. oissolveo tend to buoy up the solids leavinq a at the bottom which drains throuqh the sand rapidly. portion of liquid off in few hours after drying by evaporation sludge shrinks producing which accelerates evaporation The areas havinq sunshine. lower rain fall relative humidity. drying time about two weeks white other could four weeks more. Covered beds are not qeneraltv necessary.

sludge drying process is depth of bed) and lonqth at time wind velocity improve
a)

by weather. sludqe scrapmq and littinq of sludqe rnatenal. humidity and

design Hiqh temperature and drying.

Area of Beds
sluuqe on sludqe. removal sludqe and the sand bed ot sludqe on The cycle time depends on the characteristics of including of water. the parameters influence content in The time may

cycle time to retain sludqe for dowaterinq. ready for next of application and of between two drvinqs 01 sludge on factors attectinq its ability to allow orainaqe evaporation of water from sludqes and

273
vary widely, lesser time for and for hot and dry weather conditions than fOI anaerobicatlv digested sludge for cold and/or "Net weather conditions.

Area of land required for sludges can be substanual with of to being reported for anaerobically diqested sludge under conditions that untavorable for and drying. The average cycle time for orvinq may ranqe few days to 2 weeks in warmer climates to 3 to 6 weeks or even more in unfavorable ones. A typical out example is at Appendix b)

Bed Specifications
consists of a bottom uncierdrains and of gravel of uniform size over which is laid the layer to drainage

A sludge drying bed a bed of clean sand. Open jointed as the liquid passes through tne

i)

Gravel the underdrains At least 3 up to 30 em with a of 15 em top layer shall consist of gravel ot 3 to

Graded grave! placed above the top of the under rnrn size ii) Sand size of vary

of

Clean sand of The depth of iii) Unoerdrains

to 0,75 mm and coefficient not qreater than 20 to 30 The tinished sand surface shall level

used,

Underdrains made of vitrified clay pipes or tiles of least 10 ern dia laid with open joints. However other suitable materials may usert. Underdrains placed not more m apart iv) Walls of masonry and extend least 40 cm above and 15 ern below sand kerbed to prevent washing outside soil on to

preferably surface. Outer walls

v)

Dimensions

Drying beds are commonly to 8 m wide and 30 to 45 m lonq A lencjth ot 30 rn away from inlet should not exceeded With a single point of wet sludge d.scharqe. when bed slope is about Multiple discharqe points be used wifh sludqe beds to reduce the length of wet sludqe travel vi) Sludqe Inlet to and have a minimum of 200 mm Splash plates should be at the bed and to prevent erosion of the sand

sludge pipes and sludqe so dia terrninatinq ern above the sand discharge points to sludqe uniformly

21-51 CPHEEOIND/94

274
vii} Dra.naqe beds should of otherwise to tho primary settling if cannot be

c)

Preparation of Bed
beds dewatered sludqe care not to surface of is raked improves of be has up advance of of of tresh batch should removed by rakes and shovels or slunqe. After the complete removal of sludge cake, sand and the surface of the sand on the surface

of

take and

Only should much lonqer dewaterinq with Samples of chemical characteristics that it

to containinq

Poorly will and floating matter tne sand diqester shoutd examined for the physical withdrawal,

drvinq

d)

Withdrawal of Sludge
sufficientlv to the sometimes become to make the flow and to maintain The flow may submerqed should

shouid Rodding and oack-ttusninq of Valves must opened regulated to pipe openinq sludqe valves and

inlet pipe to start

e)

Removal of SlUdge Cake

by

sludqe cake can no the content always clinqs to of atudqe bed, of the should used to lhe f)

or forks rnoisrure content is less 70%. becomes Iiqhter and for Some sand loss of sand depth of the t010 ern, clean coarse matches the original sand, at the

Hauling and Storage 01 Studqe Cakes

barrows or up and conveyors may may of to of cakes, In mechanical large quantities of dried studqe. Sludge removed from stored to make it tnable.thereby its tor

to

the

Mechanical Methods
Vacuum centrifugation being the of dewaterinq. to treatment most cornrnon mechanical method of presses and conditioning is prior to mechanical methods used to cewater sludges preparatory burial or Raw is dewatering by vacuum scuds are during diqestion. filtration of raw primary mixture of primary and secondary sludqes slightly requirement and cake contents of sludqes. the ratio secondary to primary sludges it more and rntticutt to dewater in the filter. solids concentration

275
a great 8 to Beyond sludge too difficult to pump and lower would unduly filter surface. In this method, sludge tilterinq medium. the portion being separated due to the vacuum is spread out in tl-lin layer in and the moisture content quickly.

to

Prior conditioning of sludqe before application of Chemical conditioninq and heat treatment i) Chemical conditroninq

methods renders it more the two processes normally employed.

Chemical is the process of adding to enable coalescence of sludge easy extraction of moisture, The chemicals used are and aluminium salts particles lime. more common being ferric Chloride or without lime. Diges1ed sludqe, because of high exerts chemical the alkalinity has to be reduced on chemicals. can accomplished elutriation. Polyelectrolytes to effect a show prornise for studqes finely dispersed The of chemical depends on pH, ash temperature and other factors, Optimum pH values and chemical dosage for content of sludqes to on standard laboratory tests. of ferne alum for elutriated sludqe are of of of Alum vigorously with the sludqe. reacts carbonate salts and causes sludqe Hence for effective results. alum must be mixed to separate and water drains out more quickly and thorouqhtv. floc, however, is very its usefulness to evaluated vis-a-vis chtoride before resorting to its application. for applying Mixing of with sludqe should Feeding devices be but not than 20 to tanks are generally of the sma!l plants and ot horizontal type for larqe plants provided vertical type for mechanical aqitators 20 to ii) Etutriation

purpose of elutnation sludge to reduce the coagulant of the with of lower alkalinity by sedimentation and decantation of digestion ammonium bicarbonate which exert increased cnemicais are removed in the process, There are methods of elutriation. staqe. rnulti-staqe and countercurrent washing, the water dependent a alkalinity reduction, storaqe elutriation 2.5 times the two staqe 5 much water countercurrent washinq. wasninq llsed only .n amail plants in all also on alkalinity studqe of elutriated sludqe. and in a mixing the 20 sees, IS settled tanks decanted A maximum surtace on ot about 40 a of 4

Countercurrent elutriation carried out in twin tanks similar to sedimentation in sludqe and wash enter at ends, Piping and channels are so arranged that wash water enterinq the second staqe tank comes in contact with sludqe already washed the first stage tank. of required is 2 to times the volume of elutriated.
The of chem.ca!s dewatering units automaucauv on the basis of periormance and
iii)

flow of conditioned sludqe to rnechanical by float switches so that these variables are adjusted quality of sludqe cake cominq out. Process) short of time steam is a 30 minute separation WIth filter Yields

In this process, sludqe IS is

to contact Tne of 100

in a temperature to to is can throuqh

belore it enters under pressure 10 to 15 kg/em rhrouqn to vacuum to solid content of 40 to

a)

Vacuum Filters

vacuum fitter consists of a over which is a filtenng medium of synthetic or plastic steel or drum is suspended houzontallv so one of its diameter is submerqed a containinq sludqe. Valves prpinq to a vacuum on of tilter medium the drum rotates in the The vacuum holds aqainst drum as continues to applied as out This pulls trorn sludqe leaving cake outer on IS from the drum just it sludqe tank moisture traps. filtrate receivers. conveyors proes necessarv to Operatinq than for sludqe they less costs of vacuum area since operation of conditions it can used dewaterinq even sludqes capacity of sluciqe beinq in calculatinq size of filter desired moisture filter cake is tactor If IS acceptable rates and lower coaqulant can finration IS kg rnetre of per tt vanes 10 activated sludge alone to 50 sludqes A of is conscrvauve that can be used of of to not known. Fitter rotated at of 7 to 40 with vacuum of rum of mercury, not in to conditioning, up and At it 20 hrs of filtered cake varies In of raw activated sludqe to studqes should be to a of 60 to moisture if it is to heat dried At 01 run. filter is to sticking A high pressure stream ot to the cloth. located in separate room or With adequate

277

b)

Centrifugation

The process of high speed centrifuging has been found useful to reduce in sludge to around the from has a high content filtratefrorn sand drying Return of this to the treatment plant in larqer recirculated load of solids to the and sludge system and also these 17.3.3 Heat Drying
The purpose of heat drying to reduce the content and volume of dewatered sludge, so that it can be used after drylllg without causmq offensive odors risk to health. Several methods such sludge drying controlled heat, tlash drying, rotary kiln, multiple hearth turnaces, etc" have been used combination WIth incineration devices. Drying is brouqht about by a stream of heated air or other gases at about The gases, dust and released during to removed by control to poltution: dried sludqe removed from the granular and which may t)8 pulverized use

17.3.4 Incineration
The purpose of incineration is to destroy orqaruc material. residual ash being used as landfi!l. During process the frorn burnt and the organisms are destroyed. Dewatered or sludge IS to 750,:JC. Cyclone or multiple hearth type furnaces are used proper heatin9 arranqoments with temperature control and mechanisms. Dust and soot for use as

It has advantages economy, freedom odors and qreat reduction in volume and materials to disposed of But process requires capital costs, of machinery and drying and partial incineration for dewatering of sludges before put on conventional drying
17.4 SLUDGE DIGESTION
to characteristics its This ottensive odour, through any of

The principal purposes pathogenic contents and to the following biological processes:

i)

Anaerobic digestion Aerobic diqostion

ii)
17.4.1

Anaerobic Digestion
of orcanic to Since absence of carbondl-cxide and water and carbon rernain rendered

digestion is bioloqical During process, much of orqanic rnarter therefore the anaerobic digestion net available, to sustain further
MICROBiOLOGY THE

Anaerobic digestion involves successive culture of microorqanisrns. three degradation stages viz, formation. Fig.17,1 shows, in the reactions

reactions earned out a mixed formation & methane in anaerobic digestion.

278
S ORGANIC MATERIALS

-T
t
I

EXTRA CELLULAR ENZYMES

LI QUEFACTION/HY OROLYSIS

ORGANIC AC I OS ALCOHOLS

,
ACETATE ACETIC. ACI D

HYDROGEN CARBON Ol-OXIDE

I
METHANE, CARBON DI- OXIDE

FIG.17.1 :ANAEROBIC

DIGE STION MECHANISMS GAS

t
SCUM LAYER FEED_ SUPERNATANT ACTIVE ZONE A C T

Z
PL E TE MIXING

o
N

I V

E
DIGESTED SLUDGE

DIGESTED SLUDGE FOR DEWATERING RATEI FI G.172:S L U OGE

DIGESTED SLUDGE FOR DEWATERING IHIGH DIGESTION SYSTEM

the first of converted by extra cellular

orqanic manor into simple

caltulose

In the second staqe. dioxide

soluble orqanic matter is other molecular

by acetoqenic bacteria into orqanic acids.

activo. and carbon-or-

In the third staqo two of group converts into methane oxide into methane,

bactoua. anaerobic, other qroup

For satisfactory pertcrrnance of anaerobic tne second and third stages should be in dynamic equilibrium orqanic acids should be into same rate as they are produced. However. slow-qrowinq compared to the volatile tormurs they by fluctuations pH, of substrates Hence. process is ossentianv methanogenic micrcorqanism.

17.4.1.2

TYPES
and Hiqh shown in 17.2,

Two different in practice.

a)

Low Rate Digestion

Essentiallv low process is

Low rate diqestion is storage tank, occasionallv.

teatures of

Fig.17.2.
Raw sludge IS into and their some In case old screw pumps rise to the surface installed to provide of the contents. once In hI'S about hou: a the digester contents allowed STratify, torrninq tour distinct a Tloatinq of scum, layer of supernatant. of actively sludqe and bottom of sludqe the decomposition to bottom layers. which accumulates and thickens at of tank is drawn centre of Supernatant removed from treatment plant

b}

High Rate Digestion

The essential of teedinq of sludqe. Prc-th.ckerunq features of a high rate c.qestion All these tour teatures for the biological stability.
1) Complete

of

diqester

optional process

of sludge in rate creatos It also quickly sludqe into contact rnicroorqanisrns Ioxir substances if any. in Furthermore when stratification is of mixinq. IS tor docompostticn. solids time.

280
2)
i]

of
rcducnon d.qester

in
requrrerncnts

tollowinq

The

it
iii)

supernatant is of far impact when heatinq

quality than diqester supernatant, thereby to the wastewater treatment stream

iv)

Less

There is however diqestion:

pomt.

which:

of raw sludqe

following effects on

The turn
In case of present in may

affects the viscosity, Which, in oescrves special consideration.

sludge, the concentration raw sludqe products digestion such as toxic levels. of low, of and heavy metals acids, ammonium

c)

Sludge temperatures the

irnpcrtant environrnental factors. the rate of microbial increases temperature.

sludge and

Deterrnination of tank critical step in of anaerobic system, The digester volume must sutficient to prevent the process from under all accepted Process is defined accumulation of volatile acids i.e. resulting in decrease in pj-i. when acids/alkalinity becomes qreater 0.5 cessation of methane production occurs, Once the turns sour, it usually takes several days to to the corrective actions are taken. capacity rnust also enouqh to ensure that raw sludge is adequately as discussed below in the paraqraph on Solids Time. The relationship between c the raw sludqe. of volatile matter detention time shown rn Fig,

a)

Loading Criteria

volume anaerobic have deterrnined trorn empirical loading criteria. Volatile solids loadinq ratekq criteria been cmnrnonly to size anaerobic typicalloadinq rates used for desiqn purpose. However, is now recognized that process performance is correlated to Solids Retention (SRT). which are also shown in the table and are discussed

281

90
<,
0 0

80

70

60
> 50
0

z z

40

u
0

30

20

10

10

20

30

50

60

DE TEN TION

IN DIGEST

FIG.17.3:REDUCTION TO

OF VOLATILE MATTER DETENTION TIME

AS RELATED

DIGESTER

282

TABLE 17.2 TYPICAL DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SIZING MESOPHILIC ANAEROBIC SLUDGE DIGESTERS

Diqestion

10
40

20

1020

Computation
b)

actua:

dlftlCIJlt

It

capacitv uuuzauon.

Solids Retention Time irnportant consideration timo to so mict obial mass tor anaerobic
cells
IS tnat

qiven (b) adjust

rnicroorqanisms must be sludge and

its treatment IS is In to that SRT cornpletetv.

solids time svstern. In the anaerobic ume i.e.. volume ot ot destruction SRT can to

is without sludqe diqes ter/volume

(SRT).

lnuc.

microbiat IS

point {SRTe} Temperature ur.portant relationship SRT destruction is shown in Fiq.1?.4. fluctuations in tempernture do not volatile upon diqester "C. known operation under low vear. of of anaerob.c IS well should SRTc,

on qrowth and accordinqly changes the pertormance. of temperature on 17.4 shows that SRT 30 days, i.e. no siqniticant percentage

20

It may

rnicroorqarusms in is known and 40 is generally favorable But in conditions, in specific periods

onouqh to ume

solids tollowod for

in

283 TABLE 17,3 SOLIDS RETENTION TIME AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES

T ernperature C

I
SRT

days Design 28 20 14 4 4 criteria must

18 24 30 35 40 The Maximum accumulate betore provided

gcttm

11

10
10 all anticipated conditions inctudinq : amount of qrit and scum rnay volume of tank scum accumulation must

accumulations This reduces

to t.orn

ii)

Board
provide

About be

10

(110m

of

dlqesler

10 Ihe hiqhest

in

and to

c)

Storage For Digested Sludge

In beds

Storaqe for drying beds for of studqe capacity can met separate digested sludqe Normally, should sufficient. Howovo. to determine capacity storage.
OF

sludqe durinq monsoon This capacitv prcvrdinq additional '10,,15 sludqe available. such should

l.ow

RATE

Lack of proper layers of scum, and withdrawn from the

acnvelv
to

conventional to stratification, sludqe sludqe. of treatment plant while the is added at

to distinct is
depth and

Since supernatant volume, the capacity

IS

ctiqestion. is
by

in

diqestinq sludqe

v
where
V

]T

117.1)

of diqester. m
Volume of

sludqe m' added per sludge per day

Volurne of

284

o
u

60

30

ss r z

/
10

>
10

s ar

2'0 3'0 TEMPERATURE

100

<,

90 80 70 60

0
ui

30 20

>

10 0 10 20 30 SOLIDS RETENTION TIME, (DAYS) OF SOLIDS RETENTION-TIME AND TEMPERATURE ON SOLIDS REDUCTION IN A LABORATORY SCALE DIGESTER

FIG.17.4:EFFECT VOLATILE

COMPLETELY MIXED

ANAEROBIC

Additional to is used for sludqe dewaterinq. Additional monsoon storaqe

by

monsoon expressron:

sludqe

option

(172)

diqester can be provided with the

As discussed accumulation and

unit or for in should

units

primary and secondary, the being to meet the requr.ements of monsoon storaqe. turther to componsate tor

provided:

17A15

or

RATE

Because of qood mixing, the-re is no strnritication and no of to scum or supernatant layers, By adoptinq contmuous and rosortmq to pro thickening of the to content of volume be for retention time. is to on sludqe bod, stage digester normally provided of supernatant in volume of sludge clue to gravity thickening take plac is Additional capacity needed monsoon period can in Capaoties for digestion may be by

Where Volume of of
rn

ot diqested
in the hiqh

withdrawn per diqester. which is of order 10 and

in

As accumulation and A typical mass

17,4,1 beard. of is in Table 17.4.

to compensate

grit

a)

Number of Units
are

units for

up to 4 mid.

plants, units

two.

individual

mid. unit

Hiqh

primary
up to 20

b)

Digester Shape and Size

most common trorn effective of m and diameter to

with sludqe

ranqmq
IS

c)

Free Board and Depth

upon between
of and maximum gas For fixed liquid the of wall should not be between level and top of should roots board of is reconunenoed.

board is dome or less O.Grn. For not

Sludqe

toarninq rnay of conventional of sludqe

of gas not

to worked out Too excessive In chokinq of qas buildinq up in diqester In case when proctuction of about of top becomes tank and surtace of a out. maximum producuon be detcrtnmeo. An averaqe of of opt-mum of such that at of production. of m: of tank area is
In

d)

Floor Slope
The floor shoulo ofl to pressure 10 to to subsoil withdrawal of suitably protected

tloor
by anchor.nq

TABLE 17.4 MASS BALANCE OF SOLIDS IN SLUDGES PRIMARY AND EXCESS ACTIVATED SLUDGE, BEFORE AND AFTER HIGH RATE DIGESTION (PER CAPITA PER DAY BASIS)

Treatment Process
(qm)

of

wet

RAW SEWAGE CHARACTERISTICS Total b. Settleable in

90 (60%) 54 38

27 16 11

c.

Non settleable solids (40%) PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION AND DIGESTION

-" ..

25

a. studqo b.

removed

54

digested' a) rernaininq In the prtmarv PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION + ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS & DIGESTION Solids removed sludge
primary

19 26

c.
III

a.

54
..

38 11

b.

Non sottleable solids entering the activated sludge process Solids digested in sludqe process 100 solids . b) activated of volatile

25

C.,

-25

d.

Non solids (ot raw sewaD") thai will be entering the final sedimentation Excess activated solids produced per

11

11

e.

14.3
c)

10

43

05

0.8

1.
treated effluent g. d) excess Combmed primary activated feed to the digester (a+d+e f) (without pre thickening) Solids a) digested

0.5

47

30.8

h.

235

235
23,5

Solids rernaininq in sludge

FOOTNOTES
'3) 'b) It assumed that the matter is destroyed durinq diqestion.

The net process step (e)

destruction/digestion unit of solids the activated sludge the rernaininq non destructed orqanic solids are into account the computation of excess activated solids produced per capita/day. day a conventional activated sludqe gms. For an assumed of BOD removed. sludqe

'0)

It is that BOD process is 200 q/rn 0,'150 rn"/day excess sludge production rate of 0,5 per

'd)

For an effluent suspended solids effluent 10 qrn/m' 0.150

of 10

5S

away by fhe treated

1.5 solid loads into on sludqe treatment processes such as solids load from such ot waste sludqe and primary

In this example. additionat digestion, dewaterinq not processes could have siqruticant sludqe produced The should only should be computed. on similar

indicauve ligures on basis oj actual

actual data.

dry

e)

Roofing
fixed roofs. Reinforced domes. conical or floating cover. Steel floating covers may diqesters themselves. cover is used vertical travel of to 2 rn should be

Sludge diqesters have used for roof flat slabs either on liquid or act holder in a diqestion tank, an f)

Digester Control Room

a control near to house pIpIng and the process control equipment. which sludge units. sludge transfer and recirculation pumps sludge sinks, thermometers. blowers/or ventilation and electrical control equipment. Where of digesters is the rnanaged by locating converuently, the necessary valves for and sludqe withdrawal. in in sewage treatment plants havinq more than four to have a separate operation roorn to house the necessary control equipments for

g)

Mixing of digester contents

A certain amount of mixing occurs caused the at sludqe gas and thermal convection currents croated the addition of This of natural rnixinq is siqniticant. in of hiqh diqesters continuously. However this rnixing is not sufficient to pertormance ot diqestion process. methods used tor mixing include external pumped circulation. mechanical mixing and internal gas mixing.

289
External pumped circulation relatively simple IS limited in application because ot large tlow method can substantial mlxinq, provided suflicient energy in rates involved, However, watts/rn' is in the energy be required if losses are the range of Pumped circulation allows external exchanqes to be used for heatinq digester siqnificant. heated circulating sludqe prior to raw sludge's entry contents and uniform blendinq 01 raw sludqe diqester. to Internal mechanical mixinq of diqester contents.by means of propellers, flat-bladed turbines, or used. Mechanical mixers can be through the cover or walls of draft tube mixers are also digester, Substantial mixing can be effected about,58 watts/m' of digester contents, Internal gas mixing types normaltv

The injection of a sludge qas at pumping and periodic surface aqitation. The cover to as of

of a

tube to create piston

sequentially through a series of lances possible, dependinq on cover

trorn the digester

* *

free or unconfined release of gas from a ring ot sparqers mounted on confined release of gas within a draft tube positioned inside tank.

floor of

digester.

first method has low power requirement and consequently, produces only a low derived from ItS use in control. Lance tree gas lift, level of mixing. As a can to strong mixing of contents. The and draft tube circulation patterns prodoced by these two rnixinq methods difler, In the tree gas litt system, the gas bubble velocity at bottom of tank is accelerating to maximum as the bubble reaches surface. Since the pumping action of qas is related to velocity of bubble, the 'IS no pumpinq from the bottom of with a free qas lift systern. In contrast, a draft tube acts by of continuity, causes the flow of sludge enterinq bottom of as a gas lift pump draft tube to be same that the Thus, the largely independent of The significance of this ditterence is that tube mixers induce bottom currents to prevent or material. Another amonq internal gas mixing at least reduce accumulations of systems is that the injection devices a gas system fixed on the bottom of the and thus cannot tor without the tank. To reduce provisions be for and With the and draft tube systems, dittusers mserted the be withdrawn for removinq contents of the tank, A of these systems, thouqh. is that the draft cleaning and lines suspender! inside tank may foul contained the digesting if 5 to watts/rn' of digester content dissipated in sludqe. Generally strong mixinq can digester,

Piping
Cast Iron is commonly used tor pipelines carrying sludqe mcludinq tittinqs and JOints, Pipes should supported and be capable of drained. Vents should be at points in order that gas generated by sludge does not accumulate in these pipelines. number of be provided on exposed sludge to dismantling and flanges and flexible couplings tees flanges with insertion of cleaning equipment whenever necessary, In long pipe connectors should be for easy cleanmq and Hushing of pipe. 40 to 60 mm be

22-51 CPHEEO/NO/94

Flushing an sludge with

and adequate ananqements-shourc or clarified sewage.

provided for flushing

A minimum dia of 200 mm should be used for the sludge pipelines for both gravity withdrawal and suction to pumps. Velocities of 1.5 to 2.4 mps should preferably be maintained to prevent solids deposition and accumulation ot qrease which ultimately ctcqs sludge Primary sludge have the secondary sludqe is almost sirnilar to with the in percentaqe ot used for desiqninq formula should hydraulic characteristics from those of water. though in its characteristics. head loss in sludge pipes as such values of 40 to 50 in Hazen William

Foe qas lines CI, GI or HOPE cornrnonly used Gaivanized steel also be used for gas pipinq. Flangecf joints be for exposed piping of sizes 100 mm and above In dia while screw or welded type joints are tor pipe less than 100 mm. joints should be used for underqround piping, It is necessary gas pipinq be locatoo allow proper It is to gas pipe of 1 in 50 with minimum of slope draining of of 1 100 adequate dr ainaqe. pipes be painted with coatinq. For above. with joints or may be dia of 100 rnrn Adequate pipe supports should provided to It is to provide a flanged pipe bypass before A turn toundation should also laid below and caution must be dunnq back tillinq to prevent anv of In acidic or soils, pIpe must wrapped or some material Coal may used some protecuon not on gas Adequate of drip must be provided in gas at downward bends. provided with removable screwed or flanges for cleaning Suitable number of tees should also purposes, A drip trap of 1 capacity would be satisfactory. Trap run to drains wherever convenient. is preterable to positive type traps prevent trorn escaping ernptvinq the condensate.

i)

Sampling sinks and valves

A sink should be provided for each diqester for drawinq supernatant liquor and Sludge from in Sinks of white enamelled cast or of stainless steel. various They should at em supply of for sinks should also provided. sludqe arranqed so to either Sink valves should j) of Gl should short and 40 to 50 rnrn at least levels in the diqester at CI flanqed type. dia. These rn intervals,

Liquid level indicator

diqester may or anv pos.uve fixed level device may indicator with usod tor

k)

Gas collection

Sludqe gas is normalty corn of about to methane and 25 35% carbon by hydroqen sulphide. hydroqen. and oxyqen. The volume, with smaller quantities of other gases constituent in IS pnrnaruv Depending the sulphate content of sewage the sludqe. the concentrallon of sulphide In the gas varies. sulphide in

291 addition to its corrosive properties imposes a limit on the usability or causes nuisance during the burning of the gas. Sludge gas containing 70% methane has a fuel value of about 5,800 k cal/rrr'. In term of solids Jjkg. of Volatile solids destroyed at a normal operating digested,. the average gas production is about 0.9m pressure of 150 to 200 rnrn of water. Minimum or maximum rates of gas production will however depend upon mode of feeding of raw sludqe into the digester. When batch feeding is practiced, the minimum and maximum gas production difference between rates may vary from 45% to more than 200%. In the continuous teeding system. the maximum and the minimum is considerably reduced. Intermittent mixing of digester contents is also for wide fluctuations in gas production rates. It is, therefore. desirable to feed the high rate digesters with raw sludge and run the mixing device as continuously as possible to obtain not only a uniform rate of digestion but also uniform production of gas. Sludge gas should be collected under positive pressure to prevent its mixing with air and causing 5 to 15% by volume of gas with air. The gas explosion. The explosive range of sludge gas is may be collected directly under a floating cover on the digester or from the cover by maintaining to operate in series with the a constant water leveL Where primary and secondary units are gas piping from primary having a fixed cover and the secondary With gas holding or tloatinq should interconnected. A separate gas holder may be provided to collect the gas from the unit where the units are kept open. the digester roof should used for gas off. The velocity sludge gas A gas dome above piping should not exceed 3.5 rnps to prevent carryover of the condensate from the condensation traps and pressure loss and to meters and other appurtenances of avoid An meter of corrosion resistant material should be used to measure gas of condensate the meter is also desirable. Pressure release production from the diqesrers qas in the digester by releasing gas pressure exceeding 200 to 300 valves are provided for controlling cover collapse during rapid withdrawal of mrn of water and also preventinq parna: vacuum sludge or qas. least waste gas burner and digestion tank or A distance 01 of gas mixture, Waste burners be located the gas holder to avoid the open for easy observation. A should also be provided with waste gas Condensate traps, release and flame traps should also be provided ahead of waste gas Manometers indicatinq the qas pressure cm of water may be used on gas line from device. A common open end U tube manometer should not be the diqester or ahead of the used for such purposes as may hazardous. Where the to Scrubber used as have to be fuel or for power generation, equipments like

I)

Gas holder

purpose of a holder is to adjust difference in the of gas production and consumption as as to maintain uniform pressure at the burner. When holders are also used for least 25% of total daily production should be storage of gas for utilization. a storaqe capacity of provided. .

292

The gas holders may be of the i)

types:

A bell shaped cylindrical tank submerged in wafer installed either on the top of a digester or as a separate unit structure holding the water may be made of RCC, As the gas or falls enters or leaves, the holder A pontoon cover type which floats on the liquid content of ceilinq, skirt plates, a gas dome and steel trusses digester consisting of steel

iii)

Dry type qas holder consisting of a cylindrical steel tank in which a disc-shaped piston makes contact at its periphery with inside of the tank, The gas enters the holder from beneath the piston which floats on the gas, Leakage of gas is prevented by either tar or a felt seal around the edge of the piston, A suitable roof should be provided if this type of dry gas holder is installed holder either cylindrical or spherical in shape and made of either welded A high or rivetted steel construction, for storing the gas under high pressure, This type of gas holder IS seldom used for sewage treatment plants unless the gas has to be utilized for special

iv)

The appurtenances for qas holders include ladders, condensate drains, pressure gauges and safety valves.

The tollowinq parameters of

diqested sludqe are indicative of good desiqn:

a)
reduced
b)

of Volatile Solids diqestion

50 %

nf Gas production per destroyed volatile pH of Methane produced diqestinq sludqe of gas

0.9 7-8

c)

60

70%

e)

Solid contents in sludge for teed solids cnntent of i) Low rate diqesters

10
6

Hiqh rate digesters

2,6

Mixed

2,03%
200 400 mCj/1

I)

Volatile acids concentration

g)

Practicallv Color Bicarbonate Alkalinity Black 2000 5000

hi

l)

17.4.2 Aerobic Digestion

Aerobic digestion is secondary tank humus or for The major advantage at method mixture of prirnary over used alone.

sludqe but not for prirnarv diqestion are:

i. ii,

lower 800 concenuatron in diqestor supernatant production of odouness and of basic cost. tewer operatronal of However. runrunq cost are
of

bioloqicallv stable diqested in

iv.
V.

treatment plants, digesters.

increasingly used paruculartv cost much than for

small

The factors that should considered in aerobic diqester time. loading criteria, requirement. and process operation. solids digestion at about 10 to 12 a ternperature of 20 C would be 35 to Higher will result in reduction in the period of diqestion. v;:JJy 1.7 to gm/gm of solids destroyed. to maintain the dissolved oxygen 1 2 mg/I in the system. Operational if IS practiced, Extended aeration system aerobic

17.4.3 Merits and demerits of anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic i) otters major aovantaqes uselul source ot content of sludqe cont.nns of soi!s olf as process: by-product. The qas is than IS

Recovery of producer. demand Anaerobicatlv fertility Pathogens In

iii

orqaruc matter that can Improve

II

long

ponods

In

294
Following are the major disadvantages of anaerobic digestion process : i) Relatively large closed diqestion tanks are required, resultinq In hiqh capital investment

costs
Ii) Microorganisms involved in anaerobic digestion are sensitive to small changes in the environment Close process control and periormance monitorinq are required to prevent upsets Supernatant diqestion often have a concentration of nitroqen and suspended oxygen demand high

17.5

SLUDGE DISPOSAL

Sludge is usually of on manure to soil, or as a soil conditioner. or into Burial is generally resorted to small quantities of putrescible sludqe. The most common method is to utilize it as a Ash from incinerated sludqe is used as a landfill, In some cases, wet sludge, raw or digested, as as from can be lagoonecl as a measure but such practice may create qround water pollution and other public health hazards. Wet or digested sludqe can used or for mechanized composting with refuse,

17.5.1

Sludge as Fertillzer
land tor rarsrnq crops as a means of disposal is not App!ication 01 sludges to soils should take into principles: dl beds should not be on vegetables and fruits grown it IS likely to come

The use of sludqe since it rs trauqht WIth consideration tollowinq i) into ii) from open contact

Sludqe tram drvinq beds should be plougbed into the soil before raising crops. dressing of soil with alurtqe should be Dried studqe grasses Heat humus. fOI lawns and for with part is minimum

Top

iii)

looted cash crops and fodder

is

public pornt of distribution. It should

used

Though deficient in with farmyard

v)

Liquid sludqe raw to unsatistactorv fertilizer or soil conditioner It userl. it must thorouqhly incorporated into the soil and land should be qiven so bioloqical transformation 01 organic material It should be In such a to possible drrect human contact.

In sludqes ot moderate but vatue as of slowly available nitrogen and SOme phosphate. comparable to deficiency in potash. They also many elements to plant minor In torrn ot metals. The sludqe humus mcreasos water capacity of SOl! and making an excellent soil making available humus which results in qreater 1er1ili1y.

17.5.2 Sludge Lagooning

Use of sludge lagoons tor storaqo. diqestion. final of may adopted isolated locations the is porous and when is no chance of qround water contamination. Drainaqe should not to the lagoon, The depth of laqoon and area should be about twice required for sand dryinq under conditions, may ranqe from 0.5 to 1.5 m. Lagoons been used for regular drying of on a till and draw basis or allowed to dry and then out and used as Lagoons have also employed as emergency storage when digesters to ernptied for As expensive to build and they have been resorted to, particularlv for digested sludqe open land suitably located is available. of lagoons not desirable. siqh: and odour and mosquito breeding.

17.5.3 Land Fill

VVhen orqaruc solids in fill, decomposition in is not available. surface contamination leaching of sludqe water must be above the filL Typical depths of the area are 0.2 rn over an area has completely Surface topography should into the solid land fill. finished to allow rainfall to drain

to ground water paneling deposit and 0.6 m

and not allow

to infiltrate

leachate lonq rnonitorinq must be established quickly on completed practice not to land for a number Land are not usually rocornmended points should be considered.

should satisfy to provide for completion.

pollution is

disposal of sludqe. In case

are adopted the

17.5.4 Disposal in Water or Sea

This is not a common method of disposal it is continqent on the availabiiitv of a Iarqe body of water adequate to permit At some studqe. raw diqesterl. may barged to sea far enough to available dilution dispersion method careful consideration of factors desiqn and siting of outfall to prevent any pollution 01 interference with naviqation.

CHAPTER 18

SLUDGE PUMPING
18.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Pumping is important in handling sludqe, because sludge produced in the differenem units ot a sewaqe-treament plant has to be moved from pomt to point. The selection of a pump depends upon the type of sludge to be handled, viz, whether the sludge is primary, secondary, return, elutriated or thickened and concentrated. The sludge may be watery, thick or occasionally scum, Sludge is more viscous than water. An important characteristic of the different types of sludges is the percentage content of the suspended solids, as summarised in Table 18,1, TABLE 18.1 SOLIDS IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF SLUDGES Type of Sludge Raw Primarv Sludge Secondary Sludge Raw Primary and Secondary Sludge Digested Sludge Chemical Sludge Alum and Ferric Sludqe Chern.cat Incinerator as slurries 18.2 SLUDGEPUMPING

% of Solids
4 to 8

1 to 5 3 to 8
6 to 10
4 to 12

2 to 6
1 to 30

5 to 20

Sludge pumping may be intermittent or continuous, depending upon the type and design of the waste-treatment processes and of the sludge, handling and treatment units, Pumpinq i) ii) iii) tor sludqe ansfer of reqUired followinq situations sedimentation tanks to thickeners and/or

sludqe from

for recirculation of secondary sludqe for transfer at excess sludqe from secondary bioloqical treatment units to thickeners and/or or to primary for carrvinq sludqe from for disposal of sludqe laqoons aeration system directly to drylnq beds on

iv) v)

296

297
18.3 SLUDGE PUMPS

Sludqe-purnps have to be resistant to abrasion as sludges quito often contain sand and qrit. The sludge-pumps should be slow speed machines to contain the rate of wear and Since a sludge-pump may have to run intermittently or continuous. a sludge-pump has to be dependable In respect of satisfactory trouble-free opertion, whether under the fatigue of the intermittent operation or with the endurance desired for long continuous operation. The type of pumps generally used for pumping sludges are: i) Centrifugal pumps Air Lift pumps Screw pumps Reciprocafing pumps of the plunger type or of diaphragm type

Ii)
iii) iv)

Table 18.2 shows the typical applications of pumps of these different types and the types of sludges handled by them. TABLE 18.2 TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF SLUDGE PUMPS Max. Suction Lift
(m)

Type of Pump

Solids generally handled

Typical applications

Centrifugal (a) non-clog

4.5

Primary settled sludge, secondary settled sludge, chemically treated sludge, incinerator slurries Sludqe recirculation Return sludge Return sludqe Primary settled sludqe, thickened sludge, digested sludge, incinerated sludge, heat conditioned sludqe, chomically treated sludge, slurries

(b) vortex flow Air Lift Screw Pump Positive displacement, plunger or diapharagm pump

4.5

6 6 6

0 0
65

10

There are specific considerations to be borne in mind in the use of the different types of pumps for handling sludge.

18,3,1

Centrifugal Pumps sludge must be of the non-cleo type, They should be of robust accessible for cleaning. Pumps of the macerator type strinqv rags and other fibrous preferable.

The centrituqal pumps construction and should with a cuttinq

When the specific of pump would low, non-clop desiqned with fewer number of blades In Impellers for clear In pumps of specific speed, the flow Impeller would wide passaqes centrlfuqal pumps With Impellers have less efficiency than those normal handlinq clear liquids. rating for the drive-motor has to be selected this The specific speed of overcome by selecting a submerged, purnp also suction 11ft capability of the pump, This can be centrituqal pump to be so installed the impeller would be adequately

18,3,2 Air-Lift Pumps

These are used in air bubbles the point A compressor or and in aeration plants to return the sludqe and scum to the aeration which makes air-water mixing less dense to get lifted supplies systems, wluch inherentlv of sludqe. their operation is However, there trouble-free,

to

no moving

path of the

18,3,3 Screw Pumps

Sludge enters the pump by a screw which moves solids to an open lifts them tn point of discharqe. submorqed lower bearinq IS of enclosed type, the upper bearinq IS usually qrease-Iubricared anti-friction be arinq.

sealed

A variation of screw pUlT1P is a progressive cavity pump. has a rubber stator or lining inside a cast iron body The pumpinq element is a rotor of steel Although has selt-prirninq capability, the rotor must run dry aqainst stanor. pump up or down depending upon direction of Reciproeating Plunger or Diaphragm Pumps Plunger pumps reciprocatinq In cylinder. A pump can have one or more plungers connnected to common obtaining arangements called Simplex duplex, triplex, Reciprocatinq pumps With capacities of the plunqer pump-speeds be between 40 to 50 order of 150 to 250 Iprn Reciprocating pumps are selt-prirninq and can usually work with suction-litts upto 3 m. The upon desiqn of the especially of the suction valve. suction-lift capabilitv The pumps can develop heads and where accumulation at grease in pipinq can cause the piping is to get cernpletely choked, pumps woulo develop very pressures aqamst choking and this valve is provided to protect the pump in case of a clogged can cause bursting. A delivery After the pump should be flushed, so that no solids settle In cylinder and would damaqe pump durinq next startinq.

The suction and the easily accessible for quick cle arunq. in case b)

source of trouble valves to

The valves should be

The diaphragm pumps have a flexible diaphragm. usually of rubber and actuated by a movement. The diaphrqarn is fastened to the casing, also houses the suction and The interestinq feature at the diaphraqm pumps is that the components of the reciprocating mechanism, which are the most wear-prone. isolated from path of Pneumatic hydraulic can also be employed for reciprocating movement.

OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS
a) Gas often suction. This hampers as as with the sludge. particularly tbe digested sludqe is subjected to proper at the The pumps should be mstalled, suction,

b)

If the suction improperly designed, vortex-cone hole in sludqe blanket will sludge or supernatant to pumped instead of sludge. The suction pipe should 110t too should tho pumpinq too 10l1g or too It is to pump more than reduced With a pump equipped with variable speeo drive. pump can started at a speed and the can reduced.
Sludqe two settlinq tanks should not be connected to the suction ot settling tank with the thinner sludge will pumped and the thickned sludqe in other tank will not pumped. Similar problem will if suction twu tanks have differential trictional lcsses. The tank loss in its suction piping, of more length or because of will not get pumped. capacity of sludqe pumps is to be regulated accordinq tn the sewage Further, speed more appropriate for regulating. because havinq valves in the system makes an inetticient trouble-prone

c)

18.5

REQUIREMENT OF STANDBY UNITS

the standbyes is determined by factors the the units, especially bye capacity of recorr.rnenoed. provided with the

The number of pumping units required like the particular function of combination of more than one function. A

plant

Since primary and secondary sludge pumping functions, standby pumps actual numbers or by such arranqement that duty is possible, Scum is primary sludqe anel

SLUDGE CONVEYING PIPING

After pumps, The design of the flow of tile sludges. the Table 22.2, reqardinq pipinq resistant. of pump, the next is to based on layout and The material is to desrqn to and from the rate of desired of the ot the pipinq may made to piping valves should be corrosion and abrasion

300 Sewage sludge flows like a thin plastic material and hence the formulae lor the flow of water are not applicable. The velocity of flow should be In the critical range above the upper limit of the laminar Ilow and below the lower limit of the turbulent flow. In order to clogging and deposition of grease, so that the application of the hydraulic formulae for flow of water become permissible. In general velocities between 1.5 to 2.5 mls are satisfactory. The frictional head losses In the sludge pipe can be estimated by applying the Hazen-William's formula, adopting the 'C' value between 40 to 50 depending upon the material to used; the lower value being adopted for high solid content of the sludqe. Pipes less than NS 200 should not be used for gravity withdrawal or for the suction lines to pumps. In order to take care of thin sludqe to Ilow by qravity for short distances within the treatment plant, a 3% or greater slope should be adopted. Suction discharqe should be arranqed In such a way that their lenqths are as short as possible. straiqht and with minimum bends. provisron should be to lacIiitate cleaninq. Large radius elbows and sweep usually adopted for chanqe In direction. HIOh points should as tar to qas pockets. and sleeves are usually provided for pipes passing as through Double-tlanqed pipes adopted for valves at selected locations to clean the lines. 18.7 PUMP APPURTENANCES

The performance of tho sludqe pumps can be more efficient and its assessment control can be better, various appurtenances, such as air chambers, devices, measuring devices, valves, gauges incorporated system and as revolution counters, gland seals, clocks, etc., are kept available at the plant. 18,7.1 Air Chamber

Air of is for all plunger type sludge pumps on discharge side of the pump. It may also on tbe suction side of the pumps. particularly where positive suction head exists. Such cbambers absorb tbe shock of plunqer pump pulsations. 18.7.2 Revolution Counter sludqe purnps should equipped with revolution counters or intergrating recorders to help the operator to the quantity of sludqe pumped. In duplicate pump installations these in equalising the service and of each pump. 18.7.3 Gland Seals the case of centrifugal pumps, sealinq is provided in the stuttinq box, to ensure against the inqross of into pump. sealing be a seal or water seal. The water seals are preferable, as it also helps to be washed The water to the water seal has to potable water. However. connection of potable water sould not be taken directly from supply lines. 18,7.4 Valves When a dry pit purnp has positive suction usually a qate-valve. on the to in tbe wet well. there should be a isotatinq valve, isolatinq tor maintenance,

301
On the delivery side of centritugal pumps, a non-return valve is necessary, so that the pump would not experience the back-pressure trom the delivery head, when the pump is to be shut To minimise the pressure-drop across the valve. during the normal running of the pump, the non-return valve should be of the swing-check type or of the ball-check type, To avoid which is likely to be caused by the closure of the valve, the valve may be provided with an slam device, either of the lever and dead-weight type or of the spring-loading type or of the dash pot type, Dual valves are sometimes which gives more consistent operation and facilitates the use of the pump as metering device, All the valves may be provided with drain plugs, permutation of In larger size plants, where pumps may be run in parallel operation WIth the standbyes, isolation valves would be needed ot isolate those pumps, which are to be idle, Mostly the isolating valves are gate valves, All gate valves should perferably be of the rising stem type, since they offer the advantage of visual indication of the For exterior underground locations, gate valves are generally Underground sludge valves should be avoided as far as possible, by taking advantages of the hydrostatic pressure for withdrawal of sludge a slant pipe and valve arrangement. Gauges Pressure gauges shall be provided on both the suction and For pumps having suction lift, the gauge on the suction side should be a composite vaccurn-cum-pressure gauge, The qauqes should be with a cast iron bowl and an oil-resistant rubber diaphragm, which would keep the sludge away from the finer working parts of the gauges, 18.7.6 Sampling Devices All sludge pumps are provided with sampling cocks, either within themselves or in the piping adjacent to the pump, These are usually plug valves, normally of size NS Plug valves are simple and easy to operate tor taking the samples, 18.7,7 Washouts and Drains Washout or flushing arrangements are provided for sludge pumps to facilitate easy and rapid cleansing, The drains on the pump body should be of ample size to ensure release of pressure and drainage of the liquid, The outlet of the drain should be connected to an adjacent floor drain to keep the floor clean, Time clocks Time clocks, wired across magnetic starters Or motor leads at sludge pumps can be valuable help to the operators, They help to keep an accurate record of the hours of run of the pump for observing the preventive maintenance schedules respect of attending to the lubrication, equalisation of wear and tear, etc, 18.7.9 Measuring Devices While time clocks and counters are adequate for small plants, supplementary flow-metering arrangements, such as flow tubes with flushing provisions are used in larqe plants tor measuring and recording the quantities of sludge handled, Magnetic meters are more suitable lor sludgo metering,

302 18.8 PUMP DRIVE EQUIPMENT

The prime movers for the pumps are usually the electric motors, which are discussed in detail in 9,8, It is desirable to use flame proof motors, I.C, Engines may be used for standbye services in the case of failure of electric power, Again, the I.C, Engines are better used as prime mover for a standbye generator than as a prime-mover for the pumps, because the standbye generator can then provide the power for lighting and ventilation facilities, Gas enginees using sludge gas as fuel, would help not only as the standbye power supply facility but also as an effective method of energy-conservation in the operation of the plants,

CHAPTER 19
TERTIARY TREATMENT OF SEWAGE FOR REUSE
19.1 GENERAL

Tertiary treatment is supplementary to primary and secondary treatment for the purpose of removing fhe residual organic and inorganic substances and in some cases even the refractory and dissolved substances to the degree necessary. Tertiary Treatment of sewage is increasingly being adopted in India. Some of the purposes for which it can be considered are industrial reuse of the reclaimed in cooling systems, boiler feed, process water etc.

reuse in agriculture, horticulture, pisciculture, watering of lawns, golf-courses and such purposes. Ground water recharge for augmenting ground water resources for downstream users or for preventing water intrusion in coastal areas.

As more such applications are likely to be made in the future, this subject has been included in the manual for general guidance, 19.2 BASIC APPROACH

When water is used once by a various organic and inorganic substances are added to those already contained in the fresh municipal water supply, The concentration of additional constituents can be estimated from the extent of water supplied in Ipcd and the likely contribution of each constituent some of which are given in Table 19,1 in grams/person/day, In this manner, the composition of raw sewage expected from one-time use or water by a community can be computed,

During primary and secondary treatment of sewage many constituents, though not al" under go reduction in concentration, Some dissolved and refractory (non-degradable) substances, are however, not reduced at ali. Tertiary treatment provides only the additional treatment necessary to meet the desired end use. Thus, tertiary treatment is quite use-specific and involve only one item like simple chlorination of treated sewage or several items as in the case of high pressure boiler feed water. It is, therefore, very important that clear-cut specifications of the reusable water are first obtained, Inspite of a high degree of treatment achieved in all cases, water is reclaimed only for non- potable uses, In fact, the actual quality may be comparable to that of drinking water but any attempt to supply potable directly would only meet with psychologIcal resistance from the public and might even present some problems since the full public health significance of direct reuse over a long period of time is not yet known, Indirect use of reclaimed water for potable uses through ground water recharge is no doubt, feasible as the applied water loses its identity in underground travel and, in benefits from natural purification in downstream flow through soil. Indirect reuse systems based on treated sewage have not yet been implemented in India rn any planned manner.

303

304

TABLE 19.1 DOMESTIC WASTE WATER CHARACTERISTICS

Item

of Values contributed in wastes (gpcd)

4554
COD (dichromate) Total Organic Carbon Total Solids Suspended Solids Grit 0.2 mm and 1.6 to 1.9 x BOD, 0.5 to 1.0 (Soluble)

170 - 220 70

145

5 - 15
20 - 30
4-8

Alkalinity, as CaCO, Chlorides Nitrogen, total, as N Organic Nitrogen Ammonia Nitrogen Nitrogen Phosphorus, as P

6 - 12
0.4 x Total N 0.6 to Total N absent absent

0.8 - 4.0
0.3 x Total P 0.7 x Total P 20 - 6.0

Organic phosphorus (ortho and Polyphosphates]

Potassium, as

19.3

TERTIARY TREATMENT METHOD'S Tertiary treatment methods below: Disintection Oxidation Chemical dosing for water quality correction Chemically aided settling Filtration Softening mostly physico-chemical in nature. some examples of which are

305
Activated carbon Anion/Cation exchanqe Reverse Osmosis. A tertiary treatment plant, typical industrial Table
using

qenerallv. looks like a sewage treatment plant followed by a

qives
of

removal of

that

be

In

treatment

TABLE 19.2 PROGRESSIVE REMOVAL OF IMPURITIES IN SEWAGE TREATMENT

'.

Process

Removal based on raw waste

I
I
1
-r-,

I
Conventrona' Sewaqe

B.o.D.

Phosphates

Nitrogen

Suspended

Co

mrs

50

95

99

2 absorption on acnveted

99

99

99_9

3
dem.nereuzatioe or Reverse Osmosis
removed

100

by
oermnerf zction
Benzene .tpbcnete

19.4

DESIGN CRITERIA
designing tertiary treatment system for any purpose the crux of the problem in determining treatment units be required. what to the quality. of unit is known from experience. The of a unit In as concentration, fluctuation, etc.) which it can function well known, and requrred flow overall of desiqn criteria to be used for each already qiven 111 the other chapters of tnis Manual earlier critical aspect is to determine the on reuse planned,

Wl13t

mus be

the IS deterrnined. the step in are sarne the Manual on water supply and As tolerable 'evel of the fln31

CPHEEO/ND/94

306
Some considerations selecting below. agricultural purposes are REUSE FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES Rouse for industrial purposes generally includes make up water required for cooling towers for raising steam or hot water for selected processes and unit operations in industry, treatment methods for and

The wastewater to be reclaimed for industrial reuse may

from one or more of the following

sources:
sewage tram toilet blocks and washing places within factory campus and from housing colony areas municipal sewage from public sewers serving the city area i.e. sewage from ott-site sources wastewaters selected processes and operations within the factory,

is important to select wastewater which are readily treatable In choosing the source of which do not contain difficult industrial wastes in especially (e.q. sewage from domestic sources) the difficult-to-remove dyes. heavy metals, refractory chemicals. etc. Treatmenf as such is possible even wastewaters are by such substances, but the costs on quality control instrumentation may if provo ciiscouraging A few industrial reuse examples are give below. 19.5.1. As Cooling Water Reuse as cooling water is one of the most common industrial applications of reclaimed sewage water. Typical guidelines for cooling water quality are given in Table 19.3 and rnay be used where specific not given, requirements quantity of water required for reuse rn a cooling system, where an To determine the quality open recirculating system is for air conditioning cooling water, fhe amount of water to kept recirculating in the system is approximately 11 Ipm for every ton of refrigeration capacity when the temperature drop is 5 degrees C. in the cooling tower. For such a situation, water lost in evaporation (E) is about '1 % of the recirculating water. Windage loss (W) is of the order of 0.1 to 0.3% of recirculafing water when mechanical draft towers are used. but increases to 0.3 to 1.0% for atmospheric towers. Blowdown requirement (8) is estimated from the following equation if the rnaxirnum permissible cycles of concentration (C) known

C-1

307
Where B, E and Ware all in rpm trouble free operation ot qualitvchemicals the recirculating kept 2,0 to and, in no case. more than 4.0 in cooling water, the cycles of towers where reclaimed water is used (Table Hence, tor a too-ron air-conditioning plant 00 liters/min of water with a temperature drop of, say 10 degrees C through a mechanical recirculating draft tower where cycles of are to be to 2.0

E
W =

2%

x 1100 x f 100
2)

22 rpm.

22 + 2.2(1

B =
(2

= 20 rpm (approx.)

The total make-up water requirement thus equals 44.2 lprn ( = 22 + 24 hr. working of a too-ton

+ 20) or 63.4

for

19,3 COOLING WATER QUALITY GUIDELINES

CONDITiON In water 70 0.6 in reciculatinq in 8 hours)

RECOMMENDED VALUE

TDS value permisiote on 8

venxtron averaqe)
3000

of

20

1000

son
Oil &

6.0

800

day, 20 (GI)

C)
175 mg/I No appreciable

Arnmcnn

7
8

Ceustrc

Atkalinuy

200

tn

9
Sulpbates
Alkyl

150 Not to

limit In
to tban 1 or recirculating water
0,1 10

Sutponate
viqorovs

12.

Langelier exchanqe Ryzner

temperature of

6,0 to

308
permissible.
to 47.7 tor 100

total

of make-up water

consutuents {e.q in make up water It concentr ation of various make up water values in column of Table the correspondinq concentration be estimated. For example. if Cl are 60 mg/l in the make-up they to 180 mg/l in the recirculatinq However, the pH recirculating cannot in assumption frequently made that of absence pH of tho coolinq between and due to cfirnination of carbcn for lower or pH concentrations and total In of th system. one can determine Rvzncr lridex tendencv of the water to Assuminq cleposition of scale. reduction In and in o! nothinq to In tota: not much on In water by-passed hard a and means cf blendinq ensures a certain amount of aqains t corrcsron of ferrous exchanqor surtaces. The tunctioninq on that calcrurn maqnesiurn and the system. Calcuim c.ucium IS kept within

When are

of concenuatmn

if tor pr eventinq scaunq In tius which is usetul to (usinq depends tor much obtarninq in
the

hrrut
not
In

clear water
vanations

stor aqe

to mruntian pl-l. total quantities balanced out.

of etc., do not

pumped cootinq much trom hour to hOU1.

ot

Prechlorination is torm of of

enters
{O contt

coaqulauon

IS rnainly tor.n 01

A
wastewater

tlowsheet
I

tit

t()1

vvate:

to

and

adoit I of

CI

AL U M

-t

! I
C1 BYE-PASS
ACID RETURN

<,

rY
LAER

\
YClF I 0

r:':":
I

I
.

WINDAGE

-r
__

'<,

ij
SLUDGE' Sl

SLOWDOWN

FIG.19.1:FLOWSHEET

FOR

OF MUNICIPAL WASTE WATER

REUSE

AS

MAKE

UP WATER

19.4 THE RANGE OF GHANGE IN WATER QUALITY AS FRESH WATER BECOMES WASTEWATER AND IS GRADUALLY RENOVATED FOR REUSE (ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE)

at different treatment steps Fresh Muo'cipc!

Raw

extend-

eo
and from the

Water

After coaqulstion and

I I

After

After demineratiza

lion

chlorination

(A)

(B)

(F)

pH Total Hardness (mgil as

76-78 3540

7.157.65
160

8.75 120 160 120 170

Nil

CaC03)
(mgll as

125

200

110-180 (b) 60 120 60 - 130 15 0.2 05

110-180

50

Chlorides mg/liter as CI
Sulfates as

1520 1 5-25

60 10 20

60-130
15 25

Nil.

10 3 5

Nil

Phosphates mg/\ as

6 16 0.1

I
13 19 10 20 320 480 5.0

as Silica mg/J
Total

1.020 8 24 90

3.0

13 19 24 300 1530 10
300

19

24
500- 600

20

Suspended solids mg!! Turbidity, days 20 deg C mg/l

10 01
1.5

Turbid 200 250 350

1020 10 16 40

2.0-3.0 20 4

2.03.0

COD, mg/!
Bacteriological quality per coliform Specific

10, 2.0

Nil

I
.

UrrSafe

Unsafe

10 Microbes

a)

Softened water is blended with unsoftened municipal water.

to give a flnal hardness of 40 mg/l as in fresh

b)

Alkalinity is reduced by acid treatment just prior to use in cooling towers. This increases sulfate content some what since is used.

19.5.2 As Boiler Feed Water

Reuse as boiler feed water require additional treatment over that required for cooling purposes. As boiler feed, the quality of water depends on the boiler pi essures at which steam is to be raised. The higher the boiler pressure, the purer the water required.

311
Table 19.5 gives an indication of the water quatity required for low and medium pressure boilers. For low pressure boilers, quality of water required more or less similar to that for in cooling purposes. For hign pressure systems, the treatment required can quite substantial as can be seen from the water requirements given in Table 19.6. A typical flowsheet given in fig 192 includes tertiary treatment in the form of chlorination, chemically sedimentation. sand filtration. sodium zeolite softeninq followed by cation exchange on hydrogen cycie. deqassification and weak base anion to qive practically complete demineralization. TABLE 19.5 CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS OF FEED WATER AND BOILER WATER FOR lOW AND MEDIUM PRESSURE BOILERS

.
(Ief

c! rest Cl,

I
s

,
d}

(as CaCOJ )
bl

hardness (01 mrereo max

-t

ABl

cecc.;
verce
{as

zoo
'
tc

to

t t

I
tete!

e
0,1

to

added}

tc

;:10

a) b)

Methods of Test for routine control for water used in Industry Methods of sam piing and test (Physical and Chemical) for water in Industry

C02

OE GASSIFY TREATED WASTEWATER CYCLE CATION WEAK ANION OH BA

TO PRESSURE BOILERfEEO

FIG.19.2:FlOWSHEET AS

FOR

REUSE

OF BOllER

WASTE WATER FEED

HI GH PRESSURE

313 TABLE 19.6 REQUIREMENTS FOR FEED WATER, BOILER WATER AND CONDENSATE FOR WATER TUBE BOILERS (DRUM TYPE)

u.

n-ee
n

I
-'

6
1

oa

rc,

a)

Methods

test for routine control for

used in Industry,

Methods

s arnplinq

ano chemical)

used

Industry.

19.5.3 As Process Water

In order to treament to rrunimumtor reuse as those must tresh of quality reclaimed water of low in quafity to used tor done by having supply withn This standards tor tor water. from those processes which cooling or low the are noted

with borlers)

water IS 201 1964 Quality pulp and IS 2724 1964 Oualitv tolerances tor water tor to! manufacture. IS 3957 : 1966 for to! food Industry is 4251 1967 Ouautv tor water tor Fermentation IS 4700

It may be noted that high quality given in the water of operations

in

Standards quality

industry do not wator always several processes arid

OTH

<>;
ZATION UNIT

<,., - :
CHLORINE CHEMI c- HOUSECAL

<:
-c-

<

RISING
-e-,

I I
.

FLOCCULATOR CLARIFIER

__ BLOWERS
TC

WASTE S U E

stu os s

<uo

FI G .rsauu.u STRATI VE WAST E WAT ER OTHER USES

FlOWSHEET FOR REUSE

FOR

TREATMENT OF IN COOLING

MUNICIPAL BOILER FEED AND

315 19.6 REUSE FOR AGRICULTURAL

For general agricultural uses of water. may thouqn is advisable to an experienced agronornist on actual water quality requirements, in case of Iarqe Iarrns. !f the water secondary treatment does meet agricultural use requirements, additional treatment to provided

Tertiary treatment is mainly needed for meeting coliform and helminth standards which not treatment coliforrns are readilv chlorination. heimmths Helminth removal can be economically done the case of relatively farms by of oxidation ponds (maturation ponds) of short detontion time ot 6-7 days only atter regular primary and seondary treatment units (Fig 19.4a). The land requirement of such ponds found within relatively large Irrigation commanri

by not

For farms for lawns and small land space by using pressure filters Chlorination is for coliform removal. Filteration is also proposed to used.
'19.7

can be achieved rather than oxidation ponds (Fig 19.4b). where drip irrigation systems are

REUSE BY GROUND WATER RECHARGE

A certain amount of unintentional (incidental) ground water recharge occurs during regular land irrigation with fresh water treated sewage. But intentional recharge at precolation rates in soils of porosity and qeoloqical terrain been limited in India by fresh waters only though treated sewage effluents can also be used. The availibility of suitable sandy, loamy, or gravelly soils with good infiltrtion characteristics is essential A of shallow recharge basins are provided in basin may be a long rectangle. a hundred meters long dosed with wastewater (pre-treated as necessary) to a depth of about 20-30 ems once or more per day. and operated on an intermittent schedule of a few days wet followed by a few days dry. Direct recharge systems in permeable soils used in some countries are at the high-rate type and epptication rates at 1000-3000 cu.rn/ha/day have been used With pretreated sewage compared to regula, land irngation rates of only cu.m/ha/day. Ground water recharges systems must be differentiated from "deep well" injection systems in which the is wastewater disposal to a deep aquifer of poor quality (e.g. brackish aquifer) with no possibility for use. The physical. chemical and biologicat quality of the wastewater has to be compatible with the characteristics of the soil and aquifer into which recharge occurs. Suspended solids, algae, precipitated SUbstances, can affect infiltration rates over a period of time, and the quality the reclaimed water Hence some pre-treatment of wastewater before recharge required. The pollution of ground water by nitrates contained in sewage can be controlled by intermittent operation of the recharge basins. Experiments in USA shown that a sequence of long inundation periods (14 days wet, 7 days dry) yielded about 90% removal of nitrogen whereas with short sequences (2 days wet, 3 days dry) the nitrogen in was converted to nitrates in the percolated water. Longer wet periods with consequent anaerobicity encouraged denitrification. During dry periods. the soil gets aerated and aerobic degradation of organic matter held in the upper iayers of the soil occurs.

MUNICIPAL SEWAGE SECONOARY TREATMENT MATURATION OR OXIOATION PONe OAYS OETENTION 3 CELLS IN SERIES)

-/ PRIMARY TREATMENT

TERTIARY
Cl

TREATMENT FOR LAND

RAW PRIMARY TREATMENT SE CONOARY TREATMENT

I
PRESSURE FILTER CONT TANK

SERVING

TREATMENT FOR SMALL IRRIGATION SYSTEMS GARDENS, ORCHARDS, ETC.

317
Most capable of wastewater. Heavy metals are phosphorus in

remover! well

soils A remarkably of

Table 19.7 gives observed efficiency of Rapid Infiltration ponds removal of most consitituents is

TABLE 19,7 EFFECTIVENESS OF LAND DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES

Item

Approximate Efficiency of Removal (%) Rapid Infiltration Ponds

BOD
Suspended Solids

99 99 80
90

P
Heavy Metals Orqanic cornpounds

95

90

Bacteria

99+

Cations Total Anions on wet Tbe land no

.trav.n up
l:

75 50
of

o
Indian
water

the optimum

dry peuon

not available must

into account surtaco croris qround water up to Into

the also qround water

oj tt:

to make it

dowrislrenm In

10
purposes

CHAPTER 20

EFFLUENT DISPOSAL AND UTILlSAT!ON

GENERAL The sewage be discharged receiving waters such as lakes, streams. rivers, estuaries, or The nature and of given to sewaqc dependent upon the requirernents imposed by regulatory authorities is the large portion along with small residual organics after treatment has to be disposed of while the major portion of the organics is handled within treatment plant itself. water content of sewage effiuent along tertility of nutrients serves to it useful for irrigation and pisciculture; effluent is also put to industrial uses water of quality is not Important for artificial recharging aquifers in areas of rapid depletion 01 underground water sources. Competing land uses, public health impact. energy requirement, aesthetics and bioiogical effects decide mode disposal whether on land

or in water. The multidisciplinmy approach

encountered in the selection process

complex and

20.2

DISPOSAL INTO WATER BODIES

Treated effluent conforming to prescribed standards may be disposed into a stream course 01 Into sea or a stagnant body of water. The quality, quantity and use of the receiving water body into which the effluent is discharged decide degree of treatment required the sewaqe. Since treated waste water may still have a colitorrn density, drsintection or any other treatment methods may be considered for reducing colitorrn density before disposal of into the water body.

20.2.1

Disposal into River

Disposal of wastewater in a river causes organic, chemical and microbial pollution. Organic pollution not only the oxyqen content in the river resulting kill also leads to heavy alqal qrowth downstream, The waste assimilatinq capacity of the river deper.ds on its self-purification properties. the estimation of is very important protect and promote various beneticial uses to river water put The wastewater discharge into is to be requtated in such a manner that it does not exceed its waste and options respect include wastwater treatment, wastewater reduction. alternate waste disposal points and and Increase ot the quantity of available dilution water, possible. Disposal into Estuaries Estuaries behave quite differentiy with respect to pollution dispersion and they generally less assimilative capacity compared to nvers or streams. As in of the rivers DO is the most important parameter that govems presence of tish and other aquatic forms of life in estuary. The fate and distribution ot pollution discharqes to an estuary depend on the nature of pollutant. type of estuary, well mixed or stratified, location of discharqe point. relative volumes of fresh. saline and wastewater and the mixing characteristics. Disposal into Ocean The capacity of sea to absorb wastewater IS less compared to freshwater systems because of and hiqh dissolved solids content, even though water availability for dilution is high. specific qravity of sea water is qre ater and temperature lower than that of wastewater, the lighter

its low Since

318

319
and warmer wastewater will rise \0 the surface when discharqed into the sea resulting in the spreading of film or sleek, In view of the special characteristics of the manne echo system, the wastewater as a the outfall should be carefully located taking into account sea currents, wind direction, wind velocity, tidal cycles etc, To prevent backing up and spreading of wastewater on the sea shore, it is desireabie to dispose of wastewater only during low tides, To ensure effective mixing, the wastewater should be taken to a distance of about 11/2 Km into the sea from the shoreline and discharged in deep sea at a point 3 to 5 m below water level. It should be properly supported by piers placed on firm rocky foundation to protect from external forces, including corrosion and erosion and must be provided with flap gates to prevent tidal waters entering the outfall causing backtlow

20,2.4 Basic Information

The Basic information to be collected for planning effluent outfall works should consist of i)
ii)

Studies on the quantity and the characteristics of the treated effluent including its toxicity hydrographic surveys and examination of available hydraulic and hydrographic records including: a) run all records and characteristics of flow both at and below dunng the le an fiow periods in the case of streams point of disposal

b)

observations on currents and effects of winds and temperature stratification upon the dispersion of the sewage, in the case of lakes, and tides, the effect of winds, salinity and temperature stratification upon the movement the sewage, in the of tidal estuaries.

c)

iii)

Studies of possible locations for and forms of sewer outfall in its relation to hydrographic conditions particulariy in the case of lakes and ocean outfall, and Studies of the various uses of the water receiving the sewage effluent, giving due protection of water supplies, safeguarding of the bathing and other consideration to recreational tacilities. conservation and protection of useful aquatic life, the avoidance at conditions created by sewaqe solids on or in the waters or along unsightly or of the resulting encroachment the shores, the prevention of sludge bank formation on water ways and prevention of pollution of water bodies.

iv)

iimited, there is no When points of etlluent discharge are well arranged and effluent quantities serious threat to ground water quality, However, in many unsewered residential areas, particularly suburban developments, domestic wastes are disposed of through closely spaced individual sewage wells, Adequate precautions should be taken to ensure disposal units sometimes interspersed that the water sources are not contaminated by tire improper location of cesspools, septic tanks subsurface dispersion systems, Some of the synthetic detergents are not usually removed by passage through the soil mantle.

20,3

RECLAMATION OF TREATED EFFLUENT

Complete reclamation of sewaqs effiuent is not generally adopted, this being only supplementary to other methods of disposal. Reclamation is restricted to meet the needs depending upon the avaiiablility and cost of fresh water, transportation and treatment costs and the water quality standards and its end uses watering of lawns and grass lands, cooling, boiler-feed and process water; torminq artificial lakes;

320
wetting of need tertiary 20.4 tor compacuon and compostlng raising as Chapter 19, crops. Some at these uses may

PISCICULTURE

If local conditions are suitable, partially purified sewage effluent may be used for tish cultrue without further dilution, Raw sewage cannot directly be used for fish cultrue as it does not contain sufficient dissolved oxygen for tile survival and growth of fish, The waste stabilisation pond effluent and the sewaqe farms successfully used in fish percolated 20,5 ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE OF AQUIFERS

Artificial recharge of qround aquifers IS of methods tor combining effluent disposal with water reuse, Replenishment of sources been done on a practical scale. Treated effluent used to water intrusion which may take due to the of ground water by purnpinq to meet demands. In the present day when conservation, reuse of are mcreasmq emphasis, sewaqe constitutes valuable reclamation source for qround 20.6 20.6,1 DISPOSAL ON LAND

Sewage Farming

nutrients in sewaqe phosphorus and potassium atonq with micronutrients as matter it cound ernploveo sewaqe tarrninq to add to the and cha.actenstics 01 alonq irnqation of the water However, raw eewaqe ruqht sullaqe trauqnt with public dangers, Even of to land out With precautions it is not completely farm should be fun on with with tree from this risk. A objective of of with its to possible in without soil. water courses Of contarnmatinq raised on sewaqe tarrn, or impauinq of the should also provide tor of the staft to protect them aqainst orqarusms and helminths. Thouqn after prirnarv treatrnent prima.v rroatmeut trorn propertv no conditions. apphcauou ot sewaqA modorutctv
IS
In

to tarms treatment ponds IS tarms shouto 5

ternptauon of providinq consider ations should be on land.

rnosl sor:s

tOI

provtdeo

or rnore on manaqement

20,7

WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR IRRIGATION WATERS of wuu.r tor

on const.tucnts

on upon the

osmotic metabolic and

01
the(tOXIC

qrowtn du ect chemical throuqh changes

321 The suitability of an irrigant is Judged on the basis of soil properties, quality of irrigation water and salt tolerance behaviour of the crop grown in a particular climate. The water quality ratings along with the specific soil conditions recommended for the counlry are shown in Table 20.1. These limits apply to the situations where the ground water table at no time of the year is within 1,5 m from the surface, The values have to be reduced by half if the water table comes up to the root zone, If the soils have impeded internal drainage either on account of presence of hard stratum, unusually high amounts of clay or other morphologic reasons, advisedly the limit of water quality should again be reduced to half. In cases where canal irrigation exists during the lean period, treated wastewater of higher eJectrical conductivity could be used.

20.7.1 Osmotic Effects

When water is applied for cultivation on land, some of it may run off as surface flow or be lost by direct surface evaporation, while the remainder into the soil.

TABLE 20.1 WATER QUALITY RATINGS Nature of Soil Crop to be grown Permissible limit of Electrical Conductivity of Water for safe irrigation (micro-mhos/em)
1500

black soils and alluvial soils having a clay content more than 30%. Fairly to moderately well drained soils Heavy textured soils having a clay content at 2030% Soils well drained internally and having good surface drainage system Medium textured soils having a clay content of 10 20% Soils very well drained internally and having good surface drainage system Light textured soils having a clay content of less than 10% Soils having excellent internal and surface drainage

Semi-Tolerant

Tolerant

2000 2000 4000

Semi- Tolerant
Tolerant

Serni- Tolerant

4000

Tolerant

6000 6000

Semi-Tolerant

Tolerant

8000

Of the infiltration water, a part be used consumptively. and part is held by the soil for subsequent evapotranspiration and the remaining surplus percolates or moves internally through the soil. The water retained in the soil is known as the 'soil solution' and tends to become more concentrated with dissolved constituents as plants take relatively purer water. An excessive concentration of salts in the soil solution prevents water uptake by plants. Table 20.1 permissible levels of electrical conductivity (EG) and hence total salts in water tor safe irrigation in the four types of soils. It may be pointed out good

CPHEEOIND/94

322
drainaqe of the soils may be a of soils results 20.7.2 Toxic Effects Individual ions in irrigatiorr water may have toxic effects on plant growth. Table 20.2 lists some of the toxic elements and their permissible concentration in irrigation waters when continuously applied on all soils and also when used on line texture soils tor short terms. Many of these are also essential for plant growth. The sugqestod values for major inorganic constituents in water applied to land are presented in Table 20,3. 20.4 presents the sugqested limits tor salinity in irrigation waters, TABLE 20.2 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE CONCENTRATION OF TOXIC ELEMENTS IN IRRIGATION WATERS
Permis sjb!e concentration Element

important factor for crop than the EC at the irriqant as leachinq low level salt in soil solution in the root

For
on all
AI

continuously

For

term of texture scue

200

o so
B Cadmium Cd

10

Copper Ftcunne
F

50

Pb

so

20

Ni

20
005 20

323
TABLE 20.3 SUGGESTED VALUES FOR MAJOR INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS IN WATER APPLIED TO THE LAND
on
No probiem

.
Severe

Conductivity of water millimbos/cm

075

Conductivity or Irrigation miltimhosfcm

SAR
Toxicity
from root

aosorcuon
<

Sodium by SAR)

900

- 10,00 142.00
Boron
foliar

1000

0.50

200

Sodium. me/l

a 00
6900 6900

men
Chloride.

10600 10600

-3000

NH,

3000

lor sensmve

a.so
overhead

I
52000

pH

Interpretations are oaseo on possroie enects 01 constituents on crops ano/or SOliS. Suggested values are flexible and should be modified when warranted by local experience or special conditions of crop, soil and method of irrigation. SAR Sodium Absorption Ratio.

324
TABLE SUGGESTED LIMITS FOR SALINITY IN IRRIGATION WATERS

Crop Response No detrimental effects will usually be noticed. Can have detrimental effects on
May have adverse ettects on many crops.

dissolved solids mg/l

Electrical conductivity mhos/ern

500
--

0.75 0.75

500 1000 2000

1000 2000 5000

Can be used for salt tolerant plants on soils with careful manaqernent practices.

20.7.3 Impairment of Soil Quality

SODIUM HAZARD

In most normal soils, and magnesium are the principal cations held by the in replaceable or exchangeable Sodium to calcium and magnesium when continuously applied through irrigation waters. An increase of exchangeable sodium in the soil causes deflocculation of soil particles and promotes compaction. thereby impairing soil porosity and water and air relations of plants. The sodium hazard of irrigation water is commonly expressed either in terms of percent soluble sodium (PSS) or sodium absorption ratio (SAR) where

PSS

100xNa' Na

or

100xNa' (

and

325

(21.2)

2
and the cations are expressed as meqll. Generally the sodium hazard of soil increases with the increase of PSS or SAR of irrigation water and exchangeable sodium percentage of the soil. The maximum permissible value of PSS in irrigation water is 60. Where waters with higher PSS values are used. gypsum should be added to the soil occasionally for soil amendment. SAR values greater than 9 may adversely affect the permeability of soils. Hazardous effect of sodium is also increased if the water contains bicarbonate and carbonate ions in excess of the calcium and magnesium and there is a tendency for calcium and magnesium to precipitate as carbonates from the soil solution and thereby increasing the relative proportion of exchangeable sodium. less than 1,25 mgll are considered safe and above 2.5 Values of residual sodium carbonate as unsuitable.

* RSC

) - (Ca"

where all ion concentrations are expressed as meq/litre. The effect of potassium on soil is similar to that of sodium but since the concentration of potassium is generally quite small in irrigation waters, it is often omitted from consideration. 20.7.3,2
ORGANIC SOLIDS

While stable organic matter improves porosity of soil, thereby facilitating aeration, an excessive application of unstable organic matter would lead to oxygen depletion in the soil. Depositing of sediments especially when they consist primarily of clays or colloidal material may cause crust formations which impede emergence of seedlings, In additon, these crusts reduce infiltration with the consequent reduction of irrigation efficiency and less leaching of saline soils, 20.7.4 Other Considerations Soils are usually well buffered systems. The pH is not significantly affected by application of irrigation water. However, extreme values below 5.5 and above 9,0 will cause soil deterioration. in soils promotes dissolution of elements such as iron, aluminium or Development of low pH manganese in concentrations large enough to be toxic 10 plant growth. Similarly, water having high pH values may contain high concentration of sodium, carbonates and bicarbonates, the effect of which have been discussed earlier. Chlorides and sulphates are toxic to most crops in high concentrations. Ordinarily, the detrimental effects of salinity on crop growth become perceptible first. Excessively high or low temperature in irrigation water may affect crop growth and yields. A desirable range of water temperature is from 12 to 30C.

326 20,8 DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT OF SEWAGE FARMS

Optimum utilisation of sewage in agriculture means the complete and judicious use of its three in such a way that (a) the main components. viz water, plant nutrients and organic matter on the pathogenic infection is neither spread among the farm workers nor among the consumer of sewage farm products, (h) the ground water is not contaminated, (c) there is maximum ouHurn per unit volume of sewage (d) there is no deterioration of the soil properties and (e) none of the three components IS wasted. 20.8,1 Management of Water in Sewage Farming The principle to be borne in mind in Irrigation management is to irrigate only when it is required and only to the extent it is required by the crop. The water requirement depends on the soil type, the crop soil types to be wetted to a depth of 30 ems required and the olimate. The water requirement (em) of by most of the crops is given in Table 205. TABLE 20.5 WATER REQUIREMENTS (em) TO WET DIFFERENT SOILS TO A DEPTH OF 30 CM. Type of Soil
Sand

Requirement 1.25

Sandy Loam

2.50 500
625

Loam
Clay Loam

Water requrrement oj crops vary With the duration at therr season and the amount of growth in unit time. Details for some of the Indian crops which can be grown on sewaqe farms are given in Table 20.6. TABLE 20,6 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS
Pertod pH

range
Scyacean
375Q

s
110

"7 5

varieties

so

327

20,8,1,1

HYDRAULIC LOADING

The elements to be considered In deterrnininq hydraulic loadinq are quantity of ettluont to applied, precipitation, evapotranspiration, percolation and run For irnqation systems, the amount ot should equal the evapotranspiraton plus of In most effluent applied plus cases, runoff from fields irriqated with sewage effluent Is not allowed or be controlled, The water balance then will Precipitation
+ Wastewater

Evapotranspiration + percolation

Seasonal variations balance for each month as

each of these values should be taken into account by evaluating the water as the annual balance,

The irrigation requirement of any crop is not uniforrn throughout growing penod. with the stage of growth. For example grain crops maximum irnqation during the ear-head and from about the sixth or the month grain formation. Sugarcane requires more frequent onwards, In case of fruit trees irriqation to be stopped durinq the" If theuriqation Is not given at critical qrowth stages of the crop. It results in lower yields. Water of crop at different stages of car. (gravimetrically) or Indirectly by use of Tensiometer, or lrrorneters UI Gypsum blocks. Normally, when there moisture in the irrigation is recommended. The crop plants is about 50% depletion of look out tor such first symptoms themselves show signs of moisture stress, One has to be always on to determine the need for irrigation. Some plants sunflower serve as good indicators of stress use of water by crop plant symptoms. Sunken screen pan evaporimeter could atso be used for and scheduling irtiqation. The extent of irrigation depends on the depth of to given of water required to the required depth. If tensiometers or Gypsum blocks at the required to wet the IS saturated. Neally about 70 to 80% depths, they would Indicate the stage when the ern. of deeper to 30 roots of most crops are found in the first Normally, in irrigating medium of soil it is wetted to about 30 ern. depth a little more.
If the figures for tor crop mentioned in Table 20.6 to satisfied, much hiqher hydraulic loadings have to be applied since a portion of passage Ihrough the carried away by the underdrainage system, The extent of desirable percolation depends upon the of the irriqant. The applicable hydraulic loadings of settled sewaqe therefore dependent upon the type of and the recommended rates are qiven In Table

Sewage conforming to the norms should be Wild flooding should not be adopted,

to could

by strip, orfurmw adequately treated sewage.

silting. It is advisable

The distribution channels should be properly graded to avoid pondinq is lined. that the main

328 TABLE 20.7 RECOMMENDED HYDRAULIC LOADINGS Type of Soil i) ii) iii) iv) v) Sandy Sandy Loam Loam Clay Loam Clayey Hydraulic Loading (Cu.M/hectare/day) 200 - 250 150 - 200 100 - 150 50 - 100 30 - 50

20.8.1.2

ORGANIC LOADING

11.0 to 28.0 Kg/ha/day of organic loading in terms of is needed to maintain a static organic matter content in the soil that helps to conditions the soil by microorganisms without soild clogging. Higher loading rates can be managed depending on the type of system and the resting period. When primary effluent is used organic loading rates may eceed 22.0 Kg/ha/day without causing problems.
IRRIGATION INTERVAL

Resting periods for surface irrigation can be as long as 6 weeks but is ussually between one and two weeks during which the soil bacteria break down organic matter and the water is allowed to drain from restoring aerobic condition in the It depends upon the crops, the number the top few centimeters. of individual plots in the rotation cycle and management consideration. 20.8.2 Management of Soli A well-planned program of crop growth and harvesting can help to maintain a soil receptive to effluent application. Crop uptake of nutrients followed by removal of the crop from the field increases the capacity of the land for removal of nutrients from the next effluent application. It is necessary that the soil is given rest for about 3 to 4 months every alternate or third year preferably m summer months. This can be achieved if the farm is designed on the basis of water requirement in the winter season. After the harvest of the crop, the soil may be opened up by deep it as porous and permeable as possible before the next crop ploughing and cultivated appropriately to is raised. Maintenance of soil oxygen level is very important as it is required for root respiration and a number of biological processes in the Refilling of oxygen in the pores in the surface layers of soil depends upon the reestablishment of contact of the soil with the atmosphere. This process can be accelerated by therefore desirable that an suitable cultural practices and by providing sufficient irrigation intervals. It intercultural operation is followed as SOon as the soil condition allows working alter every irrigation. It should always be seen that the soils of sewage should have a surplus of oxygen than that normally required in the ordinary farm because the soil oxygen has to pertorrn an additional lob ot satisfying the BOD of sewage. The intercultural operation following everyone or two IIrigations is all the more necessary In the areas where rainfall is low, it is desirable to flood the soils with irrigant in the case of clayey If the soil salinity and alkalinity pose at least once a year to leach down the salts accumulated in the

329 a serious problem. amendment of soil with the required quantity of gypsum should be carried out. Subsoil drainage is very important. Poor drainage should be improved by installing underground drains. Sewage farm fields must be laid out in accordance with the natural slope of the terrain to eliminate the irregularities of distribution. On sewage farms, no sewage should be allowed to flow beyond the farm boundaries. With this in view, protection banks are arranged along the lowest lying boundaries of each crop rotation field.

20.8.3 Utilisation of Plant Nutrients

Sewage contains 2670 mgtl of nitrogen (N), 930 mgtl of Phosphate and 12-40 mgtl or even more of potash (K,O). The recommended dosages for N, P and K for majority of field crops are in the ratio of 5:3:2 or 3 respectively. The figures for N, P, and K contents of sewage on the other hand show that sewage is relatively poor in phosphates. Excess potash is not of significance but a relative excess of nitrogen affects crop growth and development. Crops receiving excessive dosage of nitrogen show superfluous vegetative growth and decrease in grain or fruil yield. The phosphate deficit of sewage, therefore, should be made good by supplementing with phosphate fertilisers. the extent of phosphate fortification depending upon the nature of crop and its pnosphate requirements. As the availability of phosphate is low in the irrigant would be desirable to apply the required quantity of phosphatic fertiliser at the time or even (about a fortnight) before the sowing or planting of the crop. balanced by fortification, irrigation with such sewage may supply Even when sewage nutrients excessive amount of nutrients resulting in waste or unbalanced growth of plants with adverse effects on yields. It may therefore be necessary to dilute the sewage. Dillution also helps in reducing the concentration of dissolved salts and decomposable organic matter in the sewage thus decreasing hazards to the fertility of the soil. It is desirable to limit the 800 and total suspended solids sewage to be disposed on land for irrigation, as per relevant standards.

20.8.4 Land requirements

The field-area requirement for fanning based on tne liquid loading rate is calculated by A Where [3.65 0

tL1
Field-area in hectares Flow rate in Cu.mJday Annual liquid loading, cmjyear

o
L

For loading of constituents such as Nitrogen A

[ 0.365 CO

I L, J

Concentration of the constituents, mgll. Loading of constituent. kg/ha/year.

330
20.9 ALTERNATIVE ARRANGEMENTS DURING NONIRRIGATING PERIODS

During rainy and non-iniqatinq farm not need any water tor irrigation. Even during irrigating season, water requirement tluctuates significantly. Hence satistactory to be for disposal on such occasions either by storing the excess wastewater or elsewhere without creating environmental The following alternatives are considered : 1 Provision of holding lagoons tor ott-season 5tor898. They enable irrigation of a fixed area of land to varying rates of crop demand. also serve as treatment units such as aerated or lagoons, provided the minimum volume required for treatment is provided beyond flow-balancing requirement Provision of additional land where wastewater is not required on the main plot of land 3. Discharge of surplus wastewater to Combining surface discharge compatible Resorting to artitical sea with or without additional treatment with irriqation system is quite common and often

4.

in combination with

irriqation system

feasible,

20.10

PROTECTION AGAINST HEALTH HAZARDS

of centralised water supply, with levels pollution of artesian

Sewaqe farms should not nonnally be located within 1 Krn where waterbearinq layers prevail: or mineral springs; in the than 2 rn below the surface. should be taken to Sewaqe farms must separated trorn areas by at least The exposure of farm Health aspects of to should consumers to

on
m.

horn products.

points of

Evidence is on the to show that labourers workinq on sewage farms suffer tram a number of ailments directly attributed to handlinq of In view ot this desirable to disinfect and where feasible mechanise sewaqe tarrn Sewaqe or wastewater origin or hospitals, biofactories to the sewage Aqncultura: utilisation of with special instructions. The staff of sewaqe farms must for irrigation as well as individual enterprises in the processinq of raw material of animal slauqhter houses should in addition before they are taken

contammq radro acuve substances

canned out in accordance

educated

on

utihsauon of sewaqe

All persons working in sewage farms undergo preventive vaccination aqainst and annual medical for helimnthoses and treatment if necessarv.

infections

Sewage provided with adequate space canteens with proper sanitation. wash-stands and lockers for irriqation implements and protective clothmq: besides. water must for the tarrn and for population within ranqe of the

331
All the farm worker should be provided with boots and rubber which must compulsorily be worn while at work, They should be forced to observe hygiene such as washinq offer work as well as washing before taking toed, The of in the for washinq should emphasized. The farm worker should examined rnedicallv at necessary measures enforced.

eaten raw should be Cultivation of paddy In bunded fields Cultivation of crops which to give rise to sanitation problems and is undesirable. Growinq of nonedible commercial cotton, fodder, varieties sugarcane and tobacco would suitable. of crops grasses and fooder legumes, medicinal and essential oil yielding plants rnenthal citronella allowed. Cultivation of pulses. crops which are before consumption may be permitted, if sewage is treated and care is harvests to ensure that they are not contaminated, Cultivation of exclusivelv seed multiplication proqramrnes would be advantageous as these are not consumed. As an additional sewage irriqation should be discontinued at least two months in advance of harvestinq for fruits and one month for of should be prohibited, veqetables and a tortniqht fOI all other crops. Drrect qrazinq on sewaqe

20.11

STANDARDS

It is necessary to adhere to the standards laid down by Boards/Environmental Protection Act regard to the quality of the to be discharged into body of water, inland or these marine, or on land tor farming purposes or into underground for provisions do not exist, standards laid down by of Indian Standards

CHAPTER 21

ON-SITE SANITATION
21.1 BACKGROUND

The conventional off-site excreta disposal method water sewarage system followed by a sewage treatment and disposal is an expensive option and not affordable by low income communities and by small comunities in rural areas. This in the development of several alternative low cost site disposal methods. with almost the same health benefits. However, over a period of time most of these options have been mostly due to various operational reasons and only two options Septic tanks and Twin pit Pour Flush latrines are being widely used. Therefore in this chapter, while the latrines in only an overview of other options is septic tank and twin pit pour

21.2

SEPTIC TANK

A septic tank is a combined sedimentation and digestion tank where the sewage held for one to two days. During this period, the suspended solids settle down to the bottom. This is accompanied by anemobic digestion of settled solids (sludge) and liquid, resulting in reasonable reduction m the volume of sludge, reduction in biodegradable organic matter and release ot gases like carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen sulphide. The effluent although clarified to large extent, will still contain amount of dissolved and suspended putrescible organic solids and pathogens. Therefore the septic tank effluent of the effluent and also the disposal merits careful consideration, Because of recommended only for Individual difficulty in providing a proper effluent disposal system, septic tanks homes and small communities and institutions whose contributory population not 300. For communities, septic tanks be adopted with appropriate effluent treatment and disposal tacilities. 21.2,1 Design

Several experiments performance evaluation studies, have established that only about 30% of the settled solids are anaerobicauy eligesfed in a septic tank. In case of frequent elesludqing, which is necessary for satisfactory quality, stilllower rates have reported. All studies have proved that when the septic is not desludqed a longer i.e than the design Therefore for fhe septic tank to be an efficient period, substantial portion of solids escape with the suspended solids remover, it of sufficient capacity with proper inlet outlet arrangements. It should be designed such way sludqo settle at accumulates at surface, enough space is in between, for to flow thr ouqh without drslocatmq either is to the extent that accumulated the scum or the settled sludge. Normally sufficient sludge and scum occupy only or maximum thirds the tank capacity, at the of the design storaqe period. has shown fhat in order to provide sufficienfly quiescent conditions lor effective sedimentation of the suspended solids, the minimum liquid retention time should be 24 hours. Therefore, sludge and scum accumulation, septic tank may be designed for considering the volume 1 to 2 days of wastewater retention. The septic tanks are rectangular in shape and can be single tank double tank, In case of double tank, the eHluent solids concentrafion is considerably lower and the first compartment is usually twice the size of the second. The liquid depth is m anel the lenqth to breadth

333

334 to 1. ratio is housing colonies (upto 300 of tanks for individual households (upto 20 below m 21.1. and 21.2 respectively: and for

TABLE 21.1 RECOMMENDED SIZES OF SEPTIC TANK UPTO 20 USERS

Liquid depth ((cleaning interval of)

No. of Users

Length (rn)
1.5

Breadth

(m)
0.75 090 0.90 1.10

2 years
1.0 1.0 1.3

3 years
1.05

5
10 15

2.0

2.00

20
Note 1

The recomrne nded on the assumption that discharge treated in the septic
A provision

only

we

be

Note 2 : Note 3 :

300 JTHn should

tank are 2470 (part 1) made,

made

The sizes of estimated in IS calculations

on certain assumption on peak discharges, as 1985 and while choosing Size of septic tank exact

TABLE 21.2 RECOMMENDED SIZES OF SEPTIC TANK FOR RESIDENTIAL COLONIES

No.of Users

Length

Breadth

Liquid depth ((cleaning interval of)

(m)

(m)
2 years 3 years
124 10 1.0 1.0 1.0 for free board. on certain assumptions on peak discharges, as and while choosing the size of septic tank exact 124 1.24 1.24

50 100 150 200 300 Note 1 Note 2 :

5.0 7,5

200 2.65 3.00 3.30 4.00

10.0 12 0 15 0 A provision of 300 rnm should The sizes of sepuc tank are in IS 2470 (Part 1 calculations shall For population over 100. of maintenance

Note 3 :

tank

be

Into

parailel chambers

335

21.2.2 Construction Details

The inlet and outlet should not be located at such levels where the sludge or scum is formed as will unduly disturb the sludge or scum. Further, otherwise. the force of water entering or leaving outlet should located as far away as possible from each other and to avoid short circuiting, the inlet generally provided at botb inlet and outlet and should dip 25 to 30 ern into at different levels, Baffles and project 15 ern above the liquid The baffles should he placed at a distance of one of the tank placed at a level 5 length from the mouth of the straight inlet pipe, The invert ot the outlet pipe should to 7 ern below the invert level of inlet pipe, Baffled inlet will distribute the tlow more evenly along the width of the tank and similarly baffled outlet pipe will serve bettor than tee-pipe. two-compartment tank censtructed with the partition wall at distance of For larger capacities, about two-thirds the length from the inlet qives a better performance than sinqle compartment tank. The sludqe storaqe level by means of pipes or square two compartments should he interconnected about openings of dia lenqth respectively of not less than 75 mm. Every septic should mosquito proof wire mesh, 20 m. buildinq within provided with ventilation of the pipe should top 2m covered with suitable the top the highest

at

Septic tanks either be constructed in pre-cast materials. Pre-cast household tank made of used, provided they are watertight and static earth and superimposed loads.

masonry concrete cast In situ or such asbestos could also be handlinq and installing and bear the

All septic tanks shall be provided with watertight covers of adequate strength. Access manholes of adequate size shall also provided for purposes of inspection anel r1esludging at tanks. The floor of the tank should be of cement concrete sloped towards the sludqe outlet Both the floor and side shall be plastered with cement mortar to render the surfaces smooth and to them water tight. A typical compartment septic tank is shown Figure 21 1

21.2.3 Sludge withdrawal and Disposal

When sludge is drawn off from the bottom of tank. at tirst the small quantity of sludge the immediate vicinity of the outlet or suction pipe is withdrawn. This IS followed by drawinq off sewaqe, because the sludge, heavier but much more viscous than away from fhe point of outlet and the scum remains floating on surface. With continued sewaqe is until finally only sludqe and scum remain in the tank. These corne off last. and then only if there to the outlet. This the reason for the is sufficient slope on the floor of the tank, force them to bleedinqott of sludqe steep sedimentation tanks for desludging septic by complete ernprymq. It septic lanks are desludqed by removal only of the contents. they become more and more WIth sludge scum, and the of effluent detenorates soon. For some reasons, desludqinq of septic tanks under by means of sludge pipe -collectinq of sludqe from the point in 111e tank and discharqinq at higher level, -should discouraqed As far avoided. If possible particularly in case of densely as particaole manual handlinq of sludqe should populated large cities, mechanical vaccum tankers should used by the municipal authorities to empty the septic tanks. Alternately, where space is not constraint, a sludge pipe -with delivery valve to draw ths sludge as and when required, -be installed at tbe hollorn of the tank to empty its contents into a for subsequent disposal on land sent further treatment. Spreadinq of sludge on the ground in the allowed. Portable pumps may also used for desludqinq in which there will vicinity should not be no need for sludqe pipe or sludqe sump.

// / / / / / /

//

// // //

// //

//

/ / // / /

INLET CHAMBER BAFFLE BOAR0

W

PENSTOCK

lOVER 1200)

T
I
I

/
-

--

X
I

:::::
r-

"

.-- ----- TWL

x 1500
L

r- 300

...

OUT LET

cc
" ..

min

ISO 150 /

DEFLEC

SECTION XX ALL DIMENSIONS IN

mm

FIG.21.1:

TYPICAL

SKETCH PO PU L A TlON S

OF OV ER

TWO 50
(IS

COMPARTMENT
(PART1 )1

SEPTIC

TANK

FOR

desludging of spetic tank is desirable. But it it is not feasible or economical and if there is tanks should be cleaned least once 1 to 2 years, difficulty to find labour for desluging, small provided the tank is not overloaded due to use by more than the number for which it is designed. 21.2.4 Secondary Treatment and Disposal of Effluent

The septic tank be malodorous, containinq portion of dissolved organic content and orqarusms and nonce to be treated final, safe disposal. Depending upon treatment objective. resources available etc., -the extent and type of secondary the situation-the treatement facility can the most conventionallanel disposal methods soak pits or dispersion trenches to addtional scconuarv biological treatment Normally are desiqnerl to achieve or into the soil. Satisfactory disposal depends, to a great on porosity percolation characteristics of the soil. In addition. other factors, such of subsoil water the climatic of aeration of soild and concentration of suspended solids in also intluence application of methods, pits or dispersion trenches adopted all percolation as discussed in Appendix below 25 em porous soils where the depth of water table is 2 rn or more from the qround level. Dispersion should be preferred 12 and 25 minutes jf is available. In with in soils should fully above qround in a mound, subsoil least 20 m away trom any source of drinking water, tar as possioIe trom nearest not close 7 rn to avoid any effect due to tank qases into Subsoil dispersion system is not recommended in or crevice rock formations solution cavities which convey pollution water resources. In soils such as dense clays and rocks, to long distances and exceeds 25 minutes: adoption of uptlow reverse filters. tricklinq sand or open sand tollowcd chlorination should particularv tor In serve absence ot tests described in the basis nquid tronches IS by to 21,2 subsurface acceptablilitv of and required soak pits or

o
Where

vt

I)

rnaxirnum

of for

in ipd/rn: of in minutes. only of trench bottom in for soak should into

and

In area 212.4.1 Soak pits or or more common. only land or easier downward

area

of dispersion

or

cheap to construct are extensivelv no pits of anv circular square is sufficiently below ground level. soak should laverunderlies an which perrnrts out in of dispersion

CPHEEOJNDJ94

338 horizontal dimension The pit should soak pit should 1 m, the depth below the Invert level or inlet pipe being at 1 m. and the top raised the adjacent ground to prevent damage

DISPERSION

Dispersion trenches consist ot relatively narrow and shallow trenches to 1 rn deep and 0,3 to 1 m wide excavated to sligbt gradient 0,25%, Open joined earthenware or concrete pipes ot 80 10 100 rnrn laid in the trenches over hed 15 to 25 em of washed gravel or crushed The top ot pipes shall coarse gravel and crushed stone to minimum depth of 15 depth of trench with excavated earth and finished with mound the ground ern and the level to prevent direct flooding ot trench during rains, The effluent from the septic tank Is led Into small trorn several such trenches could radiate out. The total length of trench required calculated from Eq. (21,1) and number of trenches worked auf on the basis of maximum shall lonqth of 30 m for each trench and spaced not closer than 2 rn Parallel distribution should he such a distribution box should be provided to 4 trenches.
l!p,FLow ANAEROBIC

The up-trow can successfully used secondary treatment of septic tank effluent in where soil conditions, water table and limited availability of land soil absorption or the leachinq system for effluent It Is a submerged filter with stone media nad the septic tank effluent bottom, The microbial growth Is retained on the stone makinq possible higher Is Introduced from loadinq rates and efficient diqestion. The capacity of the unit is 0,04 to 0,05 rn" per capita or 1i3 to 1i2 the capacity of the septic tank it serves, BOD removals of can be expected, The effluent is anel free trom oder. This unit has several viz, (a) a hiqh degree of stabilization; (b) little and (d) low loss of head In the filfer (10 to 15 ems) sludqe production; (c) low capital and operatinq normal operation. up-flow anaerobic filter either be a separate unit or constructed as an extended part of septic tanks, 21,3 POUR FLUSH WATER SEAL LATRINES

In a conventional flush latnne. normally flushed with litres of water In a pour the suggests, the excreta is hand flushed by pouring about ot water, pour -tlush leachinq pit latrines were first developed In India ,n mid forties with pit and squattinq pan placed over It When the pit In use gets filled up another pit is dug and squattlnq slab IS and pit The first pit is with and excreta allowed to one or two the digested excreta is used as a manure. a to 2,0 ott-set system In this system the leach pit is kept In late fifties, rnodified away trorn the Instead of placinq It underneath pan, In sinqle pit system, desludging to almost imrnedratetv Pit has up to enable its re-use: this Involves handlinq ot and undiqested excreta containinq a health hazard. Single pit is appropriate only if it design was is desludqed machanicanv by vaccum tanker. To overcome this short-cominq. the pit is excreta is diverted to the second up pit can introduced -when conveniently etter 11 to 2 most ot pathogens die ott. sludqe can used as two pits can and perpetually. pour-flush water-seal latrine is a very satisfactory and hyqienic sanitation system With simple located inside house since the water-seal prevents odour and insect nuisance. and hence it can

339 21.3.1 21.3.1,1 Design and Materials

SOUA TTING PAN, TRAP, FOOTRESTS AND CONNECTING DRAIN

The squatting pan is of special design with steep bottom slope 25 28 and a trap having 20 mm water seal set on a cement concrete floor. The hydraulic design of the pan is such that the human excreta can be flushed by pouring only 11/2 to 2 liters of water. The squatting pan and trap design details are shown in Figure 21,2, The squatting pan can be of ceramic or glass fibre reinforced plastic (GRP), High Density Polyethylene (HOPE) or Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC). Poly propylene (PP), Cement mosaic or even concrete, The squatting pan is connected to the leaching pit throuqh a trap and a pipe or covered drain, The design and material details for latrine units squatting pan, trap, footrest and the connecting drain are summarized below in Table 21,3,

TABLE 21.3 MATERIAL AND OTHER DETAILS FOR LATRINE UNITS

SI
No,
Horizontal length of should be 42511'111'1 and longitudinal bottom slope 25
2. Materia! :

Squatting Pan

Footrests

Connecting Drain

should be 70 to 75 11'111'1 with 20 11'111'1 water seal

It should be 250 x 125

11'111'1

with 15 to 2011'111'1 height

May be non pressure pipes of AC or PVC minimum 75 mm dia

Ceramic,

PP, HOPE,

Fibre

Ceramic,

PVC, Cement mosaic or Cement concrete

HOPE or CC traps

or concrete with or stone

Bricks or stone semi circular bottom

3,

Shovtd conform to 13:2556 1985 GRP

Should

to 1$:2556

Should conform to 1$:2556, IPI X). 1974

Slope should be 1 in 5 to 1 in 15 per the conditions The inlet pipe should project 100 mm in to the leach pit

PP smooth and require water for flushing, FRP to other

A junction

250

250

provided in

of should be of

21,312

SUPER

A minimum latrine size of 75 ern x 90 em is recommended. However, it is destrable to provide more spacious latrine of 80 ern x 100 cm size if cost is not a major consideration. super structure of latrine cubicle could be brick or stone in mud or cement mortar. The low cost unit could constructed of bamboo matting wilh mud plaster outside and inside with thatched or roof,

340

Rl00

r-,

SEAL 20 MM

FIG.21.2:

SQUATTING

PAN

AND

TRAP

341
LEACH P'TS

Leach pits serve a dual function of (a) storage and digestion of excreted solids and (b) infiltration of the waste liquids. Leach pits. therotoro, to he designed on the basis of the following a) c) d) e) Solids accumulation rate Long term infiltration rate of the liquid traction across the pit soil interface Hydraulic loading on the pit Minimum period required for effective pathogen destruction Optimal pit frequency.

The above parameters are discussed below:

a)

Solids Accumulation Rate

including water table level, temperature and local soil

The sludge accumulation rate is a function of a wide range of rates, microbial conditions the pit age, water and excreta conditions and the type of for anal cleansinq.

The leach pit is classified as wet or dry depending on whether the ground water table rs above the of pit or below. In dry pits. Ihe pit volume needed is calculated en the basis of solids accumulation rate. But in wet pits thouqh the sludqe accumulation rate is lower the sludgo diqeslion rate rs high in the presence of water, yet volume of pif to increased to prevent flooding due to surcharqe of pits. The sludge accumulation rates given below may be used to the pit volume.

TABLE 21.4 VOLUME OF LEACH PITS

Volume in Material used for anal cleansing dry conditions

Capita
Pit under

successive desludging intervals

2 years Water Soft Paper 3

0.04 0.053

0.095 0.114

0.067 0.080

*
b)

Effective volume rs

volume of the p,t below invert level of pipe or drain

Long Term Infiltration Rate

On account of cloqqinq of soil pores around the leach pits, the long term inftltration capacity (after clogging) of the soil is always less the natural percolative capacity. The recommended design values of the long term mfiltrative capacity can be derived lor typical soil conditions as given in Table No.21.5.

342
TABLE 21.5 LONG TERM INFILTRATION RATES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOILS

Soil Type

Long

Intiltratrve per day)

No.

1.
2. 3. 4.

Sand Sandy Learns

50

30

Porous srlty learns. Porous silty Silty clay learns Compact silty learns. Compact silty clay lcams. clay

20
10

c)

Hydraulic Loading

hydraulic rate is the total volume of liquids entering the leach pit and is expressed in liters per day although it is often more convenient to consider per capita loadings (liters per capita per day). For computinq the pit hydraulic loadinq, wastewater contribution of 9.5 liters per day per person. includinq water used tor ablutions and flushing, excreta etc. can be taken as the basis. outer surface area (perimeter) of the pit from pit bottom to invort level of pipe or drain is to be considered for infiltration. The pit bottom is not taken into account as it gets clogged in course of time. The infiltration area required is pits Will be located. the total tlow in the pit per day divided by the lonq term Infiltrative rate ot the soi! The intiltrative area of leach pits. sized on basis of sludge accumulation rate should conform to the computed infiltrative

d}

Pathogen Destruction

After a period of one and half years. almost all pathoqens viruses. bacteria, protozoa and helminths eventually die off in the leach pit or in the surrounding soil. with the exception ot Ascans Lumbriocides the leach pit is wet Atter about one (the large human of storage in pit. it may not be hazardous to handle the contents of the pit tor use as manure.

e)

Optimal Pit Emptying Frequency

The acceptable desiqn interval between successive manual desluctging of each twin leach prt could be one and a halt years. But to provide reasonable degree of operational flexibility. it is storage volume in urban areas and a two-year period rural areas. desirable to provide three
f}

Size of Pits

Sizes of leach pits, [designed as per the above criteria, for different number of users. usinq water sail levels]. with 3 years sludge storage volume. are qiven in Table ablution and tar different 21.6. The surface area ot these sizes at pits is adequate. enough for soils with lang infiltrative rate down to 20 liters per sq.m. per day

TABLE 21.6 SIZES OF LEACH PITS 10 dia

15

Dry Pils Pits

1000 bottom pit to

1000

1100 1400 of 1400 or drain

1400

in rnm)

of pipe

01

drain to bottom

of pit

by mrn to provide a A typical pour latrine

of pit circular pits is

invert in

g)

Design of Pits under Different Conditions

pit top should by 300 mrn above of water should then upto its top raisinq of the Pit

In water Logged Area:

ground at the upto 1.0 rn distance of floor

raisiuq

In high sub-soil water level

level, the top of round

sub- soil water level rmn above as

to sub, soil water

rnm

qrouno eartn should

In rocky strata', In rocky pits on same those for low sub takinq long capac.tv liter sq.m. However, in rocks fissures. chalk torrnatlons. old root flow to very long hence conditions car otul invostiqation and adoption of pouution as stated below. In black cotton soil: Pits cotton should sq.m. per However vertical (envelope) 300 rnrn should provided round pit the pit
takinq sand. of 10 ballast of small sizes

width

Where space is a constraint of construcreo to constraints, with diametor (not than mm). or combined oval. or pits into two compartments by wall mav provided, In case combined pits, the partition should not pa.tition wall should qo 225 than and on both with cement mortar, (Fig 21,(3)
21.3.2 Construction of Pour Flush Latrine
PAN

pan could Mosaic. Cerarmc can be Their acceptance is

best

qlass plastic (GRP), PVC. PP. Cement or costliest. or pans have that masons surface tends to rouqh after to other

344

IN CEMENT CONCRETE OVER 7Smm CEMENT CONCRETE AND TOP SMOOTH

BY

FINE SAND LAYER OVER SOmm BRICK FOOT RESIS 25mm OIA NONPRESSURE PIPE TOP OF CEMENT MORTAR

22S
'00

JUN CTION

BER

SOLID BRICK WORK IN

MORTAR 1:6

EARTH

SECTION A BC

B
NOTE:

900

THE SIZE OF HOLES IN HONEY COMBING SHOULD BE 50 WIDE AND FULL HEI6HT
OF COURSE_HOWEVER IN SANDY

TO BE OPENED Y

SOIL OR WHERE THERE ARE CHANCES OF DAMA6E FIELD RATS OR WHERE ENVElOPE IS PROVIDED, WIDTH OF HOLES
BE REDUCED TO 12 TO 15mm

DRY PI T USERS

0 900

5 10
lS

GSG
10SO 1100

50 50

tooo

PLAN

FIG.21.3(al:POUR

FLUSH

LAT RINE WITH

CIRCULAR PITS

345

BRICK IN CEMENT MORTAR . THICk CONCRETE OVER 75mm CEMENT CONCRETf 1'.'12 ANO
OP FINISHED SMOOTH

Smm

SAND LAYER BALLAST

DIA A.C OR WITH JUNCTION C. NON PRESSURE PIPE

R.C. C. SLAB

V L

CEMENT MORTAR

BRiCK WORK IN MORTAR

CEMENT CONeRE TE

ARTIi FIlllN6

WORK IN CEMENT
TERNA1E LAYERS

IN

ASE

I pl T

SECTION A.B.C

5 IN BE WIDE AND FUll HEIGHT OF 9RI eK COURSE HOWEVER

NOTE' THE SIZE OF

IN SANOY SOiL OR
OF DAMAGE

THERE
BY FJELD RATS

WHERE SANO ENVELOPE IS PROVIOED WIOTH OF HOLES REOUCED TO

12 TO 15 mm,

WET
USERS 5
10

PIT
H

0 1200

T
50 75

1250
1880

15

PLAN

FIG.21.3Ibl:POUR FLUSH

LATRINE WITH CIRCULAR PITS

346

THICK

THICK FINISHEO

CONCRETE 1: CONCRETE SMOOTH BY CEMENT

AND

RESTS 75mm UtA

PRES SURE PIPE WITH JUNCTION

A.C

OR P.V.C

-ITOP OF PIT MORTAR ARTH FILLlN6

r-

IN

WITH HONEY COM WORK IN

IN

LAYERS

SECTIONASC

I
OUTLET TO OPENEO

__

P LAN FIG.21.4: POUR FLUSH LATRINE IN WATERLOGGED AREAS

347
THI CK C. C TOP FINISHED SMOOTH _FOOT RESTS ITOP OF LINING PLASTERED CEMENT SOLID BRICKWORK IN C OVER AND CEMENT PUNNING

I
C.C.

DIA A.C OR P.V.C NON PRESSURE PIPE WITH NSPECTION

'i 2: 4

EARTH

FILLING

G.L

WORK IN

1:6WITH

BASE

OF PIT

ABC

r
I

OUTLET TO BE OPEN ERNATELY

PLAN FIG.21.5: LEACH PITS IN HIGH SUBSOIL WATER LEVEL

348

EARTH FIlliNG

TOP OF PIT UNING PLASTERED IN

GRQUN

SOLID

BRiCK WORK IN

i-s

WORk IN CM WITH ALTERNATE COURSES,NO HOLES IN WAll AND PIT UN!N6 UPTa 225 mm

WIDTH ADJOINING THE PARTTlON

SECTION 0_(
BRICK WORK IN 2Smm c.c. FlNI \ 25mmTHICK
BALL AST FOOT

';6
OVER 7Smm BY

c.c,

AND PUNN IN6

SAND LAYER OVER

A.C WITH JUNCliON C NOH PIPE

c. C.

SECTION_ABC

NOTE:
THE SiZE OF HOLES IN SHOULD

Somm WIDE COURSE IN SANOY

FUll HEIGHT OF BRICK DR THERE

CHANCES OF BY FIELD RATS DR ENVELOPE IS PRaVlDED WIDTH Of HOLES

BE REDUCED TO 12 TO tSmtn

FLUSH LATRINE WITH COMBINED PITS

Traps ceramic pans of the For mosaic pans, traps are of cement concreto. 21,32,2
FOOT,RESTS

but of GRP pans, HDPE traps

These can be of ceramic. cement concrete, cement mosaics or brick plastered. The top of the foot rest should be about 20 rnrn above tloor level anel inclined slightly outwards io the tront. 21.32,3
PIT liNING

The pits should be lined to avoid collapsing. joined in mortar are most commonly for manufactured should be used wherever Stones or bricks of cement concrete rings could also be used depending upon their availabilitv and cost However, for ease be advantaqeous where the water level is above the pit of construction, use of concrete bottom, The in should be 115 mrn thick (half brick) with honey combing upto the level of incoming pipe or the size of holes should about 50 rnm wide upto of the brick ease of construction, holes should brick courses. In the soil course. and sand envelope provided, the width of openinqs should be reduced to 12 to 15 rnm foundation of close to the pit, no holes should be provided in the portion of lining facing the toundation and in rest of 12 to 15 mrn holes be provided. The the invert level of pipe drain upto bottom of should in brick with no openings. concrete rinqs for be 50 mrn thick, about 450 mm in height and of required 1:3:6 concrete and have 40 rnm circular holes staggered about 200 mm apart. The rings are not mortar but put one over the rings above the Invert level of pipe or drain should not holes and with cemented mortar. 21,3,2.4
PIT BOTTOM

Except where precautions should be left in natural condition, 2132,5

P,T COVER

to be taken to prevent pollution ot water sources, the pit bottom

Usually RCC slabs stones can also be The RCe cast. 21,326
LEACH PIT TlON

the pits, upon the availability and in pieces for convenience of handling and centrally

toilet pan is connnected to the pit throuqh 75 rnrn brick channel of 'U' shape covered with loosely jointed bricks or 75 mm dia A.C. or PVC non-pressure pipe laid in 1: gradient. In case pipes are used, a chamber of minimum size 225 x 225 mm is provided bifurcation point to cleaning and flow to one In case of portion of the drain serves the purpose by takinq out the brick cover. 21,3,3 Pollution Safeguards and water sources the following

In that the pollution of ground safeguards should taken while locatinq the pits.

350
SAFE DISTANCE FROM DRINKING SOURCES

In dry pits or unsaturated soil conditions, r.e maximum ground water throughout the year a,

the distance hetween the bottom ot 2 M and more.

pit and

pits can located at a minimum distance ot 3 size S,) ot tube wells and dug wells it the

from the water sources such as soil is 0,2 rnm or less, and

10,

for coarser soils (with E,S. greater than 0.2 rnrn) the distance can be maintained it bottom of the Pit is sealed off by an impervious material such as puddle clay or plastic sheet 500 mm thick envelope of fine sand of 0.2 mm size is provided around the pit

In

pit saturated soil conditions. i.e. where ground water level during any part of

distance between the bottom of the pit and the is less than 2 rn

a.

The pits can be located at a minimum distance of 10m trorn the water sources such as tubewells and dug wells, if the E.S. at the soil is 0.2 rnrn at less and

10,

For coarser soils (with than 0.2 rnrn). distance of 10 m can maintained if the pit is sealed by an impervious material such as puddle clay or plastic sheet and a 500 thick envelope ot tine sand of 0,2 rnrn effective size is provided all pit round

SAFE DISTANCE FROM WATER

Lateral distance between the leach pit and water mains should be at least 3 rn provided the pit botlom and the Inlet of the pipe or drain water table does not rise during any part ot the year above the bottom of pit, the to the leach pit is below the level of water main. If the water table rises pipes should be completely safe lateral distance should be kept as 8 rn If this cannot be achieved, encased to length of at least 3 on either Side of the pit pits am located either under the foot path or the load, or water supply rnam inlet should be kept at least 1 rn below the is within a distance of 3 m from the Pits, the invert of ground This would ensure that the liquid in pits does not reach level of the water main as water are at depth. The water pipe should not cut across the Pit, but this is unavoidable. the water pipe should side at the pit including the protion across the pit to be completely encased for length of 3 m on prevent infiltration or extntration.

21

LOCATION OF PITS

position for locating the pits that the pits are placed symmetrically at the backside of be located within under foot path or lanes or under road, The pan, The pits minimum space two pits should be equivalent to at least the effective depth (distance invert level of pipe or drain and bottom of bit) of the pit, spacing can reduced by providing an or puddle wall. Imperivous barrier like cut off

351
In many cases, the space available for constructing leaching pits may be small and placement of pits near existing structure may be unavoidable, The digging of pits and subsequent seepage may disturb the soil around the pits, The sate distance of the leaching pits from the foundations of existing building depends upon the soil characteristics, depth as well as type of foundation of the structure, depth of the leaching pits and varies from 0.2 to 1.3 m. leaching pits are quite close to the existing building foundation, the However, in cases where opening in the brick work lining of tbe leaching pit may be reduced to 12 15 mm. Where the bottom of the pit is submerged below the maximum ground water level: i) the top of the pits should be raised above the ground level, if necessary, so that the pipe info the pit is at least 0.75 m above the maximum ground water level the sand envelope is taken upto 0.3 m above the top of the inlet pipe and confined suitably to exclude any surface drainage including rain water directly entering the sand envelope in mound type latrines, 1 m high earth filling be provided at least 0.25 m beyond the sand envelope with the edges chamfered to lead away the rain or surface water and the honeycomb brick work for the pit lining should be substitute by brick work in cement mortar 1:6 with open vertical joints. i.e., without mortar. Where sand is not available economically, local soil of effective size of 0.2 mm can also be used.
SUB-SOIL CONDITIONS

ii)

iii)

iv)

21.3.3.4

In depression and water logged areas location of pits should be avoided. as far as possible, in depression where waste water or rain water is likely to remain collected all round and over the pits. If, it cannnt be avoided or the pits are to be constructed adjacent to ponds or tanks, the top of pits should be raised to 0.6 m to 0.8 m above the ground level and earth filling be done all round the pits upto a distance of 1.5 m riqht upto the pit top. The raising of pit may necessitate raising of the latrine floor also. 21.4

AN OVERVIEW OF OTHER ALTERNATIVE ONSITE SANITATION METHODS

An overview of various other low cost on-site sanitation methods prevalent in out country is given

below: 21.4.1 Latrine

The Bucket/dry type latrine are still widely used in poor urban and semi urban areas, both for households and community toilets. The excreta is manually removed periodically - varying from daily to few days interval, by the scavengers to a trench for composting, A bucket or any other suitable container In the latter is placed either on the floor in between the foot rests or in small vault under the latrine case the latrine servicing can be done from outside, without entering the latrine cubicle. The initial cost of the bucket latrine is low, but the servicing cost by the scavengers is bigh, In addition, it has several other disadvantages like, major health hazards and social stigma for the scavengers, foul smell, breeding of flies and mosquitos. Therefore this practice should be stopped and the existing bucket/dry latrines should be converted into low cost pour flush latrines with leach pits or connected to sewers, wherever feasible. In place of leach pits, the night soil can be emptied mechanically using vacuum suction device into Thus direct handling of night soil by scavengers will be eleminated. a tanker for safe

21.4.2 Trench Latrine (Shaliow Type) This type latrines are used a measure consists of rows of parallel trenches ot 0.9 m long. 0.3 wide ami 0.3 to 0.6 rn deep and provided witn pnvacy screens. A of about IT) maintained each The faeces. urine and water directly into trench should filled up by the excavated after This practice being insanitary, may discarded. Bore Hole latrine This of latnne is constructed space available is Iirtte. It consists of circular hole of to m 5.0 to 6.0 m dug by means of auqer. hole is covered with a suitable concrete squatting with a central operunq and foot of about 0,85 m dia. Once is up, squatting slab and the super structure to to bore and the old up from bore, this type of foul smelt and of flies mosquitoes, 21.4.4 Dug well Latrine

The consists of a circular pit of 3 to 4 m A brick with an earth mound is provided on top ot pit so at squattinq pan rs about 200 mrn above ground Such arranqernent will prevent of rain water of superstructure to another pit immediate of the pit pit filled up are the major disadvantages this type latrine dis advantaqes with of latrines are foul smell and of mosquitoes. 21.4.5 Aqua Privy

Aqua privy latrine is a simplified of septic tank and was used in several regions at our country, The Aqua privy consists of a mansonry tank water. squattinq pan platform placed above the tank and a ventilation pipe, A long or a pipe from the squatting pan submerged tank The excreta falls throuqh this chute into the tank and underqoes diqestion, as happens in a septic tank, accumutated diqested sludqe trorn tank to be rernoved To corn pens ate for evaporation and Ieakaqe losses and to maintain water i.e. of in the water. water is to added every its use. In water maintenance has proved to difficult and some cases even SUllage discharqe connection was not adequate, Absence of effective seal often resulted in foul smell. mosquito and breedinq. visibility of excreta toatinq tnrouqh splashinq of water etc. In addtion, excreta sticks to the pipe and encouraqes breeding of and mosquitoes, In view of these reasons. aqua privies are not recommended, 21.4.6 Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine (VIP Latrine) Ventilated Improved Prt (VIP) Latrines can provide most of the health and coovenrence benefits of conventional water borne seweraqe but at a of its cost. Satisfactory odor with a pipe air flow rate) of 10 minimum vent pipe sizes to achieve this 100 mrn diameter for AC or PVC pipes, 300 rnm diameter for vent pipes made trom cement rendered or materials, and 180 mrn square brick work. For permanent installation, in congested urban areas where latrines may need to be placed very to quarters areas where mean wind speeds rnay below m/s, and minimuzing cost not consideration, adoption of ventialtin rate of 20 cu.rn.zhr. will

353
provide a greater factor of safety; corresponding vent pipe sizes will be 150 mm for AC or PVC pipes, 200 mm for rural 'lent pipes, and 230 mm square for brick work. Opening in In all caS8S the vent pipe should extend 500 mm above the highest part of the the latrine super-structure doors) should face info the direction of the prevailinq wind in order to maximize ventilation rates, The fly-screen at the top of the vent pipe should have apertures no qreter than mm x 1,5 mm in order to prevent ingress and eqressof insects, These latrines have limited application Indian Conditions, since used for ablution.

21.5

NIGHT SOIL DIGESTERS

The niqllt soil can he anaerobically digested either alone or in combination with animal dung, The characteristics 01 niqht are somewhat different from those of the cow dung and presented in Table
TABLE 21,7 CHARACTERiSTiCS OF NiGHTSOil AND COW-DUNG

Characteristics
Moisture content,

Night Soil

Cow Dung

85
of Total Solids

74
70

82
80 18

solids
Nitrogen Fotal Phosphorus
N,

80 3 5

on dry on dry basis

25

1,1 9 0.8

20

5. The night sOli

as

on dry basis 0, 7 nitrogen and phosphorus in ccmpansrcn to cow

Design Criteria
destqn
listed in Table 21,8 TABLE 21,8 DESIGN CRiTERiA AND PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS FOR DiGESTER

sou digester

$1

Item.

Magnitude

No
Kg 1.6

residence

25 5

30

3
4

Scuds concentration of slurry fed to

Votaute
Yield,

destroyed during ciqester of VS added

45,55 05 0034

i)
ii]

with

pipe

pipe fixed or dtqester

ctoesier dome for collection digested slurry mto masonry

MiNi PACKAGE TREATMENT PLANTS Mini Packaqe for unsewered Plants may sewereo considered for murn-storevec buitdinqs. housing complexes and hospitals

CPHEEO/ND/94

CHAPTER 22

CORROSION PREVENTION AND CONTROL

22.1 GENERAL

Corrosion is the phenomenon of the interaction of material with the environment (water. soil or are many types of corrosion. the types being galvanic. air) resulting in its deterioration. concentration cell. stray current stress and bacterial. Wastewater collection and treatment systems are more prone to corrosion in view of the nature of the wastewater. Since wastewater contains solids which are more likely to cause abrasion in sewers. pumps and their components thus removing the protective coating and accelerating the corrosion process. corrosion control becomes all the more important in wastewater systems. It is particularly acute in areas where sewage strength is high, sulphate content of C. The corrosion problem in wastewater water is substantial and average temperature is above systems can be categorised as (1) Corrosion of sewers and (2) Corrosion of treatment systems. 22.2 CORROSION OF SEWERS

The most widely used materials for sewers are concrete. stoneware, asbestos cement and cast The clevelopment of plastics, fibre qlass and other synthetic materials has increased the choice of piping materials. For gravity sewers the usual practice is to use vitrrfied stoneware pipes for smaller sizes and cement concrete pipes for larger sizes. For pumping mains, CI pipes are generally used. hiDh temperature, flat grades and long length of sewers may Factors such as climate and favour the development of highly septic, sulphide containing wastewaster in the sewer line. Industrial wastes may aggravate these problems by introduction of high concentration of pollutants and/or large of hot water that accelerate chemical and broloqical reaction rates. Concrete sewers are the worst affected because of sulphides in wastewater. 22.2.1 Corrosion due to Biofogical Reactions

Hydrogen Sulphide may be produced biologically in by (1) the hydrolysis of organic compounds containing sulphur and (2) by reduction of sulphates. Sewage contains a ot SUlphur bearing organic compounds (usually at concentration of 1 to 5 mg/I) and inorganic sulphates which find their way through drinkinq industrial water or sea water intrusion. Hydrogen sulphide in is usually produced by bacterioloqical reduction of sulphates. Hydrogen sulphide gas by itself is not injurious to cement concrete. It gets readily oxidised by dissolved oxygen or by several bacterial Oxygen which is normally in air between the crown and the sewage, H 2S. a species. necessary prerequisite for sewer corrosion and are usually present in the Sewer air. In the presence of air. H,S qets oxidised to sulphuric acid and this sulphuric acid reacts with the cement constituents of reacts with the cement concrete to form calcium sulphate which in turn, concrete. In reacts with the calcium aluminates in the cement to form calcium sulpno-atuminates. Expansion caused by these reactions results in spallrng of the surtace at the concrete, thereby exposing underlying layers of certain concrete to further attack. If the corrosion products adhere to the surface of the concrete measure of protection aqainst further acid attack is provided. Sulphuric acid, rn fact, does not and cannot penetrate inte normal concrete. Acid attack theretore takes place at the surtace only. The most outstanding character of this form at corrosion is the fact that it only occurs above the water line in the sewer. In other words, it is the crown portion of tile pipe which gets corroded and this phenomenon is refered to as crown corrosion. Due to this corrosion, the reinforcement gets exposed and the sewer gets damaged.

354

355
22.2.2 Factors Influencing Sulphide Generation The factors that influence sulphide generation in sewers include: (i) Temperature of sewage, (ii) Strength of sewage, (iii) velocity of flow, (iv) age of sewage, (v) pH of sewage, (vi) sulphate concentration and (vii) ventilation of the

22,2.2.1

TEMPERA TURE

Since sulphide generation is a biological phenomenon, it is obvious that sewage temperature influences the rate of sulphide generation. Temperature below C generally will not cause any appreciable sulphide build up. From C to C, the rate of sulphide generation increases at about 7% per rise in temperature is maximum at C.

22.2.2.2

STRENGTH OF SEWAGE

A concentration of bacterial nutrients in will lead to an increased rate of sulphide generation, For any specified sewage temperature and condition there is sewage strength, usuailly less than 80 mgll of BOD, below which a build up of hydrogen sulphide will practically cease, is possible a long force main or at other locations where oxygen is shut off from sewage for a few hours, that suiphide build up may occur even with low values of BOD.

22.2.2.3

VELOCiTY OF

Tile velocity should be both self-oxidising and self cleansinq. If the velocity of flow is great enough to keep the submerged surfaces of the sewer from no generation of will The velocity necessary to prevent the build up of sulphides ftowinq sewaqe corresponding to values of the effective BOD, (BOOT) shown in 22.1. TABLE 22.1 REQUIRED VELOCITY TO PREVENT SULPHIDE BUILD UP

BOOT mq/l

Velocity, m/soc

55

o 30
0.45

o
0.75

500
690 gOO (Effective BOD) Where T is the temperature in 5 day C BOD x (1

090

1.05

120

356
In determining the velocity to used period of the year which gives the maximum
AGE
SEWAGE

desiqn. the effective BOD should be calculated

the

The oxidation-reduction of sewage which in turn is influenced by the of sewage seems to be one of the important factors contributing to sulphide build up In the lower reaches. When septic sewage is discharged from a collecting system, an Imhoff tank, or from a septic tank into an it treated it goes into the sewer. When outfall qrades are steep, the problem is particularly should acute since high turbulence can release the sulphides causing odour and corrosion problems, Long detention times in forced mains greatly mfluence the generation of SUlphides. possible sulphide build up In a filled pipe can he roughly estimated as

0,0661BOD r (

1 + 0.0004d d

whor:

tncreeseot

n theforce main in mgl/

Detentiontimein themainin minutes

d . Piped/ametenn mm

222.2.5

HYDROGEN ION

Sulphide producing are known to have a considerable adaptability so that pH value not to have effect on the rate at generation withir: the pH of If pH value above 9.0 or below 5.5, sulphide generation Will be attected.
SULPHATE CONCENTRATION

The

the
VENTILATION

of Sulphate,

its reduction to

Ample throuqh sewers wril help in carryinq away th" supply additional oxygen to the sewaqe and keep the ot moisture and reduce tenclency for sulphuric acid particularly important in of turbulent flow. Either formation and attack of concreto. by natural ventilation or by ventilation by one or of necessary for optimal hactorial activity made is often very ditlicult and expensive to provide enough to prevent corrosion. 22.2.3 Sulphide Control Procedures that may corrosion. account
01

The sulphide build up and

22.2.3.1
In the design of systems, consioer ation should given to the avoid up and of turbulence. The should into considerotion topography. of temperature and Some of the desiqn should be consider ed as of maintairunq and points of of

One of important factors the control of Is the velocity of flow. limiting velocities for vary and effective BOD. The velocities given in prevention of sulphide Table.22.1 are believed to be the that should be used, An of the velocity should be as a factor of safety and if industrial wastes are present with a hiqher content of dissolved crqanic may be necessary to increase this allowance to 50%. Where it is to provide a sewer gradient in design to give these other of controlling sulphide generation however, result in sulphide should be considered. Velocities qlvinq hiqh, smqle point turbulence release and severe odour and/or corrosion. Except in cases where sewage quite weak a fairly aerated condition sulphide generation of large areas can be expected in completely tilled lines. Force mains, kept to a therefore should Since biological activity concentrated largely in the slime layer, it increases with increase of the wetted perimeter. oxygeo uptake Is proportional to surface width ot stream. Therefore, flow In a pipe Is conducive to sulphide qeneration than shallow flow. Accordinqly It follows that where sulphide generation is a critical consideration, a larger pipe is always than a one for any qiven slope and sewaqe flow. Turbulence caused by high velocities for short distances or improper desiqn of junction sewage to intersect at angles or at different elevations should be avoided as turbulence can cause excessive release of even where contains only a amount of dissolved sulphides. Concrete with a low water-cement ratio of suitable workability, thorough mixinq. proper placinq and sufficient is preferred for sewers,

22.2.3.2

CONTROL OF SEWAGE CHARACTER

Trade wastes containinq dissolved sulphides should not be allowed Into the sewers. Hiqh sulphate concentrations arisinq from discharge of tidal or sea water to sewer should be controlled. The be increased and the rate of of slowed oxidation reduction potential of the sewage down by steps which include partial puritication of sewaqe allowed into the sewers by sedimentation or by high rate treatment on filters. Effective BOD ot sewaqe depends upon sewaqe strength and temperature. By sewaqe strength and/or temperature, effective BOD as well as minirnurn velocity required can be reduced. Strength of sewage can be reduced in cases unpolluted water. It must realised, however, that reduces the waste-carryinq capacity the sewer. Where velocities are Inadequate to control formation of H 2S or where completely filled are encountered as force mains, supplemental aeration by use of compressed mav be injection would prevent hydrogen sulphide up case

Air addition at about t O lpm pockets formation of points of such air at 22,233
CLEANING OF

of pipe diameter is necessary, Care must since shown that and corrosion will occur.

to prevent the on the walls

Removal of silt has the effect reducinq Periodic cleaning of sewers by mechanical or chemical means is Any partial of the Sewer by debris in retardation of flow and consequent anaerobic decomposition of deposited sludge. Periodic mechanical cleaninq and flushing of sewers can reduce average sulphide generation by A good foundation for any control proqramrne. continuing programme of mechanical cleaning is probably the in reducing Intermittent use of acid was found to be Sulphuric acid the use of sulphuric acid useful in rernoving slimes on the submerged walls. Caution must be excercised iron sulphide, that may be present on sewer may cause an for this purpose, as on release of to be fatal to any workmen the of pH value also cnanqes all the Ionised sulphide (in the flow) tu Slaked lime, Ca(OH);;" is a more suitable chemical for cherrucauv treating since no It been found that If the corrosion damanqe will result from It and sulphide release Will of about 8,000 for 45 minutes, they inactivated for periods slimes are subject to a lime days dependinq upon flow and characteristics. of from
CHLORINATION

been successfully in controlling sulphide for many years, Chlorine is effective in three ways (I) it destroys sulphides chemical reaction, (ii) It reduces bioloqical activity and produces mild oxidising compounds in and (iii) it destroys slimes. An approximate dosaqe of chlorine is sufficient. When excess chlorine is applied, it leaves the sewaqe in of 10 to 12 oxidised state, and prevents re-appearance of for some distance downstream. sulphide to insoluble iron sulphide. This Addition of iron salts This inexpensive for reducinq concentrations of sulphides to about 1.0 but not effective for compete elimination of sulphide, Subsequent dilution will help to reduce dissolved sulphide to neqliqlble Addition of Zinc salts: This reduces sulphides to zero Zinc has combined with sulphide qivinq ZnS effective until all solution can be prepared from scrap zinc and waste acids. If the pH value of sewage IS resulting in reducinq the rate of emission of Where ponding is qeneralty Materials of Construction When corrosion cannot be prevented by be qiven to corrosion sewer, consideration of proven performance, Plastic pipes also possible that supersulphated metallurgical maintenance 01 control of wastes entering the such as to protective used If accepted in all respects. pozzolana-portlano cement mixtures to above 8,5, into the sewer Added any upstream point, It Is The ratio of Zn S is 2,04, Zinc

In sewaqe Will

dissociated

nitrates have been useful in sulphide control.

The cost of nitrate

359
portland cement low in tricalcium aluminate may be more resistant to attack than normal portland cement. On concrete pipe, extra wall thickness (sacrificial concrete) sometimes is specified to increase pipe life in the event corrosive conditions develop. On reinforced concrete this takes the form of added cover over the inner reinforcing steel. Another method of modifying the composition of concrete is by the use of limestone or dolomite aggregate in the manufacture of the pipe materials. The use of such aqgregates increases the amount of acid-soluble material in the concrete which prolongs fhe life of the pipe in corrosive environments. The pipe may be only about one fifth as great as when rate of acid attack of limestone or dolomite granite aggregate is used. Untortunately, not all limestone and dolomite aggregrates exhibit the same resistance to this form of corrosion. Accordingly tests should be made before limestone or dolomitic aggregate is used. Aluminous cement has intial resistance to acid attack. Its corrosion products are also not So it may have some use in sewer structures. 22,2.5 Sewer-Protection attack can also be considered it

Protection of sewer structures by lininq or coating against other methods of control

22.2.5.1

liNERS

A plastic polyvinyl chloride sheet, having T-shaped protections on the back which key into the pipe wall at the time of manufacture is one of the successful lininq materials. Vitrified clay of low porosity has can be also been used as a liner. In regions where hiqh sulphides and high production of expected, problems stilll remain. Cement mortar Joints are subject to attack. Bituminous joints are emulsified and dissolved by soaps. oil and Acid proof cement Joints ofter the best protection but they are costly. Some tvpo of plastic coatings and/or linings tor sewers and other structures have proved moderately sucesstul, given inspection and maintenance. The function or these to isolate the concrete from the corrosive atmosphere, To be effective, the lining including joints, must be sealed completely to protect the sewer system throughout Its expected life.
The of cast iron and ductite iron pipe usually is with cement Steel pipe sometimes is lined similarly. Smooth-walled steel pipe also may be pretected by cementing plasticized polyvinyl chloride sheets to the pipe and sealing the joints.

Corruqated metal pipe may be coated inside and alit with bituminous material. For added protection, asbestos fibres may be embedded in the molten zinc before it is bituminous coated (asbestos bonded). Such coatings should be of impermeabie material of sufticient thickness and free of flaws such as pin holes.

22.2.5.2

PROTECTIVE COATINGS

Any protective coating used should posses (I) it should be resistant to acid attack, (ii) it should bond securely to the concrete. (iii) it should be economical and durable, (iv) it should be resistant to abrasive action by flow of sewage. and (v) when applied, it should t thin onough to fill all pores and irregularities in the surface. The coating sheuld be continuous with no pin holes or other breaks.

The effectiveness of a coating thus depends on its inherent resistance to attack and also on applied without its ability to form impervious membrane. In practice, no coating Inspection and maintenance must be Plastic-base paints anel coal tar epoxy coatinqs have

proved to be good.

22.25.3

CATHODIC

Cathodic protection is the applicalion of electricity from an externai power suppiy the use of galvanic methods for combating electrochemical corrosion. Cathodic should used as a supplement and not as an alternative technique to other methods of protection. It may be a more suitable and expeditious method of protection for existing pipelines. a) Basic Principle The basic principle is to make entire surface of equipment cathodic thus affording protection since corrosion takes place only at the anodic surface. This can be achieved by connecting it to a D.C. In this case, the anode consists of earthed electrodes. The general arrangement a cathodic protection assembly is shown in the Figure 22.1. current from positive pole of the D.C. source flows through the conductor 2 into the earthed anode 3 and then into the soil. From the soil the current flows to the surface of the pipe 4 to be flows along the pipe to the drainaqe junction point 5. the conductor 6 and back to the protected terminal of the current source. Thus the entire surface of the underground pipe Of equipment becomes cathodic and is protected from corrosion while the earthed anode gets corroded. The anode usually scrap metal e.g. old tubes, rails etc, Other metals which are resistant to attack by surrrounding soil like special alloys or graphite are also used, The conductivity of the protective coating has a direct influence on the length of the protected section of pipe, The required power increases with increasing conductivity of the coating,

b)

Preliminary Investigations
which require protection. Other

The existing pipeline has to be inspected to ascertain the basic information required are
1,

Plan and details at the pipelines (shewing branch connections, diameter, lengfh and wall thickness) and location plan of the section to be protected along with i) data on soil resistance atonq the section to be protected at the Intervals of at least 100 m points as well as the information on the availahility of sources of electricity, amperaqe. voltage, DC/AC (phase) in the vicinity and spaces for housing current supply and data on the conductivity or resistivity of existinq protective insulation :

2,

ii)

iii) iv)
0)

condition of the pipeline, It It IS already in use,

Power requirements

With the above data, minimum current densrty protection potential can be worked out capacity of the current source a cathodic protection system depends on (1) of the section to be protected (2) type and state of the coatinq of the (3) diameter of the pipe (4) wall thickness of the pipe (5) conductivity of the soil and (6) design of anode earthinq power requiremenls vary from 0.4 to 10 kilowatts in most cases. possible current sources are D,C,

361
converter-rectifier, storage the at dry or acid should be V to

\
6

III I! II'
2

FIG.n.1: GENERAL

ARRANGEMENT

OF

CATHODIC PROTECTION

d)

Anodes
carried out by any coke or When are used the zone, treatment can be done to reduce calcium rnoisteninq the soil. the former longer durability than electrodes, earthinq.

main loss occurs or scrap) of and carbon earthing can horizontal or by salts sodium beinq better and lonq lastinq. e)

Other facilities
provide equipment operational housinq the check installation of current construction of earthing

A cathodic sources, supply and distribution and tacilitios

PROTECTION

Sacrificial anodes same purpose but does not external supply. is by galvanic couple in which the to protected. iron is cathode by choosing having aluminium and rnaqnesiurn (with sufficient the higher galvanic potential. as alloys which up qatvanic series must be used for this purpose, of zinc suspended in coagulation is A single protector not and it will necessary to instal number such 4 to rn In the structures to be

TI1e performance of anodes rnostly on nature of sailor water surrounding them. of materials the such clay and qypsum powder low resistance of anode earthing yields costs of by qalvaruc would in the of networks in big towns since it necessary to suppress be incidental contacts, For of protection of the so!l should be less than 12,000 ohm-ern. A hiqher resistance the circuit can the density nor reduction of the to potential. In such cases. by means of power supply otters better protection tollowinq measur cs arc also of interest in rninimisinq

I)

point of

thus resultinq

sulphide

II)

Desiqninq wet wells to sulphide Provision of

surcharge nt tributa: y

which also

m less

III)

po-nt such

air Zinc Galvanised iron

of Its using paints

IV)

Usinq coatinq of anotner appropnatetv Scrubbino Providinq sleevinq

01

v} vi)

lining

type

plastrc mareriats.

363
The problem of corrosion due to Hydrogen sulphide production and its control is a one to the waste conveyance system. Prevention of H 2S generation by proper design and continued cleaninq of sewers seems to the available methods, 22.3 CORROSION OF TREATMENT SYSTEMS

A waste treatment plant qenerally consists of screen and removal units. primary and final settlinq tanks. sludqe diqestors. tricklinq filters or activated sludge treatment units and the various pumpinq for pumping of raw sewage, settled sewaqe. digested etc, In case of certain wastes acid of neutralis ation praaeration may also be provided. The more important units from the neutralisation tanks. tanks, the digestors and the activated sludge corrosion point of view are units, in addition to all pumps, and appurtenances. Screens and 22.3.1 chamber equipment also need some consideration for corrosion prevention.

Neutralisation Tanks

VVhere or they may have to held first in tanks and followed by neturalisation ot the resultant or to balance out fluctuations in alkaline waste as necessarav. In such cases the equalisation as as neutralisation tanks have to be provided in RCC with acret resistant of tiles or bricks laid in acid resistinq cement. The neutralising chemicals would to be stored in acid containers and the led to the neutralizinq tank PVC piping.
22.3.2 Sedimentation Tanks

The primary sedimentation tanks handle raw waste which is to at bottom. The bottom of the tank is scraped scraper to divert the sludge to a point where it is withdrawn either continuously penodically. The scraper arms and the squeeqes are constantly immersed sewaqe and subjected to Moreover, sewaqe and most wastes have much lower resistivity than water, which account for rapid corrosion. The tor steel used for under mechanisms should be carefully drawn to ensure protection from corrosion, It Is normally specified that all the below liquid shall be least rnrn thick, It a good to all chains, bearings above the liquid surface. castings in the driving should hiqh qrade cast iron. It is possible to give cathodic protection to the scraper mechanism of clarifier by sacrificial anode or current. The choice ot either of the method of cathodic protection Will depend upon the comparative costs, In any the cost of such protective measure will not higher than the cost of qood quality acid resistant paint. 22.3.3 Sludge Digestion

In sludge diqesticn tank, diqestion of sludqe is out anaerobic conditions long During the tunctioninq of the and more so during faulty operations, various are produced. for a tempory period. waste may contain appreciable of sulphates due to seepaqe of water or due to wastes. anaerobic conditons in diqester sulphate will be converted to The corrosion due to sulphide is fact due to sulphuric in of This attack the diqester and also the mechanical to such that breakdown may occur ultimately. Cement resistant to attack by H 2S, such as furnace slag cement, should be used the construction of digesters.

that inside at mild is not practice of such metallic tubes In interior he Hume or concrete of sccnon recommended for use as draft tubes. Use guy ropes also discouraqcd. provided in digester contents. blades of this screw pump be of corrosion resistant for proper circulation of installations the qas is and burnt or for other It the materials, In gas contains H 2S, be corrosive under moist conditions to the gas engines, gas meters and the equipment and pipinq is to by in such

Activated Sludge
In plant by surface aeration system. In is of occurrence. on liquid can tneretor e. material. It the by air system areation system tho of porous oither on liquid side or on or on both the by air supply pipelines of noncorrosive supply of is

01

widely used in India. The conditions conducive to corrosion in addtion to the of the liquid. is Proper material selecttion are therefore for protection parts of It be that the coatinq to be at intervats it IS that such coatings very short lite. PVC not to provioe to of can adopted to any tne tank

It

to

corrosion resistant

such as

of

tloats

Trickling Filters
trickling nozzles. protected of materials components the and distribution arm are normally steel and should be paintinq. The corrosion and blockaqe of distribution occurrence. This can avorded of proper corrosion or PVC nozztes.

The

Sewage and waste water pumps

pumps anc in of For oqu.vatent materials rocornmended. For pump and exterior WIth equipmenr. protective measure and deposits Both interior and shafts
is of paramount The erosron account of impe-ller is generally made should of qood nrumauv made of steel and

capable of corrosive

ot
corrosion

by sand

22.3.7 Preventive Maintenance

anti-corrosive paints. prevent The paints. Proper maintenance demands that up so undertake repaintinq or appropriate intervals It and to abide bv and to become obvious.

22.3.8 Piping Requirements In Treatment Plants

wastewater lines to chemic! in 22.2 plants trcrn wastewater Construction rr-aterta!s vanous pipe

drains and line applications

TABLE 22.2 PIPING MATERIAL.S

Typical Application

Concentration

Materials RCP. RC. VC

0.5 to
Solids
Primary sctids 0.2

to 2
1

CPCI

Thickened SludCje

4 10 10

to
studqe Heat Exchanqer Spray Chemical Aluminum Calcium Calcium Hydroxide 8 to
01 0.1

C.CI

C.CI TAP

to 22

SUlphuric Acid
Ferric Chloride Sodium Hydroxide

Cal bun Slurry

Note:
As

zo
unless indicated.

C Steel S Stainless G Glass A Aluminium T P - Plastic C I - Cast Iron D Ductile iron H - Plastic or rubber hose RCP- Reinforced Plastic mortar RC - Reinforced concrete VC - Vitrified clay 22.3.9 Modification of Materials Normally, the materials that rnost circumstances likely to be encountered should be used commensurate with economy. If justified economically, corrosion resistant construction can be used initially which not require any additional protecitve coatinq frequenlly. Stamless aluminium and plastics are examples of materials of this nature. II is possible that of such corrosion-resistant materials would cost-effective in the lonq run. However. in trearnent plants, it is found that it less expensive to use ordinary structural steel to are applied.

CHAPTER 23

TREATMENT PLANT OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

23.1 INTRODUCTION

Maintenance comprises those operations which are well planned systematic programme of maintaining the machiney by taking appropriate steps to prevent breakdown well in advance before it causes major damage. This prevents wastage of time. production loss and prolongs lite of machine. This maintains better in system and econornises the running cost of the It can be classisfied as (a) preventive maintenance which consititutes works and precautions to be taken to prevent breakdown and (b) corrective which involves carrying out repairs after breakdown, Preventive maintenance is more economical than and provides uninterr.upted service which is essential to achieve the basic objectives of treatment, viz protection of health of the community and prevention of nuisance. Proper maintenance does not start at repairs and maintenance but starts right the of planning. selection and installtion of the machinery. In fact of the preparation starts at planning stage itself. If due care is not taken in properly forming specification and selection. then it results in poor pertermance and frequent darnanqe to the machinery. Wrong selection of the material of parts also leads to frequent breakdowns. Hence, the concept of preventive maintenance should be basis of all thinking involved in the evaluation of the plant riqht from planning preparation of specifications. procurement preparation of layout of the plant maintenance. The primary aim of sewaqe treatment plant operation is runninq and mamtenance of plant, efficiently and economically so that the frorn plant standards in terms of BOD/COD/SS/pH etc laid down by the local or any other statutory body discharging effluent safely in public on land or in the water body, The basic requirements of successful operation and maintenance of sewage treatment plants i) a thorough knowledge of plant and plant and functions
a thorough knowledge of

and equipments provided in

proper and adequate tools adequate stock v) spare parts and chemicals

assignment of specific maintenance responsibilities to operating staff systematic and periodic inspection and strict adherence to servicinq training of operating staff in operatinq procedures and maintenance schedules practices

supervision of ix) good house

367

x)
xi)

proper observation of provision for

of

operation j rnamtenance
precautions

xii)

supplv for drinking and other

The various units of the plant maximum flow range and sewage Close control ordination of operation of different units are therefore, required within to achieve maximum Hence, accurate measurements of flow of raw the limits of design so settled sewage, air, recirculated sludges and final effluent are For thrs purpose flow measurinq devices and meters, of the indicating and recording types. are provided data for proqressive improvement. For control, to guide the operator in his supervision gas composition and volume etc.. pass through analysis at sewage, sludqes. treatment plant of should out on a basis as different units of Chapter recordinq ct essential accurate ot ditficiency On the chemical dosaqes must and proportioned to the varying of flow of sewaqe sludge based on analvsis. rates is possible only operating mamtenance Better plant conversant with the characteristics and composition of sewage handled each unit of the process. and maintenance of several strictly lubrication of mechanical equipments expected. TREATMENT 23,2.1 Screens be Mochanical screens should be mechanism once in automatic screens often to prevent up of sewaqe. laboratory results are fully during

units and the to optimum

of cleaning, results are to be

paint

in to

per instructions the rnanutacrurers. two coats appropnate anticorrosive prornplty of the equipment is functioning properly, a day to that the side should channels are properly

Screen be nosed, It be scrubbed at least once secured their oriqinal position positioned

Prompt disposal screeninqs is necessary. most screenings into wheel harrows or containers. with refuse, earth cover can to prevent used, screenings should be washed to

Mechanical screens may discharge method of Composting adopted. Vihere shredders are of the cuttinq edqes of shredders.

screeninqs

of operations to show frequency of volume of wet and power consumption rnechanically operated screens. Besides, should of rime strokes for mechanically screens.

23.2.2 Grit Chamber The frequency of grit removal should be adjusted such that the storage space is not than about haillull at any Cleaning of becomes essential after heavy storm particularly when sewage from a combined sewerage In manual cleaning. flow Is shut off. chamber emptied by gravity hauled by using long handled shovels. buckets and wheel gumboots and hand gloves. pumping and grit must always use

Inspection of mechanically cleaned chambers consists of checking of washed of mechanical equipments as manufacturer's schedule and routine inspection, Grit should disposed all safely at predetermined disposal sites, providing adequate removed and flow

The record of operation should show the dates of cleaning, amount of through the chamber between cleaninqs. 23.2.3 Sedlmenatlon Tanks

Sludqe removal should suf11clently frequent to avoid development of septic conditions. Sludqe is removed continuously in some plants and 2 to 4 times a day others. Sludqe the sedimentation tanks Is drawn the sludge sump by means of a pump discharging into digesters, sludge from secondary settling tanks is pumped to aeration tanks and should take samples and partially to primary sedimentaiton tanks. While drawing the sludge, the adjust the purnplnq capacity accordlnq to quantities required for feeding digester or returned to aeration or primary sedimentation Excessive sludqe pumping and 01 watery sludge avoided, When sludqe Is drawn hydrostatic valve on the pipe Is opened partly and the sludge allowed to flow out the sludge becomes thin the valve should be closed. Most plants this method so designed the operator can see the sludge is drawn judge when the valve should be In sedimentation tanks provided mechanical sludge scrapers, sludqe may withdrawn continuously or at predetermined Intervals. If automatic and stoppage of pumps Is Involved, the setting of this equipment should be periodically checked.
BUL.KING AND

The quick of sludge an irnportant tactor efficient performance of the activated sludge plant The SVI serves also as an index of sluqe settleability SVI values of 80150 are considered satisfactory In plants operatinq With MLSS of Sludqe with poor sottlinq chractoristics Is termed bulking Sludqe results poor to the of suspended solids and also In rapid loss of MLSS trorn aeration tank. Sludqe bulkinq IS oenerally due to Inadequate air supply, low pH or septicity also due to growth of filamentous organisms to presence of industrial wastes containg concentration of carbohydrates in bulking controlled by eliminatlnq the and by application of either to sowaqe or to the return sludge to control filamentous growths. Chlorine 0.2 to percent of dry weight in return sludqe.

27-51 CPHEEO/NDJ94

370 For proper control 01 digestion process three namely pH, and acids should he monitored. Diqestion proceeds favourably at pH of to preferably above and the ratio of volatile to should kept than the digester turns sour. lime is usually added to the pH to the ranqe. The can be added at the recircutatio pump as recirculation is helpful in about rnixinq. sludge purnp or in studqe bulking occurs, aeration tanks; III ratio sowaqe. Chemicals that may be chlorinated coppers These become toxic to suqqestcd return to reduce to tile are: reduction in rate of flow into increase in air supply or (iv) dilution of incoming chlorine, (raising pH to 8.6 to 8.8) In doses to ensure that thev not

Floatinq collectinq all the surface of primary tanks are by devices operated vvhere such mechanical are not manual at least once a day is mechanical skimming devices the brush tips the scum into a scum trough discharqinq into sludqe where pumped alonqwith the Tile skimmer device should be periodically and movinq parts lubricated.
AND

Tbe side walls tbe settling tanks should be so finished as to mtnirnise collection of qrease, all and aquatic growtbs. Collections. if any should be periodically by brusbing and hosinq them down without disturbinq tank contents. Dark tloatinq and rising bubbles on the surface improper inadequate sludge removal. Inlet and outlet channels should be kept clean and hosed atieast once a week. cleaned of any sticky materials and stringy growths on the surface and edqes. bcarinqs. transmission traction manufacturer lubrieatlnq schedule suqqestod by maintained weekly, monthly etc for In All battles should

etc all be properly lubricated as per tne (Table to be prepared to show the records to be

It qood practice to dewater clarifier at least once a to Inspect the portions of the mechanism such as scrapers. squeezes repair or replace the wornout parts. check all nuts and bolts tor tightness and repaint all metallic parts. Motors should checked periodically for conditions and wirings for proper insulation. cathodic protection devices uslnq impressed are the strenqth of protective current should be checked. 23.235 The dally records should frequency and of cleaning, flow, flow throuqh time, of sludqe scum removed and percentaqe moisture in sludge, settleable both sewage and In eflluent sedimentation tanks. The suspended solids. BOD of both influent and eftluent should be recorded per Appendix 23.2.4 Aeration Tanks variables in an activated sludge plant include of of sewage, air supply, DO in aeration and tanks, rate of sludge and sludge The posses throuqh knowledqe of tl18 type of adopted conventional. high

The MLSS, aeration

extended aeration contact stablisanon so that effective achieve the desired of the of bushes. transmission should manufacturers. should throughly out parts and paintinq anti-corrosive to should be
SEWAGE FLOW

of

variabres can be exercised to should be for bearinqs.

the
once of

the of worn The record of

the activated sludge is biochemical nature, in the tank should be maintained at times. Sudden in the of or slugs of flow should be Supernatants from containing 3000 of S8 if into the tank, should as otherwise load will imposed on the sludge system. Measurements of Iiow BOD to the tank should
Y

Frequent of DO various points the tank and at outlet end should not be 1 mgtl help determining adequacy of supply. The uniformity of distribution by observing bubblinq of air should even over the surface area of the tank. If the looks of diffusers if indicated Clogginn is also confirmed by the increase of 0.1 to 0.15 in the pressure quaqe reading. chlorine gas to air may help in removmq of cliffusers on au side if due to organic matter. Other methods of cleaninq will have 10 be resorted to. if this procedure does not clear up the cloqqinq. Air flow meters should be checked for accuracy and hourly and daily air supply and air pressures should be recorded to avoid over-aeration or under-aeration. Mechamcal or suriace aerators should be kept from fungus or them periodically.

23.24.3

SOUDS

Control of the concentration of in mixed aeration tank important operating It is most desirable to hold the MLSS at the suqqested rates. The test of MLSS should be done at least once a day on large plants. perferably during peak flow. As the MLSS will be minimum when the peak flow starts cominq in and will be maximum in the night hours when the flow drops. operatinq MLSS value would be averaqe hourly value in a day which should be at least once month. In case of very plants daily check is desirable.

23.2.44
The return sludge pumps provided in multiple units should be operated according to the increase or decrease in return sludqe rate of flow required to maintain the necessary MLSS in aeration based on the slUdge volume index. The sludqe volume index should be determined daily to know the condition of the studqe. A of over 200 indicates sludqe bulking. A good calls prompt removal of excess sludge from the secondary tanks to ensure that the sludqs is fuliy aerobic. This should be measured daily and recorded. The excess sludqe is taken to diqester directly or through primary settling tank.

23.2.4.5
Foaming or frothing is reduce the encountered sludges plants detergents being the major sewaqe contain Froth,

unsiqhtlv. is contact It is to problems can overcome by MLSS concentration decresinq anionic

blown away by wind and contaminates all the surtacas comes into creates a slippery surface even it collapses. Foam of a spray 01 effluent or clear increasing supply or addition of special anti-team aqents. The presence of also with the oxyqen transfer hence reduces

EXAMINATION

rnicroscopic examinauon of in aeration tank and bioloqical flora and tauna present enable good biological control of

sludge to identify

the

Activatecl and Biota, Trickling Filters

include COO ano

of How rates of and both Influent and

sludge, DO,

All cloqqed spray nozzles or in the revolvinq distributors should cleaned as soon as is noticed. Dosing tanks should accumulation of deposits, Placing of fine in the discharqe chann: 01 sedimentation tank prevents entry of coarse solid into the parts of the filter should loadinq which should periodically by using watertiqht pans of 90 ern x 120 ern. set flush the top of media. to end, along media surtace into two concentnc of inner being 1 of area covered sewaqe pan for 10 of the distributor when air IS is measured. rate of distribution should not vary more than rate of outer' area in the area. Rotary distributor should be inspected tor purpose and in condition keepll'g arm hy adjustll,g turn buckles on the quy rods or and keeping the rollers in proper adjustment. It is to take out rotary distributor once a year to paint surfaces with paint.
In cold be terminal of distribution system. should maintamed in Siphons accumnlate in dosinq high level periodic cleaning of dosinq is necessa.v

be

freeZing operting the valve in siphons installed. adequate head Grease and solids Siphon clog nozzles, Hence,

Pools or ponds sometimes torrn on the surface of is to organic growth or retained orqanic trom settled sewaqe. Sornetirnes, this is due to dumping of fine material in one place time of placing in the filter box, In many cases the trouble the top layer of the media and forking raking the media to depth of 20 to will effectively remove pondinq. filter 2 to 3 may also Prechlorination of or application of caustic soao upto 10 with success to and ponding problems, When using tratrnont mav 8 periods on alternate days,

373 23.2.5.3
U NOERDRAI

Filter underdrains should be inspected flow from any drain, this flushed

clogging, If clogging is evidenced by

sewer

23.2.5.4

ODOUR
reaches

Odours from septic must be by eliminatinq the causes the spray nozzles, prechlorination being effective in controlling odour.

23.2.5.5

F1L

Psychoda flies sometimes infest the ano cause not only nuisance to workers but bed for 24 his. at of to 10 days, applicaton of chlorine also clog the beds. Flooding of 3 to 5 mg/l. or use of permitted insecticide once a week are the methods available for the larvae. Adult flies are controlled by Allowing to IS not practice it will the mic.oorqanisms.

23.2.5.6

RECORDS
should show the units of in each day, number cleaninq the distributors and underdrains the rates at which the of high recirculation should be operated to hours of recirculation should properly on for correction of ponding and phychoda fly control should also on structure,

Operating cleaned, the dates of operated. In the case schedule. Quantity measures were taken prominantly displaced

23.2.6 Sludge Digestion Tanks Sludge should be added according to a set schedule perter ably spread possible, Sludge withdrawal should not be excessive since this may lead to
OV81

as long of

as

23.2.6.1
For start up, digester tanks covers should be water. to expel air. In tanks With cover, the cover should be brouqht down to the tank is commenced. In to reduce initial period, sludge in the ratio of 1 to 4 :1 pumped to the digester so that few days after loading, of tresh sludqe should commence only attor this sludge is not raw mixed with cow is kept for to can be loaded, Open can be charqeo The raw sludge should such that exceed 3 to so digestion is not inhibited, every 40 to 50 Kg, of digesting volatile should be in rate of 1 to 2 of ratio to maintain unitorm

pornt with within It

not solids to rate

The Digester tank provided with motor on top with stainless shaft shall be with pump All these withstanding the effect qas and In to excess pressure, test cock and provided to are provided, heatinq elements be to corrosion. gases in

robust

ot

of methane

other

digesters equipped mlxinq devices. should be In accordance the manufacturer's instructions should be rotated direction to have better facilities for recirculation by pump!nq exists. they should be used for rnixinq diqester rnixinq sludqe. with sludge for pH adjustment Where there is no mixing contents, breaking down scum. and recirculation the operator has to upon mixing of raw and diqested sludge in the diqestion unit he atinq ananqernents digester, temperature of the water pumped throuqh not to prevent sludqe cakinq on surtace of coils causing heat transfer efficiencv. is qenerally out in mesophilic ranqe and the loss varies trorn to Thermometers to of sludqe temperature of sludge kept in and day, should Sludqe should be sewaqe sludge qrevish colour without condition withdrawiuq. Generally not more sludqe beinq limited by it is fully diqested, Judged by dark Sludqe should sampted and to find out '10% 01 the of diqoster should be drawn of sturiqe dryinq

in digestion tanks such as foaming clue to overloading or accumulation of acid sludge to be corrected by adjustment of pH. in moist or excessive formation of gas leads to corrosion of meters, piping and tlame through gas is This can removal of the passinq the gas throuqh terric salts or be overcome by digester is utilised for digester operatinq qas enqines etc., eqiupment supplied for gas should be and operated strictly according to manufacturer's instructions. As the gas is highly explosive. plumbers snouto not in correcting defects in the qas collection system consistinq of drip pressure etc .. Copper tools should be used so no spark is created. Gas pipes should kept trorn sediments. flame frequently checked. being periodically lubrieted and fusible

plugs io

purnprnq of supernatant liquor. havinq very BOD and SS. into sedimentation tank If on sand or discharged seperately. adversely affects it. the liqour may 23.2.6.2
RECORDS

of tho pumping hours of sluclqe settling to should be alkalinity and pH values of sludqes should recorded daily. dates ot withdrawal of sludqe. drawn. amount at sludqe loaded on beds and depth of loadinq should be Records of dally estimation of percent dry solids in raw sludqe, total volatile solids in diqestinq diqested sludqes. in eliqesting sludqe and BOD and 58 supernatant should also maintained. of the gas as and records of production as throuqh gas meters and weekly records of gas methane should particularly qas IS analysis for percentaqe composition to produce enerqy.

23.2.7 Studge Drying Beds

Slueige that is to contains 410% dependinq upon type of sJudqe.

sludqe

Wet sludqe should be applied to beels to a of 20 to 30 After layer of dried been removed bed should be raked and levelled. Sludqe should never be oischarqed on

a bed containing or after the sludge cakes are

It

to apply

sludqe at least

day or two

Removal of sludge from bed surfaces should be done shovel, taking care that as as possible of the sand is the sand layer reduced to as low 10 to 15 ern. it should be examined for clogging by orqanic matter and if fonnd so. the eotire sand should be removed and the bed resanded to the original depth of 20 to 30 em. The dried sludge cakes may be sold as fertilizer. Some part of the sludqe should used in the plant gardening, etc., to demonstrate fertilizer value to develop a market value tor Suitable may be provided tor the the digested and dried Records of operation of sludge drying beds should show the time and quantity ot sludge drawn to each bed. the depth of loading. the depth of sludge after drying time and the quantity of dried sludge removed. The solids content of wet digested sludge, its volatile portion pH should be determined and recorded. likewise the moisture content and fertilizer value in terms at NPK of dried sludqe should be analysed and recorded. 23.2.8 Stabilization Ponds

As stabilization ponds comparatively less operation and maintenance, often neglected with the result that several failures have been Hence. proper supervision and housekeeping are needed to ensure that the ponds well maintained and the performance is attained.
23.2.8.1
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF FACULTATIVE POND

Before the pond is put into operation the bottom is cleared of vegetation and debris. Raw sewage is then admitted to to a of 15 to 30 crn., small quantities of sewage being added each day to maintain this depth till algae establishes itself naturally in a week or two. Atter ensuring the establishment of algae, the pond is gradually loaded to raise the water level by 15 ern. each day till the pond is filled. The pond is then given rest for 2 to 3 days to ensure optimum growth of algae loading the pond for continuous operation at the designed flow. Ponds treating wastes or combination of and acclimatization of algal species and addition of nutnents it tound deficient. waste,

The bunds should mspected tor the condition of the berms tor any burrows wave action and rain. Any defects noticed should of pitching and erosion due to right

condillon prornplty set

Ponds should Inspected for characteristic changes in colour and odour. A chnage in colour or odour in all forecasts major change in the performance of the pond system. Odour caused by the the anaerobic conditions or entry waste or overloading. Colour changes may by chanqe in volume of inflows. organic loads. temperature. rransparency of liquid or light Intensity. An aerobic or facultative pond functioning properly will look green on the surface. If the colour changes frorn green to black by may be due to too rapid termentation of bottom sludge. frequent changes in characteristics of Incoming waste or over loading. If the ponds deep red an invasion by sulphur bacteria IS indicated and the sulphate contents of the incoming waste should be controlled.

Overloading of ponds to overloadinq, taken to oxvqen, agitating recirculannq

conditions. When pond anaerobic due to It addinq sodium nitrate. supplement a poruon flow,

pond should be of tloatinq mats of alqae at corners and sides, marginal growth of and vegetation should removed by suitable implements. should be used only when the unwiedly and cannot be effectively by or mechanical The overgrown and on slopes should periodicllv cut and removed. Access roads, to promptly. etc. should and repairs, if should be attended

at

entry to the ponds

and minimum mcasureo is

flows

pond over

of

tlurne installed

In small at least month or be analysed at the nearest laboratorv. In tests to conducted rnay all or plant and quality of of voltile solids for both intluent and orqanic rutroqen. ammonia ponds, oxidation

analysis. of inttuont pond condition appears to

should visibly and

alwavs daily analvsis should be earned The few of on nature of the waste, size (1) BOD. COD. MPN of cotitorro orqarusms total (2) variation of pH DO in the pond: (3) Total of if as and (4) on anaerobic

Mosquito pond should using larvicidal measures only a last water minnows, such as qambusia which on population control. Fly breedinq may is to down and drowned by In little bit

by rernovinq and marginal Seeding the pond with sufficient of eggs of mosquitoes may keep the mosquito

another problem maintained Good house keeping and proper bree dinq. Floating matter and scum should removed or broken spray. clean surroundinqs. of sight collections,

and

a maintained pond qardeninq landscapinq

& diurnal repairs, dates of

23.3 23.3.1

records should Include inflow rates daily of temperature pH DO in the ponds, of vegetation per Appendix 24,2.

rnonthly analysis of and nature of maintenance

BUILDING AND EQUIPMENT Building and other Structures and They should be maintained parts painted The effect of proper ventilation. proper collection and disposal of to be attacked by the gas, with anticorrosive

Office building and kept in or colour corrosive gases like could minirruseo corrosive gases and painting

fans

Dampness buitdmqs could be reduced by proper ventilation. vvherever forced ventilation should adopted.

exhaust

23.3.2

Equipmenls

The operator should book of by manufacturers containinq instruction sheets of all equipmonts. In addition. printed or written operatinq and be displayed each in understood oporatmq

Lubricating tear and testing of safety

and paintinq schedules. checks for etticiencv, leaks and wear and should followed stnctly to manufacturers: instructions.
in working Records

metering devices such weirs and should condition including calibration. Charts should chanqed same maintained should show total maximum minirnu: of flow. Operatinq. should strictly followed. condition, free to Water level in accumulations of

maintenance instructions for pumps mechanical equipment atttenticn should given to pumps in oper atinq friction losses abnormal power consumption

wells should not and other deposits

lower than promptly.

rrununum

level

Floats and sequence switches controllinq pumpinq cycles should be of each shift. pumps includinq standby pumps should operted in rotation distributed motors The manufacturers should for overtiqhteninq. control equipment should should

beginning that

strictly touoweo

any overheatinq. qiands

When pumps may have to operated less than 5 minutes. A switch shall also achieved by takinq backtlow from the

& stop,
for dislodging the main. materials

not This

Chlorination equipments should and reserve supply cylinders. valves, gaskets etc. should be and pipinqs should Leaks should be attended to as instruction catatoques. Chlorine cylinders should on scales and day amount of Gas masks be must be used chlorine record vorume chlorinated, chlorine. In ptant and consumed each day, of chlorine auanqernen: for dumpinq chlorine cylinder in tank to uullifv Its atrnosphcrc

23.4

SAFETY IN THE PLANT

work of an operator a sewaqe treatment hazards must quarded against Common of accident are from talls, deaths from drowninq asphvxiauon Narrow walks or tanks in rains and ladder spiral potential danqor spots operator should overexertion durinq of rnoving weights and pertorrninq other tasks should All open should be provided with

to

or quards. working reducinq channels avoid compelled to helmets. boards l sign boards should spots

plant on account on hand in

should screen plant qrves etc. Honeycomb on open down drowning. The staff trained and percautionary boards! danger necessary. drawinq to the potential

Gas poisoninq, asphyxiation qas Hence srnokinq carrying open tlarnes in and around proh.bited. Covered tanks. pits should be well enterinq. for sufficient time preferably forced as only ensurinq safety, they present probiems of asphyxiation. Entry into them should by testing for the presence of (Apperidix 8.1). should in location no possibility of contamination gas exists and easily accessible A first kit available readily at hand. extinquishers of the proper type should strateqrc points and maintained in qood operating condition at by testinq them. snout in and operatmq extenquishinq equipments. number of convenience of provided for should maintained and start water tacilities risk of locker should be Eating

All should cornpolleo to observe personal. as work as as washing betore taking food. use of antiseptics emphasized. The after six months hearinq, indiqestion, capability, Diabities. heart troubles etc.

with soap should be for

23.5

TRAINING OF PERSONNEL

All operating in technical and work Large plants should be by a plant superintendent who should have academic training Health Engineering with considerable experience in sewaqe plants must placed in charge who should with oriontation in Public experience in maintenance sewaqe All iunior should inservice traininq. It is sewaqe treatment plants maintained by who hold of cornpetencv. person who would after maintenance and operation of the plant should be at of dosiqn, procurement and including inspection of m.uunacturers place and their and on completion of system. The operation as to them encouraqed by library for start latest studies. and refresher courses from time to anvances in the The staff should also should also be provided with well equipped

with them to also sent

23.6

RECORDING AND REPORTING

All records of various treatment units a plant should be properly compiled on a day-to-day basis and monthly and prepared. maintained and periodically reviewed. These reports will form a valuable guide to better and serve as an important document in the event of legal suit resultinq nuisance danqer attributed to plant or the statutory

379
requirements the satistactorv storing and compilinq such volurrunous called would in roviowinq whole. If possible tor to have prornpt intorrnation when pertormance of vanous equtprnet'rls

23.7

CHECK LIST
check possible of the troubles normally encountered in the sewaqo

Appendix-Zc. 1 gives treatment plants alongwith

Schedule of preventive rnaintenance suqqosted by the manufacturers various oquiprnents adhered to, of lubricants and their trcquencv of application manufacturer shall be to. In addition to the of preventive maintenance to carried out for the major equiprnents like pump, valves. structures the treatment etc., done Appendix 23.2.
under purview of In case of then the equipments and the civil structures etc. shall be maintained relevant statutory act. All installations, wiring etc. Indian Electricity Rules. Act any

under be provided and maintained

CHAPTER 24

PLANT CONTROL LABORATORY

24.1

GENERAL

A equipped under a com pen tent in all sewaqe trcatement plants. Very plants such as stabilization ponds need not have their own laboratories if the of nearby laboratory The results of the laboratory analysis aid characterisation of waste pinpoint difficulties in the and indicate improvement evaluate composition of effluents and thus estimate the efficiency of operation and also probable pollutional of the discharge such upon the water bodies. The analytical data accumulated period to time is an important document in satequardinq from allcqations faulty The laboratory enqaqe in research and special studies evolving improvements and innvoations in the should plant operation. therefore must interqral treatrnent plant

24.2 24.2.1

PLANNING OF LABORTORY FACILITIES

Physical Facilities
on the of treatment plants and type out. Due be qrven equipments and smooth pertorrnances or analytical future also incorporated in the

actual desiqn of and volume of analytical work to to the space requirement for perrnanerrt by the personnel Necessary provision

24.21.1

s.zr

OF

and equrpments depends the capacity of the treatment the plant laboratory, a few analyses 53, pH, BOD chlorine can be On the other plants providing treatment may well laboratory buildinq with biological and bactenoloqical A recommended layout sewaqe treatment control labouratory of about 25 rnld treatment is presented as Fig 24.1, The total of the laboratory is about 130 sq.m with a toilet and wash room, It includes laboratory of sq.rn with work and rooms of about 13 sq.motres each. One of these rooms can be used as the other can balance room or instrument The should separate emerqency plant. such

2421.2

LOCATION

The laboratory provided natural pumps and other operatinq

FLOOR

(pr

from any north liqht)

of ventilation.

so to It should be away trom

room and to avoid of tables or equiprnents shouio of any work should placement and the number ot

ill

to accommodate the equrpmeut necess arv to in the work should provided. width of between rows not 1,0 m. perterablv 1.2m. Total space requirement hy accounting tor all equrprnents and utilisinq rccm.

LAB STIRRER 2 CENTRIFU GE GAS PH CHRCMATO GRAPH

v
5
6 TlTRATIONS OISTILLA TlONS SPACE 9 COLORIMETER AUTO CLAVE TURBIDiTY

v
w ..
11 12

v
7

01

D1W

w ..
7

.. w

.u, s
w
11
HOT PLATE
12 ANALYTICAL BALANCE 15

1
14 W

5
7

650
15 WATER BAT H
!

HOT AIR

13 DESICCATORS

ce

01 I
16

I I
D
SAMPLES

17 RE FRIGERATOR
18 800 INCUBATOR

19 DEMINERALISER

1
w
40 4 50

TYPICAL TREATMENT PLANT

LAYOUT

AND

LIST

OF

EQUIPMENTS CONTROL LABORATORY

FOR

SEWAGE

smooth in to cabinet. alonqside. without any

ottscts should be of floor

24.2.1
All morns in Iat.oratorv incluclinq stairways passaqes should The window terms of floor should and should fitted with transparent panels. windows should be to windows for qreater depth of pentration of liqht into work rooms. North South for of on work tables and must adequate artiticial to supplement cav-Iiqht, well distributod to uniform with shadow Spot should provided specitic instruments such balances. number of equiornent requirod.

24,2.1
power supply at 200 equipments voltaqe for also to voltaqe stabilizers to protect to wide tluctuations line voltaqe require for the laboratory a whole.

L.T voltaqe

Many It is from damage in terms of individual

should Concrete tloorinq with tenazo

{

not
finish upto window

easy level

clean.

A have clear

of 10

to 75 ern both sides. of workinq of A separate provided analytical and Drains

benches per worker should be walls. Tables in any other position not 1 m. adjacent tables and centro tables desiqned 140 wide to allow work space on to working a standinq posture and 75 to 80 em tops should smooth resistant tiles/sheets. 120 ern x revolvinq stool number of stools provicted with tables shouid be to attack alonq

ot work tables

24.2.19
These should solutions. etc. shutters glass top in sys ternanc for storinq and reagents and glass should preterred to could be provided anel open space to! storaqe 01 chemicals solutions.

242110
Both with sinks with providecL permit washinq 01 at points shall also be provieo and wash basins shall of proper anel of for waste water lines. water

sutticient washluq the Plumbinq resistant materials PVC

24.2.1.11

FUME HOODS

Fume hoods to odours into other the laboratory atso to prevent analytical work fixtures causing corrosion. carrried out exhaust Positive ventialtion Hoods standard m/rnin.

of toxic and fumes of windows other turnr chambers could exhaust for to minimum

24.2.1.12

GAS SUPPLY

The plant should provide its own qas to should be made to digester if sludge work tables hoods with fixture outlets. out this will special bumers be

laboratory installed. Comprescd

installinq a qas plant. sttould be piped to can also

The balance provided in a or a masonry platform with

on in of
ROOM

to

In

be to

for mounnnq

may balance.

24.2.1.14

CONSTANT

In large plants, provision made for constant perature C for performances of 800 and other tests. If this IS not available commercial typo incubator may be used.
SAMPLE ROOM

at C 800

In large plants employing both primary and secondary processes of samples andled is large, a separate room is very usetuu. Such room should efrigerators of suitable In addition. an attached roorn with storaqe may also necessary particularly where bacterioloqical work is done,

24.2.1.16

MEDIA

AND

In large plants where continuous bacterioloqical analysis is done, additional for preparation, centrifuqinq autoclaves etc. and additional for accomodating these facilities should also be included Such rooms are usualty attached to laboratory and are located within eary of the analysts

24.2.1.17

SPAOE FOR RECORDS

Space for keeping laboratory and plant records should in the ptant administrative block

provided

the

office

24.2.1 18

WASH ANO TOILET

Adequate toilets wash should Emergency showers should also be provided which to provide temporary privacy, An foot installed in the workroom.

for be housed the spout

women. itselt with a curtain should also be

384 24.2.2 Equipment and Chemicals

24.221
type of equipment the tvpe of analvticai to initral is the of unnecessry purchases and are kept plant laboratory most function
A in

to

plant on type of frequency of test to pertorrned. It on to undertaken. number of to carry out analysis, so as to avoid of equipment idle for Equipment that not fall into disuse, of equipment for the so that is on the of starl. out
tor out several analvtical works in taboratotv exnaustive but of requnements The

for

is

24 '1. to

tis:

IS

Estimates at such as chemicals. and replacement in the succeedinq vears ot operauon must out with utmost care on the at particular treatment processes tor A list of important rests is Appendix 24.2. a choosinq qlassware chemicals plant should be

All operated. Periodic equipment

a certain of equipment taultv

rnaintenance care. perucutarly for to work

that will

electrically loss of

2422.2
All qlasswar e should be breakaqes handlinq. should cupboards lockers placinq in Chemicats should be should kept who and droppinq on to be bought potency is lost A stock kept uptodate 24.3 SAMPLING OF SEWAGE AND WASTEWATER
Laooratorv

way

used thorouqnlv

to

loss due to ore

proper lock thorn. not

TOXIC qlassware etc. hiqh shelvos.

duect charqe of

arsenic. senior accidents and stools

such

can be used before

equiprnent. chemicals

in

little where collection of of

must materials is available

reprosentauve sampiinq is not or rnixinq the data which mav to wronq conclusions,

385
24.3.1 Methods of Sampling

In all cases of sarnplinq. procedures described in 'Standard Mefhods for ttle examination of Wafer and Wastewater (APHA)' or .Manual of methods for the examination of water. sewage and Industrial Wastes (ICMR)' or other Standard manuals should be followed. Care should be taken to avoid entry of extraneous rnaterrals such scum and floating matters into sampling bottles. This is very important while samplinq below weirs, channels and directly from tanks. 24.3,1 1
GRAB

Grab samples are collected when frequent chanqes character and concentratons are likely to occur and influence the undersirable constituents are suspected, the quality is not expected to vary or when samples require on spot analysis for parameters such as DO, pH and residual chlorine, Representative samples should be taken with good [udqement and should be analysed within 2 to 3 hours of sampling, An enamelled bucket or small pail may be suitable for grab sampling. 24.3,1.2
COMPOSITE OR INTEGRATED SAMPLES

Composite samples are required for several analysis such as 800. 55, nitrites period of 12 to 24 hours. The need for the attendance of person eliminated in automatic samplers. 24.3.2 Sample Volumes

over a is

1 to 2 Iitres of grab sample would be enouqh to perform all the tests and repeat some tests if required, For composite samples, a total quantity of 1 to 2 Iitres collected over a 24 hour period is adequate, Factional sample at intervals of 1.2 to 3 hours should be collectd in suitable containers. each sample being well mixed and a measured portion proportional to the flow Iransferred by means cylinder and inteqrate to form a 1 to 2 Hourly records of a pipette, of flow normally Plant Superintendent would taking at representative samples. All samples should he immediately transported to the laboratory for analysis. In case there IS any delay in transporation, adequate precuations should be taken for fixing the constituents on the spot or preserving the sample in ice. 24.3.3 Selection of Sampling Points Raw sewge samples should be collected after screens or grit chambers.
Samples of from primary sedirnenation or secondary sedimentation tanks should be taken from the effluent trough or pipe ahead of oiscnarqe weirs.

Influent to trickling filter should be collected below the distribution arm and the effluent from the filter from the outlet chamber or at the inlet to secondary sedimentation tank. A point where ere is good mixing should be selected for sampling of mixed liquor in aeration tanks in the activated sludge process.

CPHEEO/NO/94

Influent of septic tanks. tanks, and other sale treatment such as ponds, cJetches and aerated lagoons should collected ahead of tanks, in chambers or channels to these units. Effluent samples should be collected outside the chambers Sampling within these tanks should be specified in units It, receiving wells or channels terms of depth or distance or Samples of sluclge should sludqe pumps throuqh sarnplinq cocks, sludqe primary units or aeration tank, Samples from to the diges ter. taken from sludge sumps or from the delivery side of the

in activated sludqe plant is

at the point of discharge into

purnarv

sludge should be

at the

of

draWl I trom the sarnplinq points in the digester or from the Digested sludqe samples end of leadinq to drying Diqesler supernatant could bo sarnplinq wells on diqester dome. chart indicatinq the A list chart. sampling cocks provided for this purpose or through

prominently displayed as 24.4

truatrneut sampling points rnay to carried out on the pH. COD and suspended

exhibited also be

TESTS PERFORMED IN THE LABORATORY to control operation of differenet units. The procedure methods for the examination of water and waste water' should

Routine test are suqqested in Manuals he followed 24.4.1 Raw Sewage

Physical tests

on

sewaqe

Chemical tests toxic

pH. heavv metals.

COD, rutroqen

suspended dissolved solids, its various forms. phosphates.

24.4.2 Primary Sedimentation Tanks Intluents effluents settleable solids, BOD COD to assess the ettioncy. Occasionattv ot tanks tested by usmq dye or tracer, there any sludqe is for percent reason to suspect short circuitinq In solids, orqanic content qravity. if 24.4.3 Trickling Filters BOD. COD, to evaluate 24.4.4 Nitroqen (TKN) and filters. Ammonia Nltroqen. nitrate

of

Activated Sludge Aeration Tanks

Influent and BOD COD. DO, ORP. MLSS, SVltor mixed liquor are determined as conducted to find out whether cilicated protozoa and a routine. Microscopic analyses Tor mircorbial growth rate and oxygen uptake rate to asses rotifers are present. Special sludqe and oxvqenauon efficrencv.

24.4.5

Secondary Settling Tanks BOD, COD, DO, (Total,

Alkalinity, TKN and

routine
qravitv.

sludges
is

24.4.6

Tanks

Ctar iqe ster s

suspended solids (fixed and volatile alkatinitv are examined for percent for exarruned for pathoqons and viable ova of solids,

volatile). BOD.
orqan.c hookworm

COD on contents
ascaris

influent Bottom

Sludge Digester
rs for digestion process. disposal and also to the content analvse d for pl-i. pl-l. corour. solids. votatile Determination total solids. pf-l. supornatarn

Characterisation balance and Tho and BOD

Stabilization Pcnds

COD

of in

or
out BOD.

to treated. ar

800, COD. DO, and to Iaken trorn pomts and and 1 concennatron to assess bacterloloqical analysis ponds measurements.C'Of). In contrl)1 of anacrohic laqoons. industrial valunble if) Iorcastinq adverse in pond. fOLlI'l(1 useful.

Gas
of complete
of
tel

mothane and

mornuro

into water

en

at

times.

one snmp!e

residual 4 hours

Special
materials which mav or tor meetlnq pollution control standards. toxic Zinc, ABS materials.

r ot.u chromium.

24.5

DISPOSAL OF LABORATORY WASTES

Any office or other place a of work, a proper waste disposal In the case of a Sewaqe Treatment plant Laboratory, special has to taken since the laboratory handles chemicals and the samples themselves are capable for transmittinq pathoqens. 24.5.1 Soild Waste Solid waste burnt 24.5.2 Liquid Wastes Since the laboratory is attached to a sewaqe treatment plant, it will possible in cases to drain the laboratory wastes to the inlet chamber of the treatment plant, if necessary by pumpinq. But as the laboratory wastes may also contain concentrated acids and alkalies, it be necessary to provide a holdinq tank where the concentrated chemicals will be diluted and neutralised to avoid the possibility of affecting the bioloqical activity of the treatment plant 24.5.3 Radioactive Wastes If radioactive materials present in the waste samples special precausions will have to be to protect the laboratory staff. Advice on this may be obtained from Atomic Enerqy Department 24.6 ANALYSIS OF DATA include filter residues used cotton ptuqs etc. These should collected and

All analysis carried out should properly recorded. Routine daily analysis, periodic analysis and special analysis should be recorded separately. Copies of these reports should be sent to the plant Superintendent immediately the analysts is done with explanatory notes to indicate any unsatisfactory conditions or abnormalities. The Superintendent should study the reports and direct the operating start for proper corrective inthe operation schedule, Such measures taken should be reported to the laboratory scienlists who should check the efficiency of corrective measures by rcsamplinq and analysis. Corrective measures followed by sampling should be repeated till such time as satisfactory obtained. Data over period 01 on various parameters at plant control should be analysed and represented on charts and graphs and displayed in the laboratory for ready reference by the supervisory staff and visitors, These should Included in the weekly, monthly and annual reports of the laboratory. 24.7 COMPUTERISATION OF LABORATORY DATA

With the availability of personal computers and sortwares at reasonable cost, the advantaqes of electronic data processing for storage, retrieval and processinq of laboratory test results are obvious, To start the analysis results may be entered trorn the daily records into computer storage. Simple can be written tor and persentation at data relating to any particular parameter. This can be the form of display of data for a fixeCl period or weekly or monthly averages or the results of analysis carried out on samples collected at particular time of the day for the period to be studied etc. A sli9htly more detailed programming can be prepared tor the computer to go throuqh the results of specified parameters daily and display or print out any figures which exceed present value. This can be immediately passed onto Treatment Plant Staff for investigation and rectification, The computer can also be programmed to display and print alit graphs showinq the variation in any parameters over a period of time.

389
Analytical instruments are also available for carrying out tests automatically on a large number of samples simultaneously and electronically feed the data directly into the computer using a data logger module.

24.8

PERSONNEL

Laboratories of large plants should be under the charge of a qualified and experienced analyst supported by junior technical staff having background in the field of chemistry. biology and bacteriology. The analyst should assimilate the details tunctioning of the plants by experience and acquire the necessary preparedness for receiving further specialised training including performance interpretation and application of advanced techniques which enable him to participate in the efficient operation of the treatment unit. In the case of small plants the laboratory may be under the charge of a person haivng some training in analysis of sewage.

CHAPTER 25

FLOW MEASUREMENT

25.1

INTRODUCTION
Measurement flow essential the proper desiqn, waste management systems and tor process controL Flow records and expansion. can be installed at different locations and tor future

of

flow measunnq and treatment system.

a wastewater collection

25.2

METHODS OF FLOW MEASUREMENTS

discharge the velocitv-ai ea

Two principal types of flow measurements methods,

25.2.1

Direct Discharge Methods the rate of discharqe is to one described below : two easily measurable

In these principal methods and

25.2.1.1
a)

NOTCHES

Notches
These cut from trapezoidal. i) metal plates. They either trianqutar. rectanquiar. or

Triangular notches: (Fig 25.1) trianqular

1.25

used for rneasurinq

flow uptc

Speciiicetion for materials should be The an angle Measuring and made of rust proof should not exceed 2 mm. not less than the flow the notch is 3 to 4 times the maximum corrosion the surface.

edge

need causing

head tlow gauge upstream at a notch.

by standard hook of flow over the

390

391

T
h

2h

FIG.

:V

NOT C H

392
Discharge Equation The discharge Q (in for V-Notch is given by the expression:

8 C 12g 15 e \

h 25
(25.1)

Where effective discharge coefficient

acceleration due to gravity (9.806 rn/sec") angle of the notch at the centre

measured head causing flow, in metres.

V-Notch which is generally used, the discharge is given by the For expression:

2.362

(25.2)

values vary from 0.603 to 0.686 for values of head varying from 0.060 to 0.377 m. Limitations The triangular notches should be used only when the head is more than 60 mm. Accuracy The values obtained by the equation for triangular notches would vary by 3% from the true discharge for discharges from 0.008 to 1.25 m'/s. Ii) Rectangular Notches There are two types of rectangular notches viz (1) with end contractions and (2) without end contractions. The width of the notch in either case should be at least 150 mm. With End contractions (Fig 25.2) The contraction from either side of the channel to the side of the notch would be greater than 0.1 m. The discharge (m'/s) through a rectangutar notch with end contractions is given by the equation:

393

I
I

I I
I

b--_
PL AN

RECTANGULAR

NOTCH

(WITH

END

CONTRACTIONS)

394

(25.3)

width of the notch, m width (m) actual width of the notch b + K (value of K being 2.5 mm, 3 mrn and 4 rnrn for biB ranges of upt 0.4, 0.4 to 0.6 and 0.6 to 0.8 respectively):

biB

ratio of the width of the notch to the width of the channel effective head (m) and actual head measured (h) + 1 mm :

varies trom 0.58 to 0.72 for values of biB from 0 to 0.8

Without end
It treated

(Fig 253)
mm, it will be

contraction from either side of the channel is less than a notch end contraction.

The dischraqe through by the tollowinq expression:

rectangular notch without end contractions is given

(25.4)

Where b Width of the notch (rn) effecl!ve head m 0.602 + 0.075 hlp measured head (h) + 1.2 mm

iii)

height of the bottom of the notch from m. Trapezoidai Notches (Cippoletti Notches) (Fig 25.4) The main passes over

of the

in a trapezoidal or notch is that as the flow end contractions are either eliminated or considerabely

395

'I
FIG.25.3: RECTANGULAR NOTCH
(WITHOUT END CONTRACTIONS)

FIG.

TRAPEZOIDAL

NOTCH

WEIR)

396 The sides of the notch should have a slope of 1:4 such that the top width of discharge is equal to the bottom width of the notch (b) + half the head of water over the sill of the notch (1/2 h). Thus the loss of discharge due to end contractions is made good. Discharge equation (0) Where
b

1.859

(25.5)

bottom of the notch, m head over the sill, m and 0.623

Installation requirements
The approach channel should be reasonably smooth. free from disturbance and straighl for a length equal to at least 10 times the width. The structures in which the notch is fixed shall be rigid and water-tight and the upstream face vertical. The downstream level should be always at least 5 ern. below the bottom-most portion of the notch (inverted apex) ensuring free flow.

b)

Weirs

These are similar to rectangular notches but the thickness in the direction of flow is considerable and therefore co-efficient of discharge willi be less. The installation conditions will be the same as for the notches.

i)

Without end contraction (Suppressed weirs) (Fig 25.5)

discharge equation 10 be used is:

0.5445

(25.6)

varies from 0.864 to 1.0 depending upon the hlb value (ratio of measured head to length of the crest of the weir in the direction of flow) from 0.4 to 1.6. For hlb values lower than 0.4, may be taken as 0.864.

Ii)

With end contraction (Fig 25.6)

The discharge in this case is given by the following equation.

0.5445

(b

0.1

(25.7)

Where 'n' is the number of Contractions.

Limitations

The weirs should be used only when the head is more than 60 mm. width of the weir should be 300 mrn.

Minimum

397

b-

I'
POINT TO MEASURE
20Hmox

K APPROX

DETH H
I

-t c:

STRAIGHT INLET RUN

AT LEAST 4H _

---I

SHARP - CRESTED WEIR

1
-

- __

MAX.

//
/
/

<,

X LEVEL

__

/
:

\\\\\ ,\ \\\\

FIG.

PROFILE OF SHARP- CRESTED SUPPRESSED RECTANGULAR WEIR

i
\

..

PLAN

T
h

ELEVATION

FIG.25.S: RECTANGULAR

WEIR

WITH

END

CONTRACTION

399
Accuracy
The discharqe values obtained by true discharqe. 25,2,1,2
FLOWING)

measurements would vary

5% of the

There are two types of flumes, namely: hydraulic jump is formed down stream and b) venturi flumes,

wave

standinq wave

a)

Standing Wave flumes

In a channel cross reduced resulting in formation of a there will be a drop in water and this may be related to the discharge, If the velocity exceeds the critical velocity, it is calleD a standing wave flume or critical depth flume Standing waves be formed at the throat of flume Since the velocity is critical, the downstream variations in depth do not affect the upstream depth til! the suhmergence ratio 0,7. Example of a standinq flume is a Parshall Flume 25.7). i) Parshall Flume

A Parshall an open constricted channel can be used both a measuring device and also as a velocity control device. It involves headloss can work under subrnerqed upto certain limits. The of submergence are 50% in case of 150 rnm throat width and 70% for wider throat WIdths upto m. The flume also self and there is no problem of clogging. desiqn tor Parshall Flume are covered under 11.2.5.5 (e).

b)

Venturi Flumes
the discharge be waves

previous case, if the is less than function of the difterence between upstream and depths. In not be formed. Such flumes venturi flumes 25. 7}. i) Discharge Equation The discharqe equation is
Q

by
(258)

05445

C y is coefficient of velocity varies 1,04 to 1.1 coefficient of discharqe varying trom 0.885 to 0,99 depending upon IS the lenqth of in the direction ot flow. to 0.70 where ii) Limitations

effective from 0.05

Venturi flumes should used only when head available is between 50 and 1800 rnrn. Minimum width of the flume should he 90 mm.

400
iii)

Accuracy

The discharge values obtained by measurement with venturi flumes would vary from 95% to 105% of the true discharge. The installation conditions for the fiumes are the same as for notches. 25.2.1.3
VENTURI METERS

This is used to measure flow in closed conduits. It consists of three parts (i) The inlet cone in which the diameter of the pipe is gradually reduced. (ii) the throat or constricted section and (iii) the outlet cone in which the diameter increases gradually to that of the pipe in which the meter is inserted (Fig 25.8). The throat dimension in standard meter tubes is from 1/3 to 1/2 the diameter of the pipe. Its length is only a few centimeters, just sufficient to allow a suitable pressure chamber of piezometer ring to be inserted in the pipe at this point. A piezometer ring is inserted at the upper or large end of the inlet cone and the determination of the quantity of water flowing is based on the difference in pressure observed or indicated at this point and at the throat of the meter. The equation for computing discharge through a Venturi meter is given by:

(25.9)

Where
Q

discharge in m'/s. Area at upstream end, m' Area at throat of meter, m'

A,

(h, . h,) Differential head i.e., the pressure head difference between the upstream and the throat in meters.

Under actual operating conditions and for standard meter tubes, including allowance for friction, the above equation reduces to the form.

(25.10) Where C C, C,

VA

L1 2

(25.11)

and C, . coefficient of friction

401

HEAD LOSS

FI6.25.7: VENTURI FLUME

I
I

T
h2

Ii
,

d1 vl

15

d;

VENTURIMETER

CPHEEO/NO/94

402

,..

.,

FULLY AER ED

SECTION

0 ROP

OPEN END

ATLEAST 6d MEASUREMENTS NEEDED FOR CALIFORNIA PIPE FLDW METHDD

HOSE

PIPES SHOULD HORJZONTAL

BE CONNECTED TO A HOSE

LENTH OF PIPE

FIG.2S.10:

CALIFORNIA PIPE

FLOW METHOD

For standard meter tubes wrucn that of the the value of ranqes frorn C a range values from 0,98 to 1.02.

of to

is between that 01 C

1/2 to 099

Where venturi are for moasurinq wastewater, then valves at each annular chamber or ring, so the pressure openings can be closed, valves may $0 desiqned that a rod is forced through the opening to out any matter that may have When valves have been covering the handholes the chamber may removed-and the chamber by flushing a otherwise. Such at short intervals necessary jf venturi for wastewater are good oporatinq condition.
DROPS (FIG.259)

i)

Discharge Equation

the Ilow Talls or conduit to a measurement can be conveniently made at the of drop offers estimate of the discharqe , In the approach channel there should be a rninirnurn straiqht length of 20 times the end depth (h.). The ratio of the end depth to the critical depth in honzontal rnildly sloped channols has a value of 0.70 and from the critical the rnay be calculated

o
Where b is the width of the channel critical depth is defined as the depth for the depth of water and V the velocity of of above which flow IS supercritical Ii) limitations be a minimum of mrn.

(25.12)

the specific enelgy ( h / 2g where h at point) is a minimum below which the 110w is subcritica!

Width of channel minimum of 50 rnrn. iii) Accuracy

should be

The discharge value obtained by measurements made at drops would vary by 01 the true

10%

CALIFORNIA P,PE (FIG

10)

This involves rneasunng depth of flow at tatlinq of a partially l111ed horizontal pipe (Fig The discharge pipe should be honzontal should nave lenqth of atleast six times the pipe diarnter. When the pipe is flowing almost an air vent should be installed to ensure free circulation of air 111 the portions of the pipe. In the approach velocity should be kept a minimum. The discharqe can be computed using the following

o
Where

[1

(a / d)

(25.13)

discharge,

404

distance discharqe. m.

bottom of pipe to top of

surface

point

diameter of the pipe, m

FLOW NOZZLES Nozzles flow meters in pipes make use of the Venturi principle, but use a nozzle inserted in of ,0 For nozzles placed at the of pipes, only a single pressure connnection is needed to measure the
ORlrlCE

(F!G25.12) opening the centre inserted into a closed pipe pressure For computing the discharge through is used

plate is a plate a The now-rate trom Orifice plates and nozzles, the following

Where
Q
0

diameter of the Ditterential pressure in

or nozzle, m

density ot water, 1000 Constant varvmq from x Reynol(is to to 1 x 2 x tor orifice plates for flows Reynotds and 0,99 and for nozzles for flows with to 1 x of true discharge.

The
25.2,1.8

discharge
MAGNETIC

obtained
METERS

cases vary by

The desiqn of electromagnetic flow meters is based on fact that when an electrical conductor is passed through an an electromotive torce or voltaqe proportional to the velocity of conductor is induced in the conductor. In actual operation, or wastewater in pipe serves as the conductor. The electromaqnetic field is qenerated by placinq coils around the The induced voltage in IS measured by electrodes placeel on either Side ot the If pipe IS a conductor. the electrodes need not penetrate the wall of Where the pipe IS constructed of nonconductive materials, the electrodes, must penetrate the pipe wall and in some cases protrude into the liquid. The advantaqe of this flow meter is that it does not create any headless and is independent of suspended solids in In the velocity range of 1 to 10 mps fhe accuracy is 1% of flow while at the lower velocities, it is 2% of

405

...

T
d

T
h

FIG.25.1' :FLOW NOZZLE METER

(
v,
dl d2

:ORI FI CE

MET ER

407
25.2.1.9
ULTRASONIC FLOWMETERS

Ultrasonic flowmeters are based on the following principle: and waves are immersed in a moving If two probes capable of it will he found liquid in such a way that each is able to receive the wave signals sent out by the that there is a in the of propagation depending on whether the sound wave is upstream or downstream (differential velocity). if

v
d

the the

of

liquid

between the probes

the velocity of sound In the medium the angle between the velocity vector and the

at the probes

then we can write the difference in the propaqation

as

2 vdcos e
(25.15)

The working principle of an ultrasonic flow meter shown in Fig 25,13. This equipment also linear reading of the flow rate and is capable or measuring flow rates of clean or slightly gives few litres to several hundred cubic moters per hour. polluted liquids ranging from

25.21.10

VOLUMETRIC MEASUREMENT

In this method, the volume of liquid discharqed over specified time period is measured. This of fluid discharged over a specified period is usually done for small flows. Alternatively the is weighed and converted Into a flow rate.

25.2.1.11

DILUTION METHOD

This is based on the fact that a chemical or radioactive tracer injected into a stream or pipe be completely and uniformly mixed with the flow that the diluted concenrration downstream decrease with increasing discharge, Chemical concentrations are measured by titration or colorimetric methods and radioactivity by Geiqer counter. This method permits the direct computation of discharge without measurement of cross sectional area. The usual tracers used sodium sodium dichromate, manganese sodium and potassium salts, sodium fluorescein and radioactive isotopes. These techniques of measurement gaugings are not value in hilly streams in wastewater gaugings. the methods of

and

Analysis of concentration of the injected and the diluted enough downstream tor ensurinq complete rnix.nq. allows of If C T and are the concentrations of the respectively and Q and q are discharqe of the to be chemical flow respectively then.

a position of downstream

TABLE 25.1 COMPARISION OF OPERTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOW MEASUREMENT DEVICES INSTALLED AT DIFFERENT LOCATIONS
I

,
Sensitive to Fluctuation in Flow
Measurement Represents the Avg. Flow treated

Ii
Affectd by Debris Affected by silt or other settleable solids I

I
Yes

Alternative Location of Flow

I'
No
Yes No
Yes

Measurement

Measurement useful tor Plant Operations

Measurementl useful for Effluent receiving Source

I
Yes No I

II
I
Yes Yes No No No No No

! sewer or manhole

Within Intercepting

! I

Yes

II

Yes

..
I
Yes No No

Yes

No

I
1
Yes Yes NO

I I
No Yes No

At the head of the plant

II

Below bar screen

Below grit removal I or sedimentation

I I

facility

Before outfall

No

Yes

TABLE 25.2 EVALUATION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF DEVICES COMMONLY USED FOR WASTEWATER MEASUREMENT

ecccr acy
Ettect

Open

Esse recceem

soocs
coeretc-'weste

I
o
G
H

r-czzte meter

OS
t,
t,

I
N

i
c
M

Force

'r

I
1

I
I
I

I I

,
wastewater
y
wastewater

I I

I I

I
M

I
c

I
H

t.

measeremeot
t,

Intercepter

t.

Y
po.re waste-were-

Ii

Effect ot solids is Medium, N P Poor, S

smaller It solids bearing or continuous flushing type Venturr Meter is used,

GOOd,

Low, M

Yes

410
TABLE 25.3 TYPES OF FLOW MEASUREMENT DEVICES FOR DETERMINING LIQUID DISCHARGES Flow measurement device Method Employed

Venturi meter Flow nozzle meter Orifice meter Pitot tube e. Electromagnetic Rotometer

Direct-Discharge method do Velocity-Area Method Direct-Discharge method Velocity-Area method

For open Flumes (Parshall) Weirs meter c. Pitot tube Depth Flow trom treely
Flowinq Direct- Discharge method do Velocity-area method do do

Nozzles Orifices Vertical open end 1I0w

Direct-Discharqe Method do

it.

Flowinq Horizontal sloped open-end pipe California pipe method

Direct-Discharge method

4. Miscellaneuous Direct-Drscharqe method

b. Bucket stop-watch c. Volumetric measurement (measurinq level in tank) d. Water meter e. Purnpinq rate

do do do

An evaluation in Table 25.2.

various

of

commonly

for wastewater flow measurement

given

411
TABLE 25.4 MAIN MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS

Point concerned

Principle of Measurement (in general)

Instruments

Notes

Effluent flows
Raw effluent Weir or flume

Total

Settled effluent

do

3 3 3
1

3 3 3
1 1

Total or per settling tank total

Excess effluent extracted Effluent Passed tor biological treatmenl Purified effluent Sludge flows fresh sludge

do

do

2
1

per treatment

tolal Total and is no thickener total or per line

Electro-magnetic flow meters

Return sludge

Weir. Parshall or
venturi

2 2
1

3 3
1

3 3
1

Excess sludge Digested sludqe

We"
Electro-rnaqnetic flowrneters

total or per line lotal

Thickened sludqe Air Flews General By hlower By treatment line Digested gas Gas flows produced

1
1
Onflce or Venturi do

2
1

1 1
total

ucxener

2
1
1

3 3

3 3
1
global Of digesto!

Orifice meter do

Venturi

Gas flows consumed Sludge dryinq (filtration or centrttuqinq) Flow of feed sludge

2
I

2
1

qiobal or per unit this flow different flow ot diq thickened

Electro magnetic flowmeters

I Integrating R Recording S summating

1 Highly desirable

2
Optional Ifor highly technical plant)

412

.L - - - - -

1
THE WORKING PRINCIPLE OF AN

FIG.25.13: DIAGRAM

SHOWING

UL TRASONIC

FLOW METER

413

(2516)

II q is very small relative to Q

thenQ

(25.17)

CONSTANT RATE INJECTION METHOD

The concentration solution of chemical is usually prepared at the gauging site in a lank and thoroughly mixed. This is then injected into the stream at a controlled constant rate of flow, the device used being a constant volume displacement pump or constant head tank. The is with flow meter in the line with a hiqh of A injection of into the stream should continue for a period equal to the time of reaching steady conditions plus time of sarnplinq at the cross-section. A highly turbulent flow and a narrow reach are The reach should be long enough for complete mixing to formulae are available in arriving at the mixing length. samples are taken upstream from the injection from concentrated solution at the point of injection and from two points at the section b)

Integration (Sudden Injection) Method

This pretered for very large flow measurements a natural stream. A known volume of chemical tracer solution of concentration C, is introduced the as quickly as Sampling of water carried out at a point sufficiently far downstream ensuring complete rnixinq. for a period durinq which the tracer passes (which included the complete injection cycle). stream discharge Q
by

Q
(2518)

Where T removed the

the total sampling time and averaqe concentration point the plying period.

in-water

This expression holds when constant rate equipment is not and it not necessary to radioactive tracers.

IS

not the of

in the stream In method is simple. No calibration is needed test section. This used with

414
25.2.2 Velocity-Area Methods
Using the velocity area methods, the flow rate is determined by multiplying the velocity of flow (in m/s) by the cross-sectional area (in me) through which the flow is occunng. The pnncipal methods of measuring velocity are given below : 25.2.2.1
CURRENT METERS

Current meter measurements may be used to determine accurately the velocity of flow in large sewers or open channels, provided is not too much paper or other suspended matter present to clog the meter. There are several methods of gauging the velocity. 1. 2. 3. One-two and multiple point methods The method of in sections The method ot integrating in one operation

In the one-point method, the meter is held at 0.6 depth trom watel surface at the centre at the stream. This is supposed to give the rouqh mean velocity of the stream. In the two-point method, fhe velocity is observed at 0.2 0.8 of the stream depth and IS taken. In the method, the stream can be into a number of vertical sections and average velocity in each section is approximately determined. Then the mean velocity of flow In the cross . . section is found by the expression,

(2519)

Where a, is the area of the individual vertical section and v, is the average velocity

that

25.222
These done rectangular open channels or in manholes to determine approximately the velocity of tlow between the manholes. They can surface. sub-surface or The surface tound and the averaqe velocity is computed approximately as 0.87 of surface velocity. Normally discharqe measurements vary by 5% of the true discharqes. Subsurface floats consist of lelatlvely large bodies slightly heavier than connnected by to surface floats of to the necessary floatation, and carrvmq marking by their course may be resistance of the upper float and wire IS negligible and hence the cornbined rnav be assumed to move with the velocity of water at position of the submerged tloat line

25.2.2.3

PITOT TUBES

pitot tubes which IS useful tor clear liquids is not usetul in sewer qaugings because of the presence of suspended matter in wastewater which tends to clog the tube.

415

25.2.2.4

CHEMICAL AND RADIOACTIVE TRACERS

Where velocity measurements are to be the chemical or radioactive trace I S are usually injected into the stream on upstream side of the two control points. The time or passage of the prism of water containing the is noted at these control points and the velocity computed as the distance between control points divided by the travel time. Where salt is used. as tracer. the time of passage between control points measured using connected to an ammeter or recorder. When the radioactive tracers are of is noted by radioactive counters attached to the outline of the pipe.

25.2.2.5

DYE TRACERS

These are successfully us eel for measuring the velocity of flow in small sewers.

25.2.2.6

CONCLUSION

The several types of flow measurement devices available for deterrning wastewater flows and their application and evaluation are summarised and presented in Tables 25.1 to 25.4, The suqqested SIS coeles on flow measurement are presented in Appenelix C.

416
CHAPTER 26

EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES FOR SEWAGE TREATMENT

26.1 PREAMBLE

Domestic wastewater constitutes major of pollution of aquatic bodies wastewaters generated urban communities are discharged either without or partial treatment Though factors are responsible for inadequate treatment the primary are paucity of financial resources, high inputs required for some treatment technologies Activated Process and Extended Aeration Systems 20 kWh/person/year) and low or insignificant return on capital investments to build To overcome these of currently practised technologies, researches out to develop of include

i) ii}
IV)

Duckweed . Pond Technotoqy Vermi Culture Technology Technology for wet i Root Zone T echnctoqy

These technoloqies distinct advantages, i)

ii} iii)

based on

of

and treatment

the following

Minimum use of More Eco Friendly Capable of

26,2

DUCKWEED POND TECHNOLOGY

26.2.1

General

The emplcyinq duckweed is relatively to construct, maintain, Duckweed (t.emnaceae) plant which grow when temperatures renqe 15"C doubling weight within 2 4 phosphorus qrowth. The duckweed yield be quite high around tonne per it used quality (high protein) feed, protein component chicken fish Field in the yield of fish on duckweed over 10 tonoes.ba/vear

It is eltecnve In meeting or treatment The pond is water eurtace. Since uoatinq very smart. only ruiltimetres in it swept off from the to one by or waves. bamboo other to installed to ensure conditions allowing to cover over the pond Such a cover of cuts off of sunlight the water qrowth of and aquatic which could the Duckweed cover in suppressing odours mosquito duckweed regularly The fresh duckweed can be introduced into fish pond grow titapia. Rohu, Mrigel etc The duckweed can be dried or converted into for feed lor chicken

In the duckweed pond, both

the remaining of pond and trace metals. anaerobic in

activity of duckweed are responsible for removal of for a few ems 01 top layers duckweed cover

Process Flowsheet
A possible flowsbeet for removal. treatment. of duckweed to substituting it the (nitrogen feed or fish feed Anaerobic BOD of 100 of pond can by

of animal sedimentation to

26.2.4

Research and Development Needs

is to the of detention periods values of trorn 21 to 28 and other parameters The depth of ponds vary from 1.5

for duckweed pond,

417
to 3.0 m. The duckweed pond not only removes the organics and (N,P) but also capable of reducing the concentrations of chlorides, potassium, magnesium and trace metals, if any. There is no literature yet on the of duckweed ponds to remove helminths, and pathogenic Research is also needed to evaluate whether any hazards are posed by use of duckweed in food through poultry and animals.
26.3 26.3.1 VERMICULTURE TECHNOLOGY

General

This technology utilises earthworms tor the treatment of domestic wastewater. The earthworms have been called as natural btoreactors. The earthworms produce both microorganisms and enzymes that breakdown complex bio-molecutes simple compounds are by the micro The earthworms feed on wastes and grind large waste particles into sizes down to 2 4 microns can be utilised by microbial population residing inside the earthworms. It claimed that conditions are maintained by virtue of haemoglobin high saturation constant and therefore no The earthworms produce vennicastlnqe with immobittsed micrcftora and nutrients. external aeration may be required. Vermicastings have the potential of being used as biofertilisers 26.3.2

Process Description

The Vennicufture technology tor treatment of domestic water still in developmental stage Preliminary studies conducted by a group indicate that for treatment of 1 of sewage, 2 filters of 1000 m" are required, filter contains 90 cm layer of active biomass of earthworms supported on sand and coarse aggregate. The sewage is on the earthworm layer extracts the contaminants and treated sewage collected from filter and to second in series containing earthworms, sand and coarse aggregate. This two stage seriat treatment to be free from odour fly nuisance 26.3.3

and Development Needs

no mechanical equipment for aeration and

This technology has the advantages of requiring no energy for simple to operate and maintain. is

Before being applied the field for treatment of sewage, it necessary to undertake extensive and field to develop sound engineering base for design, operation and maintenance of units employed in verrrucctture technology Research is needed to the efficiency of of pathogens and helminths by this technology 26.4 RAW SEWAGE FOR TREE PLANTATION

A method has in India involving forestry, wherein water logging and stagnation have been controlled by the and potential of sewage, In a research pilot study, one meter 50 em high been formed 2 meter wide furrows, The of the experimental field was in nature with a pH around 8.6 and EC of dSm 1 Tree species such as eucalyptus, leucaena poplar grow transpire huge quantity of sewage, and at the same are able to withstand high moisture content in the root environment have been planted on the Raw sewage discharged through a feeding channel into furrows rnld per hectare. The amount of sewage to be applied the system depends upon the age and type of plant, conditions, and quality of the effluent. Total discharge of the effluent is so regulated that the same is consumed within 12 to 18 leaving no standing liquid the furrows It is possible to apply 0.3 to 1 million lures of effluent per day per hectare under different conditions, tree blo-pump absorbing through the surrounding soil and releasing to the environment through This the bio-s ystem as for supply of nutrients to soil thus builds up fertility to available N, K and micro also the pH from highly to neutral levels witnout building up of During the study been observed that the pH of soil receiving dropped 8.4 to in 4 years, Since these forest to be used as timber and pulp, there is no chance of pathogens, metals and toxic elements entering system Though three different species of trees been grown, the study revealed that eucalyptus to be the choice Expenditure involved adopting this technique not much. Recurring cost for maintenance of ridges etc., may be about four days for 2.5 day. Another important generation of revenue through sale of these trees from time to time for purposes. Though the technique to be be adopted as an independent method of sewage disposal in urban a) b) c) d) the sewage effluent of system

involving less capita! and recurring due to:

same cannot

lack of adequate land towns possibility of ground water and surface dUring non-unqation penod such sewage effluent not requued by the difficulty in odour and fly and mosquito breeding problems in the vicinity of urban stagnation of effluent leaching of pollutants into ground water are accumulated in the

to

418
e) f) high ground water health in to

to

this technology

on commercial

in

the sforessuct

26.5

ROOT ZONE TECHNOLOGY

The foot zone technology to as a made wetland where wastewater above the for enough during the to maintain saturated conditions and appropriate vegetation. The three essential components of the system include the soil, the appropriate such as reeds, bulrushes and sedges the organisms. The system has been used in Europe and U.S.A. for treatment of industrial including from textile plant containing over 250 organic chemicals, liquor a steel industry mine drainage, COO of been reported from textile plant with COO around 1500

mg/l

hydraulic residence time of 28 days.

Process
The root zone employing a desiqneo swamp depends principle that reeds have an oxygen transport system to the roots that the to survive in conditions prevailing The oxygen the hollow called rhizomes available to the aerobic growing in The aerobic matter present the in manner in conventional aerated lagoon. lt claimed that there greater diversity of microorqarusma obtainable in a system. wetland plants used of the and sedges The wastewater waits. The reed may full efficiency The quite the

to to

phraqmites which common to every and continent on pumped into the upper end of the bed surrounded by time, to grow and develop root to

i} ii) iii)

No
System

of cnerqy ct

anc

equipment vntualty mamtenance

26,5,2

Research and Development Needs sound field research end development ettect of helminths performance by underf akinq by zone technology

It both laboratory to

CONCLUSION
It before in

studies
with

the ccosideration

eccnomicat

be envuonmentet

to aspects

419
APPENDIX 'A' ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS AC amp AS BOD BOO,
ee
asbestos cement emphere Ipcd litre per capita per day pet day per minute per second metre

Ipd Ipm Ips

activated sludge oxygen demand

5 days biochemical oxygen demand cubic centimetre cast centimetre cement mortar chemical oxygen demand cubic metre per second

mps

metre per second metre cubic metre

CI
em

CM COO
cumec

meq min minute

ml d

rnillifitre

degrees

day
suspended solids mixed liquor millimetre water level net positive suction head oxidation reduction potential suspended solids

mid
00
Eq or Eqn

titres per day dissolved oxygen equation floor space index food to micro organisms ratio gramme qalvanised iron hectare hour retention time hydraulic subsidence standard calorie kilogram force kilo per day kilometre

MLSS MLVSS mm
MWL

FAR FIM gm GI ha
h, hr

NPSH ORP Pr PSS PVC RCC rph

percent soluble sodium polyvinyl chloride relntorecec cement concrete revolution per hour revolution per minute

HRT HSV IS
keel

SAR
S8

sodium absorption suspended sedimentation

SVI T TF TKN

sludge volume index

tormes
trickling filter total kjeldahl nitrogen volatile suspended solids

kilowatt kwh kilowatt hour

VS VSS

APPENDIX CONVERSION FACTORS

length
1 in
1 It

Volume
mm 0.3048
1 cu in
1 cu tt

16.8871 0,0283 0.7646

cu em
cu rn

m
m km

yd

0.9144

1 cu yd
1 acre
1 cu em
1 cu m

cu m
cu rn

0.0394
1 em

in
rn

0,061024

cu

0,3934

35.815 1.60795

cu
eu yd

0,0328
1m m km 32808 1.0936

0,00081071
yd

acre tt

Weight
1

0.6214

0.0648

Area
1 sq

1 02

9
kg tonnes

645.163

sq mrn

1 Ib
ton

sq em
1

sq tt

0.0929

sq
sq rn
sq km
ha

1g

15.45254 0.0352740

grains
02

1 sq yd 1 sq mile
1 acre

0.8361
2.59

1 kg
1 tonne

2.20462
0,98421

Ib

0.4047
4046.86

Ion

sq m

Density 16,0185
kg/rn:' or g/I

sq mm'

0.00155 0.1550 10.7639

1.1960
sq In

sq em sq m

0,0624

sq ft sq vd

ha

2.4710
0.00386

sq rrule sq mile

1 sq km

0.3861

acre

421
Pressure
Stress

(UK)

4.54(;09

0.0703

0,160544

cu

1.5749
1 atrn

(US)

0,00378541 3,78533
0,832675 UK
ell

101325,0 760.0
mmHg

bar

0.133681
I US

14.6959 33.8984

(Liquid)
1 oz (US)

29.5729

29.9213

in Hg

1 fluid oz (UK)
I I

0.001308

eli

yd (UK)

10.3322

1 10

0.264172

gal (US) ell It

0.96784
I lb'

arm

N kg'

0,204816

0.6850 68087,0
(where 1 pdt e

1 toni

9,96402

kN

o 138255 N)
pdl 0,138255
32,1740

mm Hg

2.78450

9
due to gravity)

Energy and

0,745700

kw

0.101972

0,224809 1 kgt 2.20462

Ibl
lbl 1
Iherm

1.05506

kJ MJ J

105,506
1,35582
134102

Run-ott

6,99724

1 kw

Horae-power

acre
1 10,9332 0.142915 1 J

3.$
0.737562

MJ

0,0914645

1 kJ tI

0,277778 1.35582

wh w

422
Velocity
1

mg/l
UK CaCO:; scaleUS

per

(American degrees} 0.058 0.83

1 rnilerh

0.4470
kmfh

1.00

1 mfs

toe
2.2369
mile/h

17.15 10.00
17,86

1.20 0,70 125 0,18

Parts per 100,000 CaO (German

1.00

0,6214

257
Parts per 100,000

0.15
Parts per million ea degrees)

Loading Rates

mrn's

{French

1 UK 1 uK 1

0,0135927 1,17441
UK

mnvs

0,10 1.43

o.oss
0.80
0,96

0.40

5,72

0,0130016 1,12336
1 UK galfday!ft

rmws 0,56

4.00
7,14

14,915

lpd/m
0,26
014

103

1 US 1 US 1

O,OJ1380 0,977879

US

0.0108258

rnm's

1 US

12,915 00124191

Ipdfm

1 mrn/s

141.732

lnfh

UK

0,85149 0,890187

67,466

UK

423

APPENDIX C LIST OF INDIAN STANDARDS RELATING TO SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE TREATMENT

Indian Standard No .

Title General

SP 7:1983 SP351987 IS 456:1978

Building code of Indian Handbook on Water orectice for for

structures

part IX Plumbing Servtces . Drainaqe

and Drainage with special emphasis on reinforced concrete (third construction of plain and concrete and other

IS 457:1957

IS 460(PT 1)1985 IS 460(PT 1985

test Specification lor test for test sieves.pert

revision)

I wire ll Pertorted plate methods of

(third (third revision) of apertures of sieves (third

IS 460(PT 3)1985

IS 9621967
!S 1200(PT 16):1979

Code of
s-ev-er

for

building civil
aopunenant

(first

IS 1200(PT 19):1981

Method of measurement of building drains revision) of practice for Soeciticenon of mild steel rev.ston) (first revision]

19

suppiy

1343:1980 IS 1495:1970 IS 1554 part 1964

PVC msuttatec
F For working vcttaqe upto end from KV upto 1100 volts including 11 KV

(b)

II

1970

IS 1607' 1977
IS 2064 1973 Code of Revis.on) Soecaication for Code of pr acttce for Steet wheel 01 practice for type) for the I
setections.

and

aopuances

IS 2174.1962 IS 2212.1962 IS 2431

1963

dust bins

IS 3370(PT 1):1965

424
requirements IS 3370(PT 2);1965

Code of practice for concrete structures for concrete structures, Code of practice for concrete structures for Concretes Structures.
Code at

the

of

Pert H reinforced

IS 3370(PT 3);1967

the storage of

Part

Pestressed

3370(PT 4):1967

of concrete structures for the storage of

Part 4 Design tables.

IS 3764: 1966
IS 3861.1975

Safety code for excavation work Method of of plinth, carpet and reatable area of (first revision)

IS 4081 : 1986
IS 4682(PT 1) 1968

Safety code for blasting and related Code of practice of lining. Part 2 Glass lining of veeses and equipment for chemical processes Part Rubber

IS 4682(PT 2) 1969 4682(PT 3):1969 IS 4682(PT 4)1969 IS 4682(PT 5)1970 IS 4682(PT 6):1970 IS 4682(PT 7):1974 IS 4682(PT 8) 1974 IS 4682(PT 9):1974 IS 4682(PT 10):1974 IS 4854(PT 1)1969

Part 3 Lead
Part 4 Ptasticisec PVC lining

Part 5 Epoxide resin

Part 6
resin resistant metals

Part 7 Corrosion and

8 Precious
Part 9 Titanium Part Brick and their parts, Part 1 Screw stop check and gate valve

Glossary terms for and their parts

IS 4854(PT 2);1969

Glossary of terms of valves and their parts: Part 2 Plug valves and cocks and their parts. for sewer bricks (first revision) Specification for ready mixed concrete (first revision) of terms relating to test sieves and test sieving (first revision) and symbols for sieve bottoms: Part I Woven and Welded wire screens Terms and lor bottoms Part

IS 4883

1983

IS 4926 : 1976
1$5421' 1981

IS 5742(PT 1)1970 IS 2):1970

1981

Code of practice for inspection Code of practice for

maintenance of cross-orelnaqe works (first revision) design of surge tanks, part General features 2 Specific requirements

IS 7357

1974

IS 7784(PT 1)1975 IS 7784(PT 2!SEC 1): 1983

Code of practice for design and cross drainage work Code of practice for design of cross 1 Aqueducts. Code of practice for works'

IS 7784(PT 2/SEC 2) 1980

of cross drainage works

2 specific requirements section

425
2 suoerpasseqes
IS 7784(PT 2/SEC 3): 1981
Code of svohons 3 Code of practice for 4 Level Crossings of 2 Specific section

IS 7784(PT 2/SEC 4): 1980

cross

works

requirements

IS 7784(PT 2/SEC 5) 1980

Code of practice for design of cross drainage Syphon

Part 2

Section 5

IS 7861 (PT 1)1975

Code of practice for

weather concreting

concreting

hot

IS 7861 (PT 2):1981

Code of practice for extreme weather concreting Safety code for

Code of construction of

concretinq : Part II

practice

cold

IS 7969 : 1975 IS9913 1981 IS 10262 : 1982 IS 10483 1983

of building materials
drainage

Recornmeneo

for of

design (identical with type

Cooe for

7806)

IS 11389 1986
IS 11993 : 1987

of test for pertcrmeoce of concrete vibrators Code of practice use of screen for concrete vibrators

IS 12119: 1987

requirements for

IS 12440 : 1988
IS 12468 : 1988 IS 12592(PT 1):1988 PIPES AND FITTINGS GENERAL IS IS 782: 1979 5382. 1985

S pecrtrcation for precast concrete stone masonry blocks

for vibrators Snecincatron for concrete mass concreting covers Immersion Part I Covers

Caulking Ieee (third revision) Rubber sealing for gas mains, water mains and revision) pipe cutters revision)

IS 6837: 1973 186843: 1984 IS 6881 1973

wheel type pipe cutter Techmcal supply conditions Link Single cutters type

IS 10883 : 1984
IS 11906 1986

Recornmencrenons for fittings for transportation of

lining for cast-iron.

ductile-iron pipes

IS 12820 : 1989

Dimensional for rubber with iron pipes water, and sewage

for

joints

bush Joints for use

CONCRETE

426
IS 458 1988
Code of for concrete reinforced concrete for concrete (first revision) without reinforce- ment) (third of concrete (first revision) revision)

IS
IS IS

1978 1989

IS

1985

for

ASBESTOS CEMENT
IS 1592

1989 1988
Cast iron revision)

cement pr easure pipes (third revision) pipes for Sewage (second

135531

IS 5913' 1989 6530

of

for

1972
1988
1980

of prncnce Cast
Asbestos

8794

joints for use with pipes (light duty) rings

preasure pipe (first revision)

IS 10292

Dirnenoiorial requirement for rubber pipinq revision)

Iron for for

detachable

in

IS 10299' 1982
IS 11769 : Part 1 IS 12987 1990
1990

connection for

cement pressure

of products containing

Cast Iron detacnabte Dimeoe.onar

tor

cement pr ensure pipes

duty) cement

IS 12988

CiD jomts in

4 CAST IRON PIPES IS 1230.1979

IS 1536.1939 iron Centrifugally water (spun) (second revision) pipe water, gas and sewage (second revision) (first revision)

IS 1537: 1976 IS 1538(PT 1)1976 IS 1538(PT 2)1976 IS 1538(PT 3) 1976 IS 1538(PT 4):1976 IS 1538(PT 5):1976 IS 1538(PT 6):1976
Specific Specific Specific reouirements

pipes for water, gas and

for sockets reouuements tor sockets of fittings lor flanges of pipes and for flanges. standard flange

of pipes

of flanged pipes and

427
IS 1538(PT 7)1976 IS 1538(PT 8):1976 IS 1538(PT 9):1976 IS 1538(PT 10):1976 IS 1538(PT 11):1976 IS 1538(PT 12):1976 IS 1538(PT 13):1976 IS 1538(PT 14):1984 IS 1538(PT 15):1976 IS 1538(PT 16}:1976 IS 1538(PT 17}1976 IS 1538(PT 18}: 1976 IS 1538(PT 19):1976 IS 1538(PT 20):1976 IS 1538(PT 21)1976 IS 1538(PT 22): 1976 IS 1538(PT 23): 1976 IS 1538(PT 24):1984 IS 1729.1979
requirements lor sockets

requirements for requirements lor

spigots

requirements for double socket bends. requirements for tees all sockets requirements for double socket tee with flanged branch Specific requirements for crosses, all sockets
Specific requirements for double socket tapers (third revision)

Specific requirements for caps Specific requirements for plugs Specific requirements for belt south pieces,
Specific requirements lor double flanged bends.

Specific requirements for

requirements for

flagned tees.
flanged

requirements for double flanged requirements for requirements for requirements for Sand (first revision)
Meueabte cast

puddle or body flanges

flanged

tees (second revision) and fittings accessories

spigot

IS 1879: 1987
IS 1985

pipe fittings (Second

Code of practice for iron spigot iron pipe

of cast iron pipes [first pipes and flanged for petroleum industry ventilating and

153486: 1966
IS 3516 IS 3989 1966 1984

Centrituqalty (spun) iron spigot and socket soil, accessories (second

Centntuqallv cast (spun) iron low pressure pipes for cast iron Centrifugally Ductile iron Methods of Code for pressure of for use iron iron for and pipes for

IS 6163: 1978
IS 7181 IS 8329 1986 1990

sewage (first gas and sewage (first revision) revision)

pipes for water, gas and sewage and

IS 9523 : 1980 IS 11606 : 1986 IS 12288 : 1987

laying of ductile iron pipes

428
5.

IS 1239
Part 1

Mild

tubes. tubvlare tubes (fourth tubulars

other wrought steel fittings

1979
1982 Mild

part 2

wrought

pipe

(third revision)

IS

1982

line pipe (second revision) Electrically welded steel pipes for water, gas and sewage (150 to 2000 mm nominal size) (second revision) welded pipes Code of practice for pipe pipes for hydraulic Code protection of steel structures of welded steel pipes for water supply (first revision)

IS 3589 : 1991

IS 5504 : 1969
IS 5822 IS 6392 1986 1971 1971 IS

STONEWARE

651

1980

Salt Chemical resistant Code of practice for

pipes

fittings (fourth revision) and fittings (first revision)

3006 ' 1979 4127 1983

stoneware

stoneware pipes (first revision)

PLASTIC
IS4984

1987

High (third
Code of

polyethylene pipes for potable water supplies,

and industrial effluents

IS 1 1975

for plastics pipe work for potable water supplies

Choice of materials general recommendations and jointing polyethylene (PE) pipes, for injection moulded HOPE fittings for supplies

IS 8008
1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 5 1976

1976 1976
1976

requirements Specific 90 Specific requirements 90 lees Specific for reducers Specific requirements for ferrule reducers,

enos
7
requirements high General Specific Specific 0'1 polyethylene (HDPE)
water

IS 8360
Part 1 3 IS

1977 1977
1989

90 degree tees, for 90 degree bends,

fibre reinforced (GRP) pipes for lor water supply and

seweraqe

429
PITCH IMPREGNATED IS 11925 Speciucat.on for pitcb-unpreqneted fibre and lor drainaqe

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SANITATiON

Waste Water equipment

is 5600 rs 6279 is

1970
1971

Sewaqe

Drainaqe
grit removal

6280. 1971

157232-1974 IS 8413 IS 8413 1):1977 2): 1982

to: oictoqica: t..aatmeot equipment 1

equipment Part 2

its

1$ 9110

1979 1979

Hand operated evoers

closet,

end

IS9213

IS 10037(PT 1):1981

Reqcnemeots for sludqe

Part bees-sand.

IS 10037(PT 2):1983

Reoouemems
Peou.remeots

stuoqe oewatennq equipment Pan 2 Pan

fi trenon equipment
(Solid

is

10037(PT

IS 10261

Peocnemems for 1883

to in Chlorination for cbtonnation driven

equipment) for waste

IS 10552
IS 105533 1

mactune

Reou.remems
Genera'

1983

Part 2

1983 1983 chtorinators

IS 10595
for

is

11387

1985

tor Attactuuent toots for power

tor

cteaoinq

18113971985

CODE OF PRACTIOES

IS 1742

1983

of practice for

revision)

430
IS 2470 (PT 1)1985
Code of practice for {Second revision) of septic Pari 1 Design, and

IS 2470 (PT

Code of septic COde of

for installation of septic tanks effluent (second revision) for

Part

secondary ue atrnent

disposal of

IS 4111
1

structures sewerage

1986
1985

Part 2
3

1985 1968

Manholes (first revision) Flushing tanks (first Vetted syphon (first revision)

Pumping

and pumpinq mains (rising main) (first revision)

1$ 5329 , 1983
IS 5611

Code of pi actice for samtarv pipe work above ground for

Code of Code of for water

1987
1986

ponds (tacutauve type) (first revision) dramaqe in high and/or eub-z ero temperature

6295

IS IS 7740

1973 1985 1981

of practice Code of for Code of of Code of for for

construction of

chutes in murtistorev buildings

concrete septic in in to be taken communities entering system

IS 12251 IS IS 11972

1987 1987 1987

for saouation with for

SOUD WASTES
T errnir.oloqv
IS 9569 1980

Glos.sery of terms

to solid

CODE OF PRACTICE IS 10447 IS IS 12647 IS 1983 1980 1989

for Solid wastes for
And

of solid waste from

for

steel plants

equlpments
ot tor of

n:
1

for opume euon tor setecuon

sono

Part

METHODS OF TEST
IS 9234 : , 979
for preparation of solid Methods for sample for and microbiolcqical wastes (excluding

IS 9235

1979

determination of moisture

IS 10158.1982

Method

anejvse of

Terrrunolo-qv

/022

of

etfloents. Pnrt 1

is
IS

(PT
ot terms water

to water, sewage

etttuents. Pert

of
I)

etaoents,

(PT

for
sarnplinq 3): 1968 test for

Part 1
effluents, Part 2

IS
IS IS (PT

of
of

for industrial effluents, Part 3

test for industrial etnuents. P 4

IS 2488 {PT 5): 1976

IS 4733 1971

test for Methods of methods for Water

samptinq teet for

effluents,
ettlvents,

IS 6582 : 1971
ii) IS 1622

toxicity ot industrial effluents

water (first (physical and chemical) for used in industry wastewater

3025
IS

1964

of

1)

(Part 3)
4)

1987

Provision

eccuracy tesr

Colour (fir st {first revision)

5)
6)

71
8)

1984

Taste
Taste

revtsioo)

t e.nperature (first revi-s

(P art 10)

1984

Turoio.tv (first
pH vetue

(Part 11)
12)

(Part
14)

index

respect bridqe.

carbonate) (first revision) (tir st

432
15)
1984

dissolved and suspended) (first revision)

(first revision)

16)
17) 18)

1984
(total suspended voteti!e {total filterable
{first

(first revision) non-ti'terabte) (first revision)

(Part 19)
20)

1984
1984

Setneeote

Dispersion Torat (first

(flow patterns] (first

21)'
22) (Part 23) 24) 25) 26)

1986 1986
1986

(tirst revision)
revision) Sutpnates (first

Ctuonne 1986
1986

residue:

(Part 28)

1986
: 1986
Sulphide (first Bromide revision)

(Part

30) , 1988

31)
32)

1988

C blonde (tirst
1985
1988
Nrncqen
(first rev.ston)

33)

34)
(Part 35)

1988 1988

36)
37)
38)

Ozone Arsenic {first

1989

oxvqen (tirst
test rcutme contror in industry

IS 3550

1965

of IS 1979 for effluents industry revision) 1, For

IS 5061 (PT 1):1978

for ano disposal of effluents of with chemtcat (first revision) of

and board industry

IS IS 1974 treatment of ettluents of

tanning industry

433
IS 7967 : 1976 IS 8032 IS 8073 1976 for Guide for pollution of of costal areas. effluents.

1976

Guide for treatment and disposal of steel plant effluents Guide for treatment of effluents of dairy industry. Code of practice for operation and maintenance of columns

IS 8682 : 1977
IS 9427 : 1980 IS 9508 : 1980 IS 9509: 1980 IS 9841 : 1981 IS 10044: 1981 IS 10495 : 1983

Guide for treatment and disposal of effluents of cotton and synthetic Guide for treatment and disposal of of viscose rayon lnoustry. industry,

Guide for treatment and disposal of effluents of

Guide for treatment and disposal of effluents of petroleum refinery industry. Guide for treatment and disposal of effluents of woo! processing industry.

CHEMICAL HAZARDS General IS 1446: 1985 IS 4155. 1966 Code of Safety IS 4209: 1987 IS 4262 : 1967 IS 4263 : 1967 IS 4264 IS 4312 : !S 4544 : 1968 IS 4560: 1968 IS 4844 : 1968 IS 4906 IS 5184. 1969 IS 5208 : 1969 IS 5302 1969 1967 Chemical laboratories (First Classification of dangerous goods. Glossary of terms relating chemical and radiation hazards chemicals

Sulphuric
Chlorine Caustic soda Lead and its compounds Ammonia Nitric Acid Benzene, toluene and xylene. Radiochemical Hydrofluoric Acetic acid Acetic anhydride

lS5311: 1969
IS 5685 : 1970 IS 5931 1970 IS 6156 : 1971

Carbon Tetracblorioe
Carbon disulphide Handlinq of cryogenic liquids Cblorosufphcnic acid

434
IS 6164

1971 1971

Hydrochloric Ethylene oxide

IS 6269
IS 6270
IS 6818

1973
Calcium carbide Bromine

IS 6819: 1973
IS 6953 IS 6954 7415

1973 1973 1974

19'74

Aniline

IS 7444 7445

1974 1974
Acetone

IS 7812 : 1975 8185 : 1976 IS 8388

Mercury
Phosgene

1977 1978
1978 Aluminium Chloride, anhydrous M-dinitrobenzene

IS 9052 IS 9053 9277

IS 9278
IS

1979 1979 1979

1980

Monocblorocenz ene
Zinc Phosphide
Aluminum Phosphide

IS 96/9 IS 9744 IS 9786 IS 9787 10870 IS 10871

Work environmental monitoring (air borne contaminants) Thionyl chloride

Aluminium alkvis

1981

Vinyl chloride monomer {VCMl

1984

Hexane

1984

Hvdrazine end hvdr az.ine hydrate Malathion trichloride

1$10872' 1984

IS IS 11141
IS 12033
1984
ACI

Duuuo
1986

IS 12034

435
IS 12035 : 1986 IS 12141 1987
Microbioloqical teboretor Methyte ethyle ketone

IS 12142 : 1987 IS12413: 1987

1, "

, trtchtoro ethane

T etrachloroethane

SANITARY APPLIANCES AND VALVES IS 771 (PT 1)1979 IS 771 (PT 2)1985
Specification for
Specification for glazed revision]

sanitary appliances
appuances : 2

requirements,
requirements of

IS

(PT 3): 1986

ISS for urinals

Soecitication for 1 slab

nre-ctev sennarv

requirements for urinals, Section 2 stall

IS

(PT 3/SEC 1) 1979

apptiances Part 3 specific requirements of revision).

IS 771(PT 3/SEC 2) 1985

Specification for glazed fire-clay sanitary aophances Part 3 specific requirements of urinals, 2 stanwinats (thrid revision) Soeciucanon for qlazed fire-clay pootnortcn slabs (Second revision) appliances 4 of

IS 771(PT4) 1979

IS 771(PT5) 1979

trays

Soecmcanon for tiro-clay sanitary revision)

peciticetlon for fire{Second revision). for glazed (Second revision). for general requirements for appliances

5 specific requ.rernents

IS 771 (PT 6)1979

requirements of bed-pan

IS 771(PT 7)1981

Part 7

requirements of slope

IS 772

1973

cast iron

(Second

rev.slcn].

IS 773 : 1988
revision) IS 774 1984

for enamelled

iron

closets

coaching stock type (fourth

for (fourth revision) for cast iron

water closets

orast!c

IS 775 : 1970

and

tot wash basins

{second

IS 780 : 1984

Specitication tor

vlve s for water works purposes (50 to 300 rnm size) (sixth float (Horizontal planger type) for water supply

1703

1989

Specification for copper (third revision)

IS 1726(PT 1):1974

for cast iron manhole covers and

requirements {second

rev.s.onl
IS 1726(PT 2)1974
1 for iron covers type (second revision)

names Part 2

requirements tor HD

IS 1726(PT

for cast manhole covers and triangular type (second revision),

3 specific

for HD

436
IS 1726(PT 4):1974 type for cast manhole covers and revision) and Part 4 specrtc requreruents of HO

IS

5)1974
rectanquter

for cast iron manhole

lor HD

1726(PT 6/SEC rectanquter

cast sinqle for recteoquter

covers and frames Pari 6 (second revision)

for LD

6iSEC 2):

iron manhole COVers and frames Part 6 specific requirement of LD 2 double seal (second revision) manhole covers and (second revision) manhole [seco no pert 8 requirements of HD Part 7 specific requirement LD

IS 172GIPT 7iSEC 1) 1974

Specification tor 1

IS 1726(PT

2):

Spcc.Iiceuon cast square section for cast

square

requirement

LD

IS

1973

of practice for setection. lnstaltation Speciticauoo for automatic flushing cistems Specincation plastic seats

maintenance of urinals revision) 1 and

IS 2326:1987
IS 2548(PT

covers for water-closets

IS 2548(PT 2):1983

Speciticetio (fourth revision)

for

2 Thermoset

and

IS 2556(PT 1)1974
revision)

appnaoces (vitreous china)

requirements

IS
of IS 2556(PT 3):1981

for down water-closets

appliances (vitreous chine) revision). (vitreous

Part 2

requirements

Part

Specific requirements

of Squatting

(third revision) appliances (vttreocs Part 4 Specific requirements

IS 25561PT 4)1972

for ct wash bastns

IS 2556(PT 5}:

for vitreous (second

appliances

5 Specific requirements

2556(PT

1):

Soeciticatton of

1 Bowl

s.anitarv (third

(vitreous china}

Part 6

requirements

IS

A/SEC 2):

Speciucation for vitreous ot unnats, 2

{vitreous

6 Specific requirements

IS

3):
of uonats.

vitreous senitarv (vitreous plate (second samtarv 4 partision stab crime) revision)

6 Specific requirements

2556(PT 6iSEC 4):

Specification of urinals.

6 Specific

IS

6/SEC 5): 1974

vitreous section waste fittings (second revision)

Part 6 Specific requirements

IS 2556(PT 6!SEC 6) of urinals. IS 2556 (PT 7):1973 Speciticettoo

of halt round channels

saouarv

(vitreous

6 water spreaders for

(vitreous
revision)

6 revision) , 7

IS 2556 (PT 8)1985

Speciticetion for vitreous seunarv

of water (third revision)

Part 8 Specific requirements

IS 2556 (PT 9)1979

Specification sennarv of (third revision)

(vitreous

requirements

IS 2556(PT 10):1974 of toot IS 2556(PT 11):1979 of IS 2556(PT 12) 1973

of floor

for vitreous (second for rose (first revision)

(vitreous

Part 10 Specific

(vitreous

11

requirements

(vitreous

12

IS 2556(PT 13)1973
neos tor

for vitreous pnns vitreous pans

(vitreous

13 Specnic requirements

IS 2556(PT 14)1974 of ioterqratec IS 15):1974

of

(vitreous

14

fot
water

(vitreous

15

IS IS 2906

1971 1984

Code of

and

of sluice

sbuce varves

works purposes

101200 rum

(third

IS 2963: 1979 IS 3042

IS 1965

Specification for copper Spc cuicanon face

fittings for
(200 to 1200 mm

(fir st

1979

plug Specification for enamn-et Specification for for foot

lor

lor sinks (first revision) (first revision)

wasn-

revision)

IS 3489: 1985 IS 3950

1979

boxes

IS 4038: 1986

IS 4346 : 1982
IS 5219(PT 1)1969 IS 5312(PT 1)1984
revision) IS 5312(PT 2)1986 Soecificatico

for usc with copper

for water

part

-p.
vafves.Part (first

for

Specification for for non-tenocs

type

2 bottle manholes china] for

for

IS 5434: 1979
IS 5455
1969

Specification for cast-iron

IS 5917.1970

438
IS 5961 IS 6411 IS IS 8718 IS 7819 8727 IS 1978 1978 1979 1981 1981 1981 1985 1970 1985 1984 Specificaton for cast iron gratings for drainage purposes Specification tor for fibre reinforce potve stot resin cisterns for steel kitchen Specification for vitreous sinbonic wash-down for vitreous for vitreous integrated steel pans for marine closets for (first revision) (first revision)

IS 9739

Specification for pressure reducing valves for domestic water supply systems. Specification for flush and for water closets and for ball

is 9758
IS
IS11246 IS

Specification for polyethylene for for

fibre reinforced polyester resins (CRP) squarunqs equilibrium float valves for cold water services moulded polyethylene water storage

is 12701

1989

FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

1192: 1981 Velocity erea methods Recommendations for (approximate method) measurement of flow of water in open channels. flow measurement in open channels by method

is 2912: 1964

IS 2913 IS2914

1964

Recommendations for determination of flow in tidal Recommendations for estimation 01 discharge by establishing steqe-discberqe relation in open channels

2952

1):1964

Becommedettons for methods of measurrnent of liquid flow by means of nozzles: Part 1 incompressible fluids. Recommendations for methods measurement of 2 compressible fluids Methods 01 of

and

IS

(PT 2)1975

flow by means or orifice plates and

IS 44T7

flow by means 01 vet uri meters by means to venturi meters

1 liquids
Part 2 compressible

IS

(PT 2)1975

Me-thods of measurement of fluid fluids

IS 6059' 1971

Recommendations for flow measurement In open channels by weirs and flumes of finite crest width for free discharge. Method of measurement of of water open channels using standing wave

weirs

IS 6062
IS 6063 :

1971

Method of measurement of flow of water in open channels using standing wave flumes. Recommendation for liquid flow measurement in open channels by weirs and flumes end depth method for estimation of flow in rectangular channels free overtau (approximate method) flow measurement in open channels using thin plate weirs

IS 6330 : 1971

IS 9108

1979

439
IS IS 1979
Method for of incompressible fluid flow in closed conduits by bend meters end overtef

IS IS 9163 (PT
IS 9922 : 1981

Recommendation for measurement in open channels by weirs and depth method for estimation of flow in nonwith (approximate method). Method for flow estimation by jet (approximate method)

Dilution methods of meaescrement of steady flow part 1 constant rate injection method. Guide for selection of method for
Guidelines for the selection of flow gauging

flow in open chennets

1985 structur es

IS 12752

Pertcrrrarce

reo-over,
75 85

-50
10
-

eo.sc
cost

t.erc rec.ee-rera

12 15-

7 - 11

or,

oeos
0'

bees

ose

to
oevces

beds
years

crce

-recn

rrecn

Aerators

aecvcePerrps

ccsectc

Ooeretcoar Coarectenstics

seaec
reowee

Pooctaucn

Coeslderabe

to
aod operator,

coosmctoo

be

esceoeny

cceeceo
to

coueceon

eco-omcat eaeo-esve
re'ccate a
svste-

crenerec
largestzed
reqcee-rere

requ

rear

ares
type

otsset
ttorn

corrceredtc
Activated

arearocc 3
e-cce cost-ueeerers ee e-eercoc

specat
ot 3

treasures
sopes 2 1

coroco-s

DO

eorcors

Process

441

APPENDIX 1.2 ESTIMATION OF FUTURE POPULATION

PROBLEM: The population of a town as per the Census records are given below for the years 1921 to 1981. Assuming that the scheme of water supply will commence to function from 1986. it is required to estimate the population 30 years hence i.e. in 2016 and also the intermediate population 15 years after 1986 l.e.2001.

YEAR 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981

Total:

POPULATION 40.185 44.522 60,395 75,614 98,886 124.230 158,800

INCREMENT

4,337 15,873 15,219 23,272 25,344 34,570 118,615 19,769

Average: SOLUTION:

1.

ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION METHOD

Increase in population from 1921 to 1981 i.e. 6 decades

)

1,58,800 40,185 1,18,615

or increase per

19,769 2 decades

Population in 2001

Population in 1981 + Increase 158,800 + 2 x 19,769 158,800 + 39,538 198,338

Population

2016

Population in 1981 + Increase for 3,5 decades 158,800 + 3,5 x 19,769 227,992

442

2.

GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION METHOD Rate of growth (r) per decade between 1931 and 1921 4.337/40,185 0.108

1941 and 1931

15,873 / 44.522

0.356

1951 and 1941

15.219/60,395

0.252

1961

1951

23.272 / 75.614

0.308

1971 and 1961

25,344 /98,886

0.256

1981 and 1971

34.570 / 124.230

0.278

Geometric Mean.

'

08xO.356xO.252xO.308xO.256xO.278

0.2442

Assuming that the future growth follows the geometric mean for the period 1921 to 1981 0.2442 Population in 2001 Population in 1981 x (1 158.800 Population in 2016
X

(1.2442)'

2,45,800

Population in 1981 x 158.800

X

(1.2442)"

3.05,700

443

1000 900 800 700

l..
-

_---

aa 5 aa aa
6 3 62 300 253 2 00
1--

----

--

I I
I

:r:

I I
100 90 80 70 60 50
,

z
z;

-:
!

---- ------------

i
I
I

2a

I
I I

I
I I I I
I
I

SEMI LOG

GRAPH

ESTIMATION OF FUTURE POPULATION

444
3. METHOD OF VARYING INCREMENT OR INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD

In this method a progressively decreasing or increasing rather than a constant rate is adopted. This is a modification over the Arithmetical Progression method.

YEAR

POPULATION

INCREASE (X)

INCREMENTAL INCREASE (Y)

1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981

40,185 44,522 60,395 75,614 98,886 124,230 158,800 Total: 4,337 15,873 15,219 23,272 25,344 34,570 118,615 1/6 x 118,615 19,769
+ + + +

11,536 654 8,053 2,072 9,226 30,233 1/5 x 30,233 6,047

Average

1) Y

n'

P
'98'

Population in 2001

158,800 + 39,538 + 18,141

216,479

20'6

198,

+3

Population in 2016

..

158,800 + 69,192 + 24,188

252,180

4.

GRAPHICAL PROJECTION METHOD

From the (Fig.1,2) presented on the following page, the figures for 2001 and 2016 years obtained are as follows: 2001 2016 253,000 362,000

445

APPENDIX 3.1 COMPUTATiON OF STORM RUNOFF AND DESIGN OF STORM SEWER

Problem:
Design a system of storm sewers for the area shown in the figure NO.1 based on the Rational Formula for the estimation of peak runoff. Basic Data and Assumptions Imperviousness Built up and paved area Open space, lawns, etc. Inlet time Built up and paved area Open space, lawns (t.) Minimum velocity in sewer Minimum depth of cover above crown Rainfall intensity 8 minutes. 15 minutes. 0.8 mps 0.5 metres.

0.7
0.2

consider one year storm as the area is central and high priced.

(Use Table 3.1 for the record of rainfall intensity and frequency of rainfall). Use Manning's chart for Sewer design.

Solution:
Ouantity of storm wator runoff is calculated using the Rational Formula given in Sec.3.3.1. i.e. Q Where,
Q

10 c.i.A

c
i A

runoff in mJ/hr of runoff intensity of rainfall in mmlhr and area of drainaqe district in hectares.

Storm water runoff is determined in the followinq manner; i) From the raintall records for the last 26 years (table 3.1), the storm occurring once in a i.e. 26 in 26 years, the time-intensity values for this frequency are obtained by are as lnter-polation Intensity, '!' mm/hr Duration, t'rrunute ii) 30 35 36

40
28.5

44

45 22.5

50 13.5

60

9.75

The qeneralised formula adopted for intensity and duration is

446

'.,

Where i t

intensity of rainfall In mm/ru'. duration minutes and and 'n' are constants

A graph (Fig.2) is plotted for one year storm using the values of 'i' and 't' from the above table on a loq-loq paper. From the line of best values of 'a' and 'n' are found out From the plotted line, respectively, values of 'a' and 'n' are 160 and Now using equation i i.e. after substituting the values of 'a' and 'n' different values of i for various values of t are calculated and tabulated as below and a curve (Fig.3.a) is plotled on an ordinary graph paper. Table for intensity-duration curve for one year storm:

iv)

Another graph [Fig.3(b)] of runoft-coetticient "c' vs.duration time "t' is plotted as per values given in Table Table). From tbe above two graphs and (b) the values of c and i for the same duration tare determined and the curves for 10 ci vs t for the various values of imperviousness plotled value of 10 ci gives the rate of runoff in per hectare of the tributary These curves are ultimately used calculating runoff from the tributary areas for a given time of conncentration and imperviousness

v)

Design of Storm Sewer System:

Table 1 givos Column Column various components of the storm sewer system desiqn.

identify tile location of drain, streot and manholes. record increment in area the given imperviousness factors.

Column 7 qives

increment with equivalent 100 percent imperviousness factor. drain. The time of

Column 8 records the total area served by

Column 9 records tho time of concentration at each upper end of Iino (drain). is found by taking the weiqhted average of the two areas,

447

Where built up area and Area of lawns) Column 10 records the time of flow in each drain. calculated to be 70/(60 x 1.0) 1.17 min. For example the time of flow in line 1 is

Column 11 is the total time of concentration for each drain. Column 12 is the value of runoff as lOci read from the Fig.4 for the corresponding time of concentration. Column 13 gives the total runoff from each tributary area. Column 14 gives the runoff in Ips from each tributary area. Column 1518 record the chosen size, required grade resulting capacity, velocity of flow tor each drain or line. These designs of storm sewers are computed from the Manning's chart for each required flow and maintaining a minimum velocity. Column 1923 identify the profile of the drain. Column 19 is taken from the plan. Column 20 Col.19 x Co1.16. values In

Column 21 the required drop in manholes IS obtained directly from the recommended section 3.3.4.5.

startmq Column 22 gives invert elevation at the upper end with a minimum cover of 0.6m manhole. Thus for lines 1,3,6 and 9, the invert elevations are respectively 37.400, 36.700, 38.000 and 36.000. In case manhole having more Ulan one inlet, the drop in the manhole IS considereo with respect to the lowest invert level of the inlets to fix the invert level of tho outlet. Column 23 invert elevation at the lower end of the

tc

ON

Street

rrro.tecto
ot
T
lps

Pel

rops

8
14

tz
15
120

ia

19

2'

70

07

0000

133

1,0

083

1,0

70

coa

040

o.esc
'28
17 1217

25.0

1.0

0.70

37,300

555

t.c
2140

70

0,39

sccns:
0274
2,320

12,5 5.37

eco
51(}

to.z
10,8
094 1174

0.70

ecc
5.0
100

70

SootbSt

1845

700

400

25

APPENDIX 3.1

100mm

CCOO.6)
61020mm

t
SECTION

1200

C. C

40mm

WITH OUT OVER BURDEN

200mm PIPE

100mm WIDTH,

..

1500

PLAN

ANTI FLOTATION

BLOCK

451

NDIX

SCALE

, 00

70

50

<;

-s,
<,

I
-- -I

20

I
,
2

..

10

20
OU RA

50

70

APPENDIX

100

70

II

--

..

20
10

.
130 1LO
160 170 180

tt
'10 30
SO 60 70 80 90 100
DURATION

IN

MINUTES

APPE

I I
,

I ! I

' 1
se

ER

RECTANGLE

455

70

\0

.s
]

ou

457-A

APPENDIX 3.4 CALCULATION OF

CURVE

CPHEEO/ND/94

458
APPENDIX CALCULATION OF BACKWATER CURVE

Problem:
A Diameter Circular sewer laid on a gradient of 0.5/1000 discharges cumecs into a pump well. The Waste water level in the pump well rises to full depth of 3 meters above invert of incoming sewer. Assume a Manning's n value of 0.012 and trace the profile of the back water curve till the flow becomes normal at a depth of 1.2 meters.

Solution:
A 3m diameter sewer on a grade of 5 x has a capacity of 10.856 cumecs

1 0.012

V
Q full

1.5367 miser

10.856 cumecs. 3/10.85G

q/Q

For q/O of

diD IS approximately OAO for variable n/N.

x3 1.2m and terminal depth 3m

initial depth of flow IS The length of reach in which

depth chanqes by

chosen amount is given by

calculations

made in

form and presented in

Table.

length of run In which

1.2m to 3m takes place is about 5355m.

APPENDIX
CALCUlAnON OF BACK WATER CURVE

AVERAGE d-hv
n nv x

dm 10
1B

,iR
R
Delta

a
nv x 14 15 11

hvx

Sx (Se-Sa) x 10-5

2
0.90
3.09
0,83

4
120
0504

12

13
16 17 19

20

1.000 4.50

0,75

o
1495

0,858
1416
1,82

1.217

0,91

0.50

127

0,675

1495

180
22.50

O,GO

0.82

2911

0.55
5355

2444

0.40

between

rm. aro

ot 30 mt

(Column

3.4

aeeo

7=

1) x

Column

rete of flow!

9 = tv

2) ! 2g

10

9) ...

1)

t1

0.012

5)

Column 12

1 t)

x (column B)

Column

successive pers of

Column

13)

colurm 15 2

of successive

values

Coiumn 16

15

(4)

2 i,e. S

inv! (f

17

{cokrmn

18

Ditterence
hvj (Ss,.

vaares

column

19

(cckrmn 17 x

-S} i.e Delta = Deea

Connrm

460

APPENDIX 3.5 DESIGN OF SANITARY SEWER SYSTEM

Problem: Design a system of sanitary sewers for the given area shown in the figure 5 with the following details:

1. Population Density
Water Supply

300 persons/hect. 250 lpo/head (ultimate). 20,000 Ipd/hect.

3. Maximum rate of infiltration

4. Minimum depth of cover to be provided over the crown of the sewer.

1 rn.

5. Minimum velocity in sewer at peak flow.

Maximum velocity in sewer 7. Minimum size of the sewer Waste water reachinq sewers 9. Peak fiow

0.6 mps
2.0 mps 150 mm

90% of W/S
3.5 x Ave flow

Solution: Draw a line to ropresent the proposed sewer in each street or valley to be served. Near the line indicate by an arrow the direction in which sewage is to flow. 2. Locate the manhole, giving each an identification number. Sketch the limits of the service areas for each lateral. 4. 5. Measure the areas (ha) of the several service areas. Prepare a table as shown In Table 2 with the columns for the different steps in computation and a line for each section of sewer between manholes. Column 1-6 for the line manhole, location of the manhole, manhole numbers, ground level at starting manhole and length of line betweeo manholes. Column 7-8 the corresponding area for tile next street of sewer and in col.8 the sum of the areas are entered.

461
Column 9 the population served by each corresponding Column 10 shows of the per capita sewaqe flow supply. entered.

through each line. The sewage flow is assumed as 90%

Column 11 shows the ground waler infiltration tor each area Column 12 gives Column 13 gives the Column 15 the peak flow flow in CoL10 x 3 +

20,000 x 10 6 x

diameter and slope of the pipes determined from the Manning's chart. through pipe flowing and the actual discharqe through the

Column 17 pipes i.e. as

Column 18 also determmed Column 19 calculated Column 20 qives coi.s x Column 21,22 invert levels of the

the

Chart when pipe following full. elements curve for the pipes.

are calculated.

OF

Seweqe
tow
ration

Dsct-erge
rn

uoc
et

rete-

o
vscs
V

-oe
12

re
237

22

c.eo

csr
0.93

0,91

Street

sese

70

1,13

7
24.3

6.22

,005

reo
34,3 .0033

-oc
125

0,44

33.445

33,005

32.975

-do-

39,3

ace

coaa

1,0

1.14

0,12

tr

-ooJ 2

rr
307
31,$11

-ooo
33250 0

Ss-ce

.. A

to

APPENDIX 3.6 DESIGN OF GRAVITY SANITARY SEWER NETWORK USING COMPUTER PROGRAMME IN BASIC The sewer network consists of links (pipes) and nodes (manholes). The pipes are connected by the manholes. One or more links come and join at a node and the sewage is discharged through a downstream link which goes into another manhole. Thus the sewer network consists of links and nodes as if they are connected to a branch of a tree. The design of sewer network involves selection of appropriate size and slope of a link so as to connect the succeeding node to transport the sewage while meeting the requisite hydraulic parameters. Identification of suitable size of pipe and the corresponding slope form an important part in the sewer network design. An estimate can be made to select each available commercial diameter for a link so that it meet the constraint of design velocity, quantity of flow, depth of flow, minimum cover depth etc. A computer (SEWER) programme developed in BASIC language optimises the design of a sewer network for a given layout, flows and pipe diameters by minimising depth of excavation but at the same time meeting the design constraints of excavation depths! scour velocities, maximum velocities etc. Before collecting the data it is necessary that the requisite drawing showing the ground profile and geomtery of the network has to be prepared. The dala needed to design the SEWER network are pipe lengths, diameters, nodal demands, ground levels of the nodes, other design constraints such as peak factor, minimum and maximum allowable velocities, Manning's coefficient, maximum cover depth, outfall nodal demand, ground elevations, numher of nodes, links etc. The programme assumes linear ground profiles between the nodes. depression or hills, then nodes should be introuduced at these points. If the ground profile has

The SEWER programme can determine minimum and maximum allowable slopes based on minimum and maximum allowable velocities provided. The minimum slope for each link has to be increased if the pipe is flowing more than full so that the pipe flows just full. the actual slope with which the pipe is laid is between the maximum and minimum slopes provided. The pipe slope is chosen to minimise the excavation depth and maintain minimum cover depth for all the links. Since the total cost of the sewer network is a function of both the sizes of pipes and their depths and the quantity of excavation, the programme is run several limes so that an appropriate pipe network is obtained.
DESIGN OF THE SEWER NETWORK

If all the data of the network enlered are correct then the programme can he RUN 10 desiqn the network. The more complicated and larger the network, it will take more time to design. The process include renumbering of the nodes and links, assignment of flows, determination of maximum and minimum slopes, calculation of actual pipe slopes and their elevations, determination of velocities and depths of flows in the links, checking of the minimum cover depth and reassigning the original link and node numbers. The result includes the peak flows, water depths, pipe slopes, minimum slopes, maximum slopes and ground slopes tor each link. Also the uls and dis ground elevations, crown elevations, invert elevations and excavation depth for each link is given. In respect of nodes, the total excavation depth and the difference in elevation of the highest invert entering the node and that at leaving the node is given. The total length of the network, average wciqhted diameter and excavation depth and excavation area are also given.

464
The programme compares crown elevation of connected pipes and ignores minor head losses. Thus the final design is only an approximation wihch can be refined by the design engineer. The programme assumes that only one outfall and uses Manning's equation to determine the pipe slopes. It assumes that any pipe flowing at 80% full is flowing completely full. A typical sewer network diagram, the Information and data required as input for the computer. results of the SEWER programmes as run in the computer etc., are given below.
DATA AND INFORMATION REQUIRED AS INPUT TO DESIGN A SEWER NETWORK USING MICROCOMPUTER

The BRANCH programme avaialbe nodes.

SEWER design is capable of designing 300 links and 301

The information required to be fed into the computer for the Sewer Design is divided into 3 major parts: i. Ii.

Link
data

The nodes and links can be numbered between 1 to 36000, all +ve integers consecutive, The system data includes the following:

They need not to be

i. il. iii. iv, v.

vii.

Project title Units to be adopted Number of the outfall node Peak factor Minimum and Maximum velocities Manninq's coefficient Maximum cover depth

The link data includes the f1oowing: i. Link numbers from' and 'to' i.e. the link number of starting node and ending node Lengtll, diameter of the link Minimum cover depth fOI the link

ii.
iii.

The node data includes the followmg: Node number

II.

Flow Input at the node (flow inputs are entered as +ve and flow outputs are -ve. Tile only node will have demand or output is the outfall node). Wherever transitions and other changes are encountered, a junction node can be introduced. Ground Elevation A model network diagram, tile input data, the results of the SEWER. BAS run to desiqn the network is as follows.

iii.

465

Version 2.0 Sewer Piping Simulation Program Limits LINKS: NODES: Sepiember * * NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION * *

Press any

to start

TIT L E NO. OF LINKS NO. OF NODES PEAK FACTOR MIN VELOCITY (mps) MAX VELOCITY (rnps) MAX COVER DEPTH (m)

TEST
12

' ) 2 rr .61
2.44

4.5

[ESC]

Menu

[TAB] .

Next Window

# 1

Total FROM NODE

12
TO NODE LENGT H
( In )

SEWER File: SAMPLE DIA

(mm)

LiNK NO.

MANNIN GS COEF.

MIN COVER DEPTH ( In)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8
9

1 2 4 3 5 6
8
9

2 3 3 6 6 7 6
8
9

60 100 75 75 125 60 45 70 45 45 110 125

150 200 150 300 150 600 350 300 200 200 200 150

.013 .013 .013 .013 .013 .013 .013 .013 .013 .013 .013 .013

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

13 10 II 12

10

13
9

1I 12

1l

[l]-lnsert [+)- Add [S)- Search PglJp/Dn Review [ESC] Menu [D] Delete IC) Copy Next Window

[HOME) [END]

First Last Tab .

467

# 1

Total NODE NO. I FIX FLOW (Ips)

SEWER ELEV

SAMPLE

(ro)
60 54

9.55

5
6 7 8 9
10
II

4.416

50 49 48

5.046 5.677 7.885

48 50 50 51

12

1.892

51 50

III - Insert 1+1 - Add lSI - Search PgUp/Dn Review IESC] Menu 101 Delete ICI Copy Next Window

IHOMEI

First Tab

IEND]- Last

468

SAMPLE OUTFALL NODE

45

[ESCI

Menu

[TABI

Next Window

TIT L E NO. OF NO. NODES MIN (mps) MAX VELOCITY (mps) MAX (m) SEWER OUTFALL NODE ELEVATION OF OUTFALL NODE (m) TOT SYSTEM (rn) AVE WEJGHTED DIAM (mm) AVE EXC. DEPTll (m) AVE EXC. AREA (sq.m)

TEST 12 1 2.5 .61 2.44

4.5
7

45
227.8075

Menu [TABj- Next Window [SPACE BARj - Continue

[PgUpl- Review Back

LENGTH
(mm) (rnm)
70

DIA
(mps)

VEL

LINK NO.

FROM NODE

TO NODE

PEAK FLOW (Ips)

(m)

WATER DEPTH

PJPE SLOPE %

MIN SLOPE

MAX SLOPE %

GROUND SLOPE

2 200 150 300 150 425.03 350 300 200 200 200 150 67.78 0.61 0.55 154.74 0.79 0.44 60.83 2.44 8.93 154.73 0.76 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.44 0.55 232.10 0.93 270.79 0.84 0.24 0.24 0.08 0.08 2.39 3.90 4.44 8.93 8.93 8.66 2G.36 102.46 0.86 0.80 0.59 13.16 I 16.22 2.44 4.04 0.46 4.04 85.05 0.61 0.45 0.45 20.72 0.00 5.33 0.80 1.67 2.22 2.86 0.00 0.00 0.91 0.00 154.74 1.52 1.64 1.64 5.34 1.00

23.88

60

150

81.33

2.44 10.00

7.50

2.76

7.50

39.65

100

3 75

6.31

75

61.72

I 1.04

125

147.67

60

G7.02

45

54.41

70

13

19.71

45

10

10

1s

19.71

45

II

1I

20.50

110

12

12

1I

4.73

125

[ESCI

Menu

ITAB]

Next Window

IPgUp]

Review Back ISPACE BARI

Continue

GROUND ELEV INVERT ELEV UPSTRM DNSTRM UPSTRM UPSTRM DNSTRM UPSTRM DNSTRM

CROWN ELEV

EXCAVATION DEPTH DNSTRM

LINK NO.

60.00 57.00 52.50 50.86 52.30 51.35 50.23 48.35 45.79 46.15 47.84 48.12 48.30 48.62 49.35 47.20 47.35 45.75 46.04 46.20 47.94 48.12 48.13 48.67 51.0 I 16 47.50 47.50 4635 46.39 46.50 48.14 48.32 48.33 48.82 50.66 56.85 52.35 52.50 51.50 50.53 48.50 46.39 46.50 48.14 48.32 48.50 48.82 49.50 54.00 53.00 53.00 50.00 49.00 48.00 50.00 50.00 50.00 51.00 51.00 51.00 50.00 50.00 50.00 48.00 49.00 48.00 49.00 49.00 53.00 53.00

54.00

3.15 1.70 1.61 2.77 1.65 3.21 1.85 2.16 1.88 1.70 2.38 1.65

1.65 2.34 1.99 1.80 1.65 2.25 2.96 1.80 2.06 1.88 1.87 2.33
0

10

II

12

IESC]

Menu

ITAB]

Next Window

IPgUp]

Review

ISPACE BAR]

Continue

471

NODE NO. I

INPUT (Ips)

GROUND ELEV (rn)

EXCAVATION DEPTH (rn)

DISTANCE HIGH INVERT TO LOW INVERT (rn)

60.00 54.00 53.00

3.15 1.70 2.77 1.65 1.64 3.21 2.25 1.85 2.16 1.70 2.38 1.65 1.88

0.08 0.05 0.78 0.00 0.00 1.56 0.00 0.05 0.30 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00

4 5

2.52 4.42 3.15

53.00 50.00 49.00 48.00 48.00 50.00 50.00 51.00

7 8

-59.07 5.03 5.68

10 II
12 1.89 0.00

51.00 50.00

[ESCI Menu BARl Continue

[TAB]

Next Window

[PgUpl' Review

[SPACE

472

NO.

VOLUME OF EXCAVATION (curn)

EXCAVATION COST

0.00

2
20.47

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

51.45

o.oo
0.00

0.00 10
] I

o.oo
0.00
0.00 0.00

12

IESC) [SPACE BAR)

ITABI Continue

Next Window

IPgUpl

Review Back

473
APPENDEX 6,1 THREE EDGE BEARING TEST FOR PIPE STRENGTH The load which the pipe must withstand without failure is termed three edge For unreinforced concrete pipes, the point of load which the pipe cracks and fails is of a three-edqe strength,

For reinforced concrete these specifications provide two criteria for edge bearing test: first, is load on the apporance of crack 0.25 rnm and 0.3 rn long. requirement for reinforced pipe is the ultimate the failure of the pipe where no further load increase can be supported. pipe is placed on two parallel wooden rails on In conducting this 15cm x 15cm bearing other support tnat extends of tho An upper bearinq block is placed on the top of pipe. Next, a l-bearn or other structural member is placed on the upper bearing block to apply the load to the block.
THREE EDGE BEARING STRENGTHS OF CONCRETE PIPES ARE GIVEN BELOW TABLE
to produce

mm

Concrete

P, p, &
2

NP"

NP,

80 100 125 150

200

1040

1040

1040

1560

250
300 350
400 450 500

1140

1710
1800

1200
1260

3460
1480
4160

5190

2490

6240

600

1900

700
BOO

2100

5120

10140
1000
1100

2680

7400 8200

7400
4170

11100
12300

11100

1200
1400

13500
2900

2980
1800

4470

18300

2980

20700

CPHEEOINO/94

474 APPENDIX 6.2 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF BURIED CONDUITS The assumptions relating to the characteristics of soil and other factors for the examples are given below: i) ii)
iii)

saturated density of fill(w)

2000

k.u.

k.u'

ordinary maximum for clay (thoroughly wet)

on ordinary
tor positive projection and

rigid projection

for negative

iv)

projection ratio concentrated surcharge corresponding to wheel load for Class AA Impact factor 1.5 1.1

v)
vi) vii) viii)

Factor of Safety for safe supporfing strength

The design also provides for accidental surcharge drains and accounts for a water load of 75% as standard practice, based on the assumption that the sewage flow is 3/4 full.

475

DETERMINATION OF FILL LOADS OVER PIPES EXAMPLE I Problem:

Determine the fill load on a 1200mm dia, NP 2 Class concrete pipe installed in a trench of width of and depth of Pipe thickness 't' B, 65mm for D of 1200mm 1.33m

Solution:

O+2t=1200+130=1330mm

H (2.67 I B, is <

Hence trench formula is applicable. 0.9965 or (from table for ordinary maximum for clay.

C,

From equation (6.6)

X

2000

10,580 kq/m.

EXAMPLE II

Problem:

Determine the fill load on a 900mm dia NP 2 Class concrete pipe installed in a trench width m and depth rn. Pipe thickness 't' B, w H D + 2t 50mm for 0 of 900mm 900 + 100 1000mm

Solution:

2000kg/m 2 1.0

(H I
<
<

(5.0/2.1) tne trench or embankment formula can be used.

From Table 6.3 c, From Equation C,

X

or say

2000 x 2.1'

15,876 kglm or say 16000 kg/m.

476
EXAMPLE III

Problem:

Determine the fill load on a 1200mm dia NP Class concrete pipe installed as a positive projecting conduit under a fill of 7 m height above the top of pipe, The pipe wall thickness IS 65mm and the fill weight 2000 kg/m'.
Assume 0.7 and p 1.0

Solution:

7m

Using equation (6.2)

W,

C,w

x 2000

31,850 kg/m.

EXAMPLE IV

Problem:

Determine the fill load on a 1200mm dia Class pipe installed as a negative projection conduit in a trench the depth of which is such that the top of the pipe is 2 m below the sudace of natural ground in which the trench is dug, The height of the fill over the top of the pipe is 10 m. Assume the width of the 0.3 and p' 2.00m of p' 1.0 as 2 m and fill weight, w 2000

Solution:

Assume r"" H For

10m,

10/2

5,00 HIB d 5.00

r,

. 0.3

3.2 (from figure 6.5) Using equation (6.3) C"

W

3.2 x 2000 x

25,600 kg/m

EXAMPLE V

Problem:

Determine the load on 1500mm dia conduit In tunnel condition 15 rn deep In a SOil of silty sand. The maximum width of excavation (B,) may be assumed as 1950mm; and the cohesion 2 coefficient (C) ot the 5011 as 500 Kg/m 0.15 and w H H/B,
15/195

Solution:

kq/m'

77

C
Q
TO

ci.

xz
0

054

z:

ct

OF
C

rr.
OF iOO

477 (from figure 6.11) Using equation (6.8) x 1800 x x 2510 x 500) 14,680Kg/m,

EXAMPLE VI

Problem:

Determine the load on a 600mm dia NP, Class pipe ( t 40mm ) under 1 m cover caused hy Tonnes Wheel load applied directly above the centre of pipe.

Solution:

L
H

1 m (since standard lengfh of conduit 1 m)

1 m

B, (L /2H)

600+80

680mm (10/2 x 1) (0.68 / 2 x 1) 034

(B, / 2H)
From table

for values of ( L / 2H ) 034

and (B, I 2H) 0.248 Using equation / L)

(0 248x6250x1

2325 kq/m.

EXAMPLE VII

Problem: a Solution:

on a 1200mm dia concrete track loading: 100 mrn tonnes

under 2 rn of cover resulting from

Assumed thickness of pipe Axle load P Impact factor F Length of sleeper 2A Assume 4 axles spaced M 4x2B
z:

m on the locomotive (2B) m: 2m

Weight of track structure Using equation (6,13)

Tim

..

PF

4AB

4AB 2A

7.925 + 0 111 1200 + 200

-s.

8.036 tonnes/m' 1400mm

z:

1.4 m

_D
2H

2.7

M 4X1.84 1.84 2H

Frnm Table 6.5 tntluence Coefficient Using equation (6.12) 4 x 0.652 x 8.036 x 1.4
-x:

z:

0.652

29.34 tonnes/rn

29340 kg/m. 32.14 could be

(Since it has been given that it is a broad guage track. the formula W used directly without calculating the value of U). Using the formula W 32.14 C, 29.337 tim. or 29,37 kg/m

32.14 x 0.652 x 1.4

EXAMPLE VIII

Problem:

Design the structural requirement for a 900mm dia. NP class sewer pipe which IS to be laid in 6m deep trench of 2.0 m width assuming the total vertical load will account fnr concentrated surcharge of 6.25 T applied at the centre of pipe. water load also be considered. The type of bedclinq for with load factor of 2.8. B,
H

Solution:

purpose of this example may be assumed as Ab class

900+2x50
61

1000 mm

1.0m

2.0 512.0

2.50
saturated top soil)

1.764 (trom table 6.3

Using equation (6.6)

'e

w 14110 kglm.

1.764 x 2000 x 1 m. H 5m

L 1 0,1 2H 10
and

Be

2H 10

0,1

From

6.5

0,019

Using equation (610) (PFIL) (0.019 x 6250 x 11 178 Kglm.

22 9
7

10 10 4

x->

75
100

471

14,110 + 178 + 471

14759 or say

kglm
[

supporting strength of 900 mm NP 2 pipe with class bedding Kgslm, which is less than the total load on the pipe i.e. 14800 Kgslm,

x 2.8) I 1,5]

ec

7000

Safe supporting strenqth of 900 mm pipe with class bedding [(10140 x 2,8) 11,5) Kgslm, is more than the tolalload on r.e. 14800 Kgslm.

480
DESIGN OF ANTI FLOTATION BLOCKS
EXAMPLE IX

Problem:

A ReC of cia 2000mm and thickness of 115mm is to be laiel Ground Eacn IS 2.5 long and 2 Tonnes. rmrurnum overburden pipe trorn upliftrnent is to determined. no over-burden ReC antitlotation block required to It from flotation to dctermioeo

Solution:

Depth of

to

of an

depth of

ed to prevent

of empty

0.0, of

meters

Densitv of (soil)
Density of To show the pipe up 1000
IS

1800

over burden

Weight of empty 2.00 + 0.23

W. 2.23

2000 k9/l1Ietre of pipe)

When there is no over burden weight of water displaced

(11/4)
X

x 1000

3910

or 3.91 Tonnes

Since the weiqht of Empty pipe (2 tonnes) is less than the upward weight of water (3.91 tonnes) the pipe will float
Depth of minimum overburden to prevent flotation with a factor safety 1.2

x 2.23 (1.8 1.5 metres.

1.00) + 2

4)J x

x 1 x (Factor of safety of 1.2)

Hence it is desirable to provide a cover of 1.5 metres to prevent flotation of pipeline.

Where it is not possible to provide minimum over burden anu flotation blocks can be provided for each pipe to prevent flotation of pipeline.

Anchoring force required to be created is equal to the 1st term of the equation

481
i.e. Hmin

t;

1.5m with a factor of safety of 1.2 B 2.23m 1800 kq/m" 1000 1.5 x 2.23 x (1.8 1,00) 2680 kg/metre length of pipe

Anchoring force required for each pipe of 2,5 metre long. 2,68 x 2.5 6.7 Tonnes per pipe. provided: 1000) 1400 Kg/m' or 1.4 tonnes/rn'

Volume of concrete to

Submerged weight of concrete: (2400 Volume (6.7 /1.4) 4.78 rn'

Provide antiflotation block of size 2.85 x 1.5 x 1.20 m for each pipe of 2.5m long (Figure 616).

482

s
.:

o
z
c,

z o

n,

8 u,
o o

I I

I
I

t:

r;

483

s
E
0

>
a

s
I

(j)

-c
s

(j) (j)

e
X

z o

o o

o
u..

e
s:
r

o
(j)

t:

(j)

o o
a

o
o'

I
's

o
I

II

484
APPENDIX 8.2

Equipment and simple tests for detection of gases and oxygen deficiency. Combustible gas indicators are used tor testinq the atmosphere for hazardous concentration of inflammable qases and vapours and for making quantitative estimates of the percentage of combustible present. Tbe indicator consists of battery operated unit. which oxidises or burns a of atmosphere to be tested catalytic which is of electrical Combustibles in the samples are burned on the hot wire, thus raising its temperature and increasinq its resistance in proportion to the concentration of combustibles the sample. The in the electrical circuit causes the deflection of pointer of the meter which indicates on a scale, the concentration of combustible gases of vapours in the sample. This scale is in of the lower explosive limit. The indicator is generally for single specific inflammable but may also be calibrated for known mixtures of and vapours. The types of combustible indicator be selected to suit the gas or vapour usually encountered. Carbon monoxide indicator may be used to detect the percentage of gas present. There are both hand operated and battery operated units which determine the percentage of They to low concentrations of gas and reliably indicate carbon monoxide low but concentr ations ot monoxide. The sample of the drawn into the indicator is oxidised to carbondioxide by catalytic by oxidation is proportional to the amount of carbon monoxide present and action. The heat is measured by a differential thermocouple in senes with the indicating meter which is calibrated to read directly the percentage of carbon monoxide in atmosphere. Colorimetric detectors are used to detect specific gases like carbon monoxide, hydroqen sulphide etc. In specific gas detector, when a of the atmosphere is drawn into the instrument. that specific gas reacts chemically with the substance in the detector producing change in colour. The colour with its intensity produced is compared with chart to estimate the percentage of gas present. In the carbon monoxide detector the used is iodine pentoxide or palladium chloride In hydrogen SUlphite detector tile Chemical used is lead acetate. Oxygen deficiency indicator is an adaptation of the flame safety lamp used by miners, for testing the atmosphere suspected of being deficient in oxygen. Normally the indicator is used from an external source to test the suspected atmosphere. The sample of air is drawn in, using an aspirator bulb and the flame inside the lamp is When tbe atmosphere is normal the flame of tbe lamp will have normal appearance. With decreased oxyqen content in the atmosphere and the absence of another combustible gas, the flame will be dimmer. When the oxygen content in the atmosphere is as low 16% or lower; the flame will be extinguished. At altitudes more than 1500m above level, the flame may continue to burn even if tne percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere IS less than 16%. Hence this possibility must be considered at high altitudes Simple tests; In the absence of the indicators and detectors mentioned above, the tollowmq simple tests must be conducted after providing sufficient forced or natural ventilation. In asphyxiating conditions, a safety lamp must be used. The lamp should burn continuously for atleast 5 minutes in the atmosphere under test. It is essential to check if the lamp is undamaged before being used.

485
For hydrogen sulphide, a tiltor paper moistened 5% solution of lead acetate is exposed for five minutes to the atmosphere under test. As hydrogen sulphide is heavier than air, the atmosphere at the bottom of tho manhole should be tested. The presence of hydrogen SUlphide gas or brown. The qroater the percentage ot the gas, the darker will is indicated by the paper turning the colour. Detectors and indicators tor various sewage works follows: Gas or Vapour Hydrogen SUlphide. Lead acetate impregnated paper, (qualitative) Hydrogen sulphide ampoules, Hydrogen sulphide detector (qualitative) gas Methane deficiency indicator. Oxyqen deficiency Oxyqen deficiency indicator. monoxide indicator, Carbon monoxide tube (quantitative) Combustible indicator Oxvqen and oxygen deficiency normally encountered in

indicator Carbon Nitrogen. Oxygen. Carbon monoxide.

Hydroqen

Gasoline
(fol

gas over

Sludge

Combustible qas indicator Oxyqen Methane alarm. ammonia,

486
APPENDIX 11.1 EXAMPLE FOR HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF MECHANICALLY CLEANED BAR RACK AND SCREEN CHAMBER
Problem Statement

Design a bar rack and chamber for a peak design flow of 150 MLD ( wastewater flow of 50MLD) with Ihe followrng data.
1.

x average

Peak design flow Flow conditions in mcorrunq trunk sewer

(a) (b) (c)

1.736

2.

Diameter of incominq Depth of flow Velocity in at respect flow

1.40 m 1.05 m

3.

Drop of screen chamber floor to

0.08 rn 10 mm 25 rnrn
rack conditions as well as tor Clogged

4.
5,

Assumed Clear spacinq

of rectangular

Sketch a conditions Solution

I.

Design of Bar

i)

Assume depth of flow In velocity of flow throuqn rack openinqs Clear area of

chamber

1.0501

0.9 rn/s
the rack

o
V

1.736
1.92901 2 0.9

Clear widtb of

throuqh rack

1.929/1.05

1.8401

Provide 73 clear spacings of 25rnrn eacn Number of bars

Total 72 of

of the screen chamber

487
10 1000

1000 1000

Actual Depth of Flow In Screen Chamber at Peak Flow her is divided Into four sections. The sectron 1 IS The longitudinal section of the screen at sewer, section 2 at screen chamber uls of bar rack, section 3 at dis of bar rack and section 4 u/s of the outlet of screen it is assumed that the outlet channel/sewer from screen chamber discharges freely into the sump well. The definition sketch is given in Fig.ll.l Applying Bernoulli's theorem between sections 1 and 2

Z, + d, +

g)

d, + (

/ 2g ) +

where

Z, &
d, &
V, & V"

datum heads deptns of flow at sections 1 and 2 of flow at sections 1 and 2

head loss clue to sudden expansion sewer to screen

Taking floor of the screen chamber as expansion.

(Z,

0)

assuming

for

of

( 1736 0.08,1.05'
2

2g
0

'

0.3

1.1

1.736

d, Solving by trial and error

17 m

I (2545 x 1,171]

m/s

488
III. Velocity through clear operunq of bar rack Flow

V
Net Area of opening through rack 1.736 0.813 mls 73xO.025xI.17 The velocity through the bar rack was assumed to be 0.9 mls but it is actually 0.81 mls. If desired. the steps I, II and III can revised to yield different values of number of bars, depth of flow and velocity of flow etc. However as V is within range (0.6-1.2 rn/s) , these steps are not being revised, being acceptable. IV. Head Loss Through Bar Rack h 0.0728 0.024 m Using Kirschmer's Formula 0.0728 [0.8132-0.5732
]

V.

Determine depth and velocity of flow dis of Bar Rack Applying energy equation between sections 2 and 3

When bar rack is clean

489

(0.573)2

1.736
0.593 m/s

2.545x1.15
VI. Head loss through Bar Rack at 50%
Assuming

and

1 V2

as depth and velocity of flow

section 2 when bar rack

clog

0.728 [(Velocity throuqh cloqqed rack)'

1736

1.

CPHEEOINO/94

490

1.30m

Head loss under 50%

of

-: 0.15

!T1

O.K

VIL

Floor Raisinq

in channel

fall intn Sump

If flow dis of bar rack has to bo desiqned for froe fall conditions into the adjoininq sump well of pumpinq it obvious conditions near
Dopth of critical flow.

Critical velocity.

1.88 m/s. 2.545 x

In not to disturb existinq hydraulic profile at section beyond. the floor of the screen chamber has to be by an amount which can be determined by applyinO Bernauli's Theorem between 3 and 4,
+

I
d, d.

Z + 0.362

+ d, +

+ bead loss
V m/s and neglecting head loss.

Since

Z +0.362+ (1.88)2 +0
c

491
APPENDIX _11.\ VIII. Hydraulic Profile

Hydraulic profile through the bar rack for clean conditions as well as for 50% clogged conditions is presented in Fig.

SECTION

SECTION
I
I

SECTION

SECTION

I
I

I
I

:
SKETCH SCREEN DESIGN FOR SECTIONS OF BAR

RACK

1.30m(501. CLOGGING) 105

008m
m.J..CLE

----L 0.525m
I FLOOR
I

dc=0.362m

000
HORIZONTAL

FRE E FALL INTO THE SUM P

:HYDRAULIC

PROFILE

THROUGH

THE CLE AN

BAR

RACK

AT PEAK

DESIGN FLOW WHEN RACK IS

AT 501. CLOGGING

APPENDIX 11.2 DESIGN EXAMPLE FOR GRlT CHAMBER WITH PROPORTIONAL FLOW WEIR AS HYDRAULIC CONTROL DEVICE

PROBLEM STATEMENT
Design grit chamber to treat peak design flow of 150 MLD (3 X Average waste water flow of 50 MLD) of wastewater to remove grit particles upto a size of 0.15mm and of specific gravity at 2.65. The minimum temperature is 15 degree C. The grit chamber is equipped with proportional flow weir as control device,

SOLUTION
i. Computation of settling velocity Applying Stoke's Law

9
s

18

Given

2.65, d

981 (265 18

Check for Reynold's Number, R

Hence Stoke's law does not apply Applying Transitions Law for 0.5 < R
-c

493

0.0168 m/s. Ii. Computation of surface overflow rate. SOR The surface overflow rate for 100% removal In an ideal grit chamber Settling velocity of the minimum size of particle to be removed
0.0168 m/s

However, due to turbulence and short circuiting due to several factors as eddy. wind and density currents, the actual value to be adopted has to be reduced taking Into account the pertorrnance of the basin and the desired etticiency of the particles removal. To determine the actual overflow rate, the following formula may be

1(1

o
A

wnerei n

effic/encyofremovalof aesirecaertictes

meesurei/settl/ngbasinperformance
1/8 for verygoodperformance

75%, n 1/8

1 1451.5x8 ( 10.75)'25

Determination of

dimensions of

chamber

494
Plan Area of grif chamber [ 0 / (0 / A) ]

959

1564m2

Provide 4 channels of 2.5

wide and 16m long.

The crifical displacement velocity to initiate resuspension of grit is given by

S 1
S

for k

0.04, f 0.16101/5

0.03.

2.65, d

The horizontal velocity of flow Assuming a depth of 1.1

should be kept less than critical displacement velocity,

1.736

O.161m'so.K

The hydraulic residence time at peak tlow is

Volume Peak discharge

4 x 2.5 x 16 x 1.1 1.736

101.38 seconds

Total depth of grit 1.1 + 0.25 +

Water depth + free board + grit storage space 1.601

4 channels of grit chamber, each 16m x 2.501 x1.6m iv Design of proportional Flow Weir control section of each of the

There will be four proportional flow weirs. eaeh installed at four grit chambers. Peak flow for each (1.736/4) 0.434 m'/s

495
Flow through a proportional tlow is qiven by

For syrnmetrical sharpedqed Assuminq a h

x;

1 rnrn)

mm (usually between 1.1 rn peak flow (

x b (2xO.035x9.81 say 0.80 m

0.79

To determine the coordinates (x.y) of the curve forrning the edqe of the weir, assume suitable four values of y and compute correspondinq values of x using equation

b 1 2 tan 2

.r 1] a

The coordinates for proportional flow weir are listed below:

SI. No.

y,rn

x,rn

a
lOa 20a 30a 40a

0.035

00400
0.082

0.70
-x:

0057 0047 0.040

105

496 APPENDIX 12.1 DESIGN OF SECONDARY SEDIMENTATION TANK

Problem:

Design secondary sedimentation tank to treat effluent from Activated Sludge the following design

with

Average wastewater flow

50 mid 3000

MLSS concentration in influent Peak flow factor

2.25

Solution:

Adopting a surface loading rate of 20 cum/day/sqrn at average flow,

50 X 10'
Surface area required

2500 sqm. 20 x 1000

Check for the surface loading at peak flow:

50 x 2.25
Surface loading

10' 45 cum/day/sqm

2500 x 1000
(O.K. as it is in prescribed range of 40

50)

For a solid ioading of 80 Kg/day/sqm at average flow,

50 x 10' x 3000
area required

1875 sqm. 1000 x 80 x 1000

Area needed for peak flow at a solids loading of 210 kg/day/sqm

50 x 2.25 x 10' x 3000 1607 sqm. 1000 x 210 x 1000

The higher surface area of 2500 sqm is to be adopted Adopting a circular tank

Diameter

say 57m

50 x 1000
Weir loading

279.21 Cu.m/day/m

x 57
(Not O.K. as weir loading> permissible value of 150 cum/day.m)

497 Hence provide outlet arrangement consisting of effluent launder with weirs on both sides of launder.

OUTLET ARRANGEMENT:

The outlet arrangement consists of effluent weir of V-notches, effluent launder, effluent box and a pressure outlet pipe.

i)

Effluent Weir:

Length of effluent weir plate on each side of launder

=
X

(57

1) = 175.93 say 176 m V-notches @ 20 cm centre to centre on both sides of the launder. 880

Provide

Total No. of notches = 176 x 5

Average discharge per notch at average design flow

50x10 6 24 x60x60 x680 x1 000

The discharge through a V-notch is given by

for peak flow per notch, Q for Cd = 0.584,

= 90

=6.58 X 10"

x 2.25

= 1.48 x 10.

cum/s

Head over V-notch at peak flow =

15x1.48x10 3 ) 8xO. 81

0.065m

Provide 8 cm deep 90 degree V-notches at 20 cm centre to centre.

(ii)

Effluent launder:

Assume the width of effluent launder or channel to be 0.6 m. To compute depth of effluent launder. assume that the effluent launder discharges freely into the effluent box. Consequently the depth at the end of effluent channel may be assumed equal to critical depth of flow. Critical depth at the end of effluent launder, Y2 is

498

50x10

) 2

287 m

(0. 6 x9.

Depth of water at upper end of the trough, Y,

2(
0.287 2 +

50x1000

2
zz:

9.81 xO. 6 2 xO. 287

0.862m

Provide a depth of 0.95 m.

499

APPE NDIX _ 12.1

{,
{

I,SCUM TIP

'I II
DOUBLE EDSED /' EFFLUENT CHAN

I'
{

"

CHANNEL

SCUM

SCUM BOARD

EFFLUENT LAUNDER WEIR ON BOTH SIDES EFFLUENT

MTIPPIT

SCUM REMOVAL

TION

TYPICAL DETAILS OF SEDIMENTATION TANK

500 APPENDIX 13.1 DESIGN OF CONVENTIONAL ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS Given: Flow 50,000 Raw wastewater 250 mg/I; SS 400 Minimum and maximum temperature 18 and C respectively; Primary Sedimentation efficiency for BOD and SS removal and respectively: Primary and Secondary excess sludge SS concentration 40 and 10 kg/m', Aeration equipment oxygen transfer efficiency under standard conditions 1.8 kg O)kWh. Aeration tank volume: BOD of influent to aeration tank For 90% BOD removal read E), for 250x65/100 162.5 mg/I 6.5 days

C from Fig.(13.3)

Adopt for conventional activated sludge MLSS Assuming Y 0.5 and

2000 mg/I 8549 m'

0.06/d from Eq.(13.7) calculate V

HRT from Eq.(13.1) 4.1 h. which is greater than 4 h, hence acceptable. However. if a larger HRT value is desired, repeat calculations assuming lower value of MLSS. The dimensions of the tank will be decided on the basis of aeration equipment requirements and conditions detailed in section 13.4.1. Excess Sludge: Calculate Ow X, from For 10 SS concentrauon
In

2630461.5 g SS/d or 2630 kg/d. secondary sludge, excess sludge volume 263 mOld.

Sludge Recirculation: Calculate sludge recirculation ratio from Eq.(13.10) 0.5, hence acceptable. However, provide for 0.33, Theretore sludge recirculation pump capacity 0,33 x 50,000 16,500 m'/d. Oxygen Requirement: Calculate oxygen requnernent from Eq. (13.8) assuming f Calculate kg 0; requiredlkg BOD removed acceptable. Aerator Power Requirement: For field conditions: temperature 32 degree C assuming C l 1 mgll, 7.2 mgll and 0.8 calculate, oxygen transfer capacity of available aeration equipment from Eq.(13.9) 1.3 kg Therefore 7018/24 kg equipment power requirement I h I 1.3 kg I kW.h 225 kW. 0.68; 7018420 gld 0.25, which is between 0.25 and

0.96 which is between 0.8 and 1.0, hence

501

Sludge Generated:
Primary sludge solids 50,000 d x 400 15000 kg/d Primary sludge volume 15000 kg/d I 40

x 0,75 x 1 kg

11000g

375

Secondary sludqe solids (from earlier calculations) 2630 Secondary sludge volume Total sludqe volume 263 638

375 + 263

502
APPENDIX 13,2 DESIGN OF FACULTATIVE AERATED LAGOON Design a facultative cu.rn.rday. Raw 50 Average ambient air temperature Lagoon Size Assume detention time Laqoon volume Let Laqoon Lagoon Winter Temperature Use to determine Assume T
C

laqoon to serve 40,000 people. flow 180 Iped 277 and final BODs is not to 30 January is 1 C and in summer 37 deg.C.

7200

5 days 7200 x 5 be 36,000 CU,m,

70 rn x 130 m x 4 rn

5 days
4 m

(23 Tl
OA9 (T. '

Estimation of K Assume K at 20' C Hence, K at 21' C D/UL Estimation Keep lagoon geometry such thai fluw conditions are plug-flow type (i.e. D/UL 0,2 approx.). possible if a long and narrow laqoon (23m X 390 rn) is provided (see Table 13,3) or baffles within the rectanqular laqoon of 70 x 130 rn to give a winding flow with the same effect (See Fiq,135), BOD, Removal Efficiency (in Winter) K x 0.724 x Flq,(13A) Soluble BOD Kx 3,62 and D/UL efficiency 92% 22 35 mq/I (say) x 35) 22 + 16 16 38 mg/I 3,62 0,7 per day 0,7xl,035 0,724/day

This will

Namely, soluble BOD in effluent S,S,likely to flow out BOD of VSS 077
10

BOD of ettluent efficiency

winter

503
In other months 01 the year, the efficiency will be higher and effluent BOO will be less than the above value. Power Requirement

When efficiency
required/day

and all BOO is removed aerobically,

0.86 (1.4 x 2000 kg/d). 2,408 kg/d 100 kg/hr 100 kg/hr.

Power needed
(08) (2 kg
z:

625 KW (Le. about 80 HP)

62.5 KW x 1000

Power level in Lagoon

36,000 1.7 (acceptable)

Land Requirement Net lagoon area Area including embankments and slopes Area/person
9000 sq.m.

13,500 sq.m. (approx)

0.337 sqm/person

1:2, the NOTE: II the lagoon was kept as a square shaped unit or a rectangular unit with say W:L D/UL value would have between 3.0 and 4.0 (namely, approaching completely mixed conditions) and soluble effluent BOO would have increased to 49 thus giving a totaltinal effluent of 65 mg/I instead of 38 mg/I seen above. Thus, lagoon geometry plays an important part deterrnining efficiency.

504
APPENDIX 14.1 DESIGN OF TRICKLING FILTER Problem Statement: Design a high rate trickling filter plant to treat settled domestic sewage with a BOD, of 200 mg/I The desired BOD, of effluent is 10 for an averaqe flow of 50 MLD. Assume a peak factor of mg/L Solution: Several design approaches are available for the design of trickling filters. Two approaches will be used to design the trickling filier (i) NRC equation and (ii) Rankine's approach. Since the BOD, removal efficiency is high a two stage filtration system has to used. desiqn of filters is done on basis 01 flow. However, the hydraulic design of the distribution arms, under drainaqe system, pipelines etc is done tor peak flow and checked for average flow. i) Design Using NRC Equation applied/m'/d excludinq recirculation, the volume of

Assuming a BOD loadinq of first stage filter. BOD, load Volume loading 12,500 rn" 50
X

200

The efficiency of first stage filter using NRC equation,

Adopting a recirculation ratio of

F:

1+2 (1

2.0833

50

200

10,000 Kg BOD,jd

E,
i-

i
12,500x2.0083

s0

etticiencv of second

00 786 16.4%

of

filter

equanor

100
1

044 (1

Adoptinq a

ratio

one.

value

(1 0.1

1 1
(1

1653

16.4
0.44
(1 1

ii)

Rankine's Approach
II

assurneo in

12,

506

using a circular filter,

dia

10299m

Since rotary distributors are avaitable indigenously only upto 60 m, it is desirable to have a least three units,

Say 60 m Applying Rankine's formula for the first stage filter and varying value of z: 0,75, 1,0, and efficiency of first stage filter can be calculated by Rankine's equation,

1,5, 2,0,

1 +

These values are

in column 2 & 3 of Table 1 respectively,

Similarly the efficiency of second stage Filter

1+

Various values ot etticiencies are entered in columns 5 and 6 of Table 1. Column 4 gives the passing throuqh the first stage Now, the combined efficiency of the filters required to give an effluent Efficiency of two stage Ec For a value of of 10 mg/L

(1

value from coL5 of Table

30

507
given in Similarly Rz values for various E2 values for different 7 of Table values to obtain 95% efficiency are

TABLE 1 VALUES FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF AND R, TO OBTAIN 95% EFFICIENCY

S.No.

R.

E. Recirculation Ratio of 2nd staqe filter. Efficiency of 2nd staqe Values

of 1st filter

1st

passinq 1st

various R, values to qive 95% Efficiency.

3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00

1. 2.

0.50

00

50 00 4444

0.50

60.00 63.64

1.00
1,50

4000

1.00 1.50 2.00

G667 7143 75.00 77.78

5.

2.00
87

25.00

2.50 300

0.50

7 hvdraul:c of

in terms of

averaqe

is

(1 Loading )

0,50 0.

10.31

100

200

17G8 20G2 23,57

2.50

2 1 for
(Recircu'ation

Filter Staqe tor 3 of dia. GOrn depth 1.5 m

1010.80 This less than 1800 gld/m') and 0.5 Kg/dim

50 x

equations

applicable.

Choosing an organic

rn'
05 Adoptinq a depth of Area of filter Check for 28G6 m

m"

loadinq

5000xl

2866

Which is

than permissible,

Therefore area required for maximum permissible hydraulic loadinq of 30 3333.33 Adopting 3 Fillers.

dia

37.6m

38m

Adopting 3 units of 38 m dia and 10 m depth for 2nd Staqe Filter.

iii)

Hydraulic De siqn of First Stage Filter

flow + recirculation of is 2 times the averaqe

This for prescribed. !n this case the

Total flow through the filters at the peak flow with 2.25 peak factor

510 50 x 2.25 + 2 x 50 This flow is divided into 3 units Therefore flow through Adopting urut peak tlow 0.82 m 3/s 212.5 Mid or 2.459

m3/s

velocity of 2' mls. dia of

column

722m

provide a central column

-z:

0.75 m

check for velocity at average flow: Ave. Flow 50 x x (1+2) 150 Mid
z:

1.736

m'ls

Therefore velocity at average flow

1.736

4
'z:

1.31m's(>

Distributor:
Assumrng rotary reactron spray type distrrbutor with 4 arms: 082 Discharge arm

0.205 m'ls
4

Oia of filter Arm length

60 m [(60 2) I 2 J 29m with 4 sections of 7.25m each

The flow in the arms has to be adjusted for every section of 7.25 m length in the proportion of the areas by these lengths of the arm. Therefore, the areas covered by the different lengths of the anTIS are Let A Allowing for A. A, and areas covered by each length of arm starting from rn dia in centre to be used up for central column etc.,the areas are (7.625
( 14.875'
n (

centre.

182.29 512.68 843.07

22.1

A.,

511
The proportionate area for each length of arm 1st i.e. tram column to 7.025 rn.

Similarly

2nd 3rd 4th

18.91% 31.09% 43.28%

Orifices:
Assuming a dia of 25mm for the orifices with Cd value of 0.0 and head causing flow equal to 1.5 m

dischargGthrougheachorifice

CdxA

0.001597 Therefore No.of Orifices required in each arm Total discharge through Discharqo through each orifice 0.205 128.30 say 129 0.001597 No. of orifices in each section of the arm is 1st section (0.72 I 100) x 129 2nd section (18.91 I 100)

9
25 40

x 129

3rd section (31.09 1100) x 129 4th section (43.28

I 100) x 129

56

Spacing of Orifices:
1st Section 9 Nos. in 725 em i.e. 72519 80em 29cm

etc etc

2nd Section 25 Nos. in 725 cm i.e. 725125 3rd Section 40 Nos. in 725 i.e. 725140

18cm ck:

Nos, in

Ctl\

ck:
arm:
less than 1,2 rnps

of different sections of
throuqh in

tbrouqn t s! section

0.205 m'is

area with 1 2 mps

socuon.

1.2)

say470mm

2nd section
1

0191

0.45m say450mm

through 3rd

JO,l

1)

O.

say400mm

d)

4th

For \I

1,

m.s

dia

0.3067m say31Ornm

Under Drainage System: Total discharge through at flow

0.82rn'is.

underdrainaqe system is with peripheral collecting channel fed by semi circular m c/c slope of in half circle. The invert of at laterals placed junction with main collectinq channel is kept the same Average discharge per lateral:

0.82
0,0041

100 x 2

nq

laterals ate

to flow

tor proper

0.25
A

q
d

x 0.25
4

01963

From Appendix 26 for (a

d

I o, ) of

0.05915

0.152 rn ern dia

adoptinq

Id
From Appendix 26 corresponding (a / d. 0.0041 Velocity 01753xOl

!01

0,051

m.s

0.75 rn/s

Check for Velocity at Average Flow:

Total discharqe 150

514
Flow through each filler 0.579 m
3/s

Average flow

[0.579 I (100 x 2) J

0.00290 mO/s

x 00029
0.000275

0.000275 0.0365

correspondinq ( a I Velocity

0.1379
J

[0.0029 I (0.1379 x

0.8215 rn/s (>0.6 m/s required)

laterals with pertorated blocks capable of withstanding load of the filter ensured that is at least 15% of the total filter area available in the form of media. It should inlet openings for tI,O flow into the latorals to ensure proper ventilation. In the present design total surface area of the laterals at the floor level of the filter is about 20% of the filter area. Thorefore it is to be provided with cover blocks having about 75% openings so that inlet area available is about of the filter area.

DESIGN OF MAIN COLLECTION CHANNEL

It is desirable to the main collection channel along the periphery of the filter. The flow is divided into two and the flow from each semi circle is collected in the peripheral main channel which is laid to a constant slope of The can divided into four segments and the main channel to see if tall conditions oxist while flow from the laterals of each segment falls into it. To provide a depth of semicircular fall from the Invert of laterals assume the depth of flow to 5% less than

Y
i.e,
2
1 st Segment: 0.475

0.1

x 0.82
26

0.082

m'ls

from Appendix for

(y I

0.475: 0.1426

&

for a slope of 0.5% and n

0.015

515
nq 0.015 x 0.082 0.01739

[(0.01739) I (0.1426)

0.4543 m

Adopting 46 em or 0.46 m dia & 0.5% slope ar do And for this (y I 0.01739 0.1379 (0.46) 0.4658 and (a I 0.082 ----------------0.3585

Velocity

1.08 m/s ( > 0.75 m/s required)

0.3585x0.46'

2nd Segment:
q 0.25 x 0.82 0.205 mJ/s

vertical depression at the end of the 2nd section

[n D I 4) x (0.5/ 100) Total additional flow in this section 0.15 x 0.82 0.123 m 3/s
( rr
X

(60 I 4) x (0.5 I 100) ]

0.24 m

Flow that can be accomodated 0.24 x 0.46 x 1 0.1104 mJ/s (Assuming 1 rn/s velocity)

Hence choose a bigger section say 53 em. Redesign of 1st Segment: 0.01739 0.01739 d For this value, (a I 0.082 Velocity
-------------.-z;

-x:

0.09453

0.27 and (y I

0.3778

1.081 mps (

'

0.75 mps required)

0.27 X 0.53' Check for Average Flow (Recirculation included) Flow in Segment 1, (1.736 I 3) x 0.1 0.0579 mJ/s

0.0579

0.06676

for this (a / 00579

and

(y /

0.9755 rnps ( x 2nd Segment: q 0.205

0.75 rnps required)

0.205 x

{y./
0205 Velocity 0.541 x Depth of Flow mps

x 0.53
of

invert of channel to

0.24

2
0.5 0.15 rn conditions

3rd Segment: q x 0.82 semi section to be x

Assuming depth ot flow

d p

rr

517
0.1104tO.5x 0.8324+2x

11

0.11 04 0.8324+2x

tO.5X)

112

or
5

(0

3 3

0.06958

solving x

0.225 0.265 + 0.225 0.625 rn rn ensures free flow conditions.

and depth of Flow

against available depth of 0.265 + 0.36

4th Segment:
q 0.5 x 0.82 section,

Let y depth of flow above then as in 3rd seqment,

r a
p

O.
2

5i8

(0.005) 2

solving by trial and Depth of Flow

z;

0.315m

0.265 + 0.315 0.265 + 0.48 0.745m ensuring free flow condition

against available depth of 0.41 Velocity 0.1104 + 0.1575 Design of Exit Channel q 0.82 for each filter.

1.53 rnps

Assuming a channel of rectangular section with

slope of 0.5% ] [(w

p q

2d+w and A

wxd, r

(A / p) or [ r / (w +

x d) / (w

+ 2d)]

[ (1 / n)

0.82

(1 /0.015)

x w x d x [(w x d) / (2d +
01

x (0.005)

174
2

01

.. ...

5...

0.005268

(2dr

Assuming w 1.05
In

depth of

of exit channel, by trial & error

If width w of (1.1 x 0.005268 (2d + we

1 1

depth of

of channel d by

& error.

0415

In

518 (A)

APPE NDIX

TlON

PERIPHERAL MAIN COLLETNG CHANNEL

GAT E V A L VE DRAIN

CHAMBER

/ INFLUENT PIPE

I I I

'I

SEMICIRCUL AR LATERALS

TYPICAL DETAILS OF TRICKLING FILTER

519
therefore effluent channel each filter will be of size 1.1m x 0.45m with 0.5% slope.

Ventilation:
Since the filter is large having a dia of 60m, provision for open grating area to be mode at 1/250 of the filter area.

Area of grating needed

[ {n x 60') / (4 x 25011

11.32

say 12 ventilation

Therefore provide 12 Nos. of gratings of size 4m x 0.25m providing a total of 12 area.

2nd Stage Filter:

The details of Second Stage Filter are also worked out on similar lines.

520
APPENDIX 14.2 DESIGN EXAMPLE OF ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTOR

Problem Statement:
Design rotating oioloqical contactor the tollowinq assumptions: Hydraulic loadinq rate Diameter of the discs
Centre to centre spacinq between discs.

to treat 50.000m

J/d

of primary settled sewaqe with

110 I/m 2,d 3,5 20 rnrn

Solution:
Flow

i) Total surface

of discs

Hydraulic loading rate

50.000 110

454545,5

Sur1ace area of One discs (neglecting the thickness)

X (3.5)2 X 2
4

454545,5
Iii) Number of discs

23625

iv)

Minimum lenqth ot shaft on which discs are mounted x 0,02

rn

v)
vi)

Provide 40 modules of 12 rn lenqlll with 23625 discs,

Hydraulic residence assurninq 50% submergence of discs:

{n 14) x (3.5 +

x 40 x 12 x 24 hrs x 0,5
1,17 hours

50,000

521 APPENDIX 15.1 DESIGN EXAMPLE OF FACULTATIVE STABILIZATION POND Design a facultative stabilization pond to treat 5000 m'/d municipal wastewater, BOD, 230 mg/I, from a town (population 25,000 persons) located in Central India, latitude 22 deg.N, elevation 100 m above sea level. The average temperature in January is .C. The effluent from the pond is to be used for irrigation, Solution: Pond Size: Permissible organic load according to temperature correlation kg BOD/ha.d Permissible organic load according to latitude and elevation 180 kg BOD/ha.d Adopt a conservative loading rate ot 200 kg BOD/ha.d BOD load from the town Therefore pond area 5000 x 0.23 1150 kg/d 20 x 18 . 120 240

235/(1 + 0.003 x 100)

1150/200

5.75 ha

Adopt an average depth of 1.5 m Therefore pond detention time 5.75 x x 1,5/5000 17.25 d.

Provide three ponds of equal volume and surface area; two primary ponds in parallel and one secondary pond in series receiving the effluent of the two primary ponds. Use of multiple ponds improves pertormance from view points of stability, efficiency of treatment and maintenance. However, it requires greater land area for the same pond surface area. Check for Detention Time: For 90% BOD reduction, the BOD reaction rate constant total overall detention time, is given by: 0.1 exp 0.2 (2 x + 8/3), or 11.5 d 0.2/d for flow condition-The

For a conservative estimate, for completely mixed condition in all three ponds, the total overall detention time is given by: 0.1 1/(1+0.2 x 2 8/3) (1 + 0.2 x 8/3), or
-z:

22.5 d

In actual conditions the hydraulic regime in the ponds is going to be between the two ideal conditions of plug flow and completely mixed flow. The detention time ot 17.25 d is therefore acceptable. Check for MicrObial Quality for Irrigation WHO guidelines recommend sewage retenfion in stabilization ponds for 8 . 10 days for irrigation of cereal, fodder and industrial crops and trees. This assures removal of intestinal nematodes trom sewage. The design meets this requirement.

521-A For irrigation of crops likely to be eaten uncooked, the guide lines recommend a faecal coliform limit at 1000 organisms/l00 rnl. For microbial reduction rate constant of at C or at C, 7/100 and influent faecal concentration 10 ml, the effluent concentration N is given by N or N 64, 600/100 ml

x 2 x 17,25/3)

x 17.25/3)

Therefore design not meet the criteria of irrigation water quality for crops likely to be eaten uncooked, If two maturation ponds, each at d detention time are provided in series after secondary pond, the effluent concontration is expected to be: N [I x 2 x (1725/3)1 (1 x 17,25/3)3

7BB/l00 rnl. The above calculations are based on assumption of complete mixing. In actuat condition performance is likely to be better. Sludge Accumulation: Most of the sludqe Will accumulate primary x (2/3) x x deposition, capacity available accumulation rate, desludgrnq frequency 28750/(0.07 x 250(0) Assuming 0.75 rn deep allowable sludge 28750 rn'. For m 3/person/year sludge

16 desludging frequency of once in 10 years

Because of non unitorrn deposition of sludqe , recommended.

521-8

APPENDIX
BYPASS PIPE INLET
-r-,

NOt CH

i
I

r-r-

/
t

LENGTH/3 TO 20m

r
PATH
t->

1.5 PAD BELL

b

FLAGSTONE liNING

'<,

SLUICE OR VALVE FOR DRAINING

" II
,I
:I II II.
II

"

OUTLET PIPE

a = Top width of bund b= Bottom width of bund

TYPICAL PLAN OF A WASTE STABILIZATION POND

523

bypass
1-

--

1
I

SCREEN

NOTC &RAVlTY INLET PIPE SUPPORT AT EVERY

SPLASH PAD

PIPE __L

fOR

EffLUENT

OPERA TIONAL LE VEL

NT

VALVE

TYPICAL DETAILS OF INLET AND OUTLET CHAMBER FOR FACULTATIVE WASTE STABILISATION POND

524 APPENDIX 16.1 DESIGN EXAMPLE FOR UPFLOW ANAEROBIC SLUDGE BLANKET REACTOR Problem Statement Design an upflow sludge blanket reactor for an average flow of 5 MLD of wastewater with the following data:

1.
2.

COD of wastewater Design hydraulic residence time Design COD loading Velocity of rise of wastewater in the reactor through sludge bed Velocity of wastewater in settling chamber Flow area covered by each inlet

400 mg/l 6 hrs 1 2 kg COD/m'.d

3.
4.

0.75 m/hr
< 1.5

5.
6.

2 m'

Solution Determine the dimensions of UAS6R Volume of UAS6R Actual volumetric organic loading 5000 x (6 / 24) 1,250 m'

[(5 x 400) /1250 J

kg COD/m'.d kg COD/m'.dJ

1.6 [O.K. as it is between Height of waste water in reactor

Rise velocity x HRT 0.75

x6

4.5 m 277.8 m'

Area of Reactor

[1250/ 4.5J

Provide twa reactors of 11.8 m x 11.8m x 5.25 m (height) 2. No. of Inlets Assume that each inlet can serve 2.0 m' of flow area

Number of inlets in each reactor 3. Area of Settling Chamber

[ 138.9/2 J

70

Assuming a velocity of 1.2 rn/hr in the settling zone Area of settlinq chamber in each reactor
[ 5000 / (2 x 24 x 1.2) J

86.8 m'

525 APPENDIX 16.2 DESIGN EXAMPLE FOR ANAEROBIC FILTER Problem Slatement Design anaerobic filters 10 treat an average flow of 5 MLD of wastewater with the following assumptions,

1,
2,
3,

COD of the wastewater Design COD Loading Deplh of media

400 mg/I 1,0 kg COD/m 3,d

1,2 rn

Solution 1, Dimensions of anaerobic filter Total COD load Volume of anaerobic filters for media Plan Area of fillers

5 x 400

2000 kg COD/d

[2000/1,0] [2000/1,2]

2000 m"
1666,7

Provide two fillers of diameter 32,6 m and beight 1,5 m inctudinq free board and bottom zone for dispersion of and supporting media,

2,

HRT for filters

[2000 / 5000] d
9,6 hrs.

526 APPENDIX 17.1 DESIGN EXAMPLE OF SLUDGE DIGESTERS Design low rate and high rate digesters for digesting mixed primary and activated sludge from a 50,000 mJ/day capacity activated sludge Wastewater Treatment Plant. Given: From the Appendix 13.1 on the design of activated sludge process: a) Raw effluent suspended solids (88) concentration 88 removal efficiency in the primary sedimentation tank Therefore, quantity of primary sludge generated (0.4 Kg/m' x 50.000 m'/dayxO.75) At 4%' consistency or 40 88 concentration,primary sludge volume (15000 Kgs.day 40Kg/m') The excess activated sludge generated At 1 consistency or 88 concentration of 10 Kg/m' the excess activated sludge volume (2630 Kgs 10Kgs/m') Total volume of the raw mixed sludge (375 + 263) Total quantity of the raw mixed sludge (15,000 + 2630) 88 concentration of the raw mixed sludge (17630 Kgs/day + 638m'/day) The approximate percentage of volatile matters (VM) in the mixed sludge Quantity of VM in the raw mixed sludge (0.7 x 17630) Quantity of (0.3 x 17630) or inorganic

400 mg/I

b)

75%

c)

15,000 Kg/day

d)

375 mJ/day 2,630 Kg/day

e) f)

263 mJ/day 638 mJ/day

g)

h)

17,630 Kg/day

i)

27.6 Kg/m'

j)

70 %

k)

12,341 Kg/day

I)

5,289 Kg/day

consistency

10,000

527
Low Rate Digester

a)

Approximate Percentage destruction of VM (design value) For achieving 50 % VM destruction, under mesophilic conditions, the HRT required (from Fig,17,3) Quantity of VM in the digested sludge (0,5 x 12,341) Quantity of nonvolatile matters or inorganic matters in the digested sludge Total quantity of solids in the digested sludge (6,170 + 5,289) percentage of VM in the digested sludge (6,170 11,459) percentage of inorganic matter in the digested sludge (5,289 + 11,459) Depending on the frequency of sludge withdrawal the consistency of the digested sludge withdrawn from the low rate digester is expected to be in the range of 4 6 %, For an average consistency of 5 % (or 50 the volume of digested sludge (11,459 50) Therefore the volume of digester

50%

b)

40 Days 6,170 Kg/day

c)

d)

5,289 Kg/day

e)

11,459 Kg/day

f)

53,80%

g)

h)

i)

229 m

3/day

j)

[ 638

2/3 (638

229J 40

14,624 m ' Check for volatile solids loading rate Kg VSS/day m" '12,341 + 14,624 0,84 Kg VSS/Day rn'.
3 )

( The VSS loading is within the permissible range, 0,6 to 1,6 Kg VSS/Day/m

528

Gas generation
Gas production per Kg of VM destroved Total gas generation (0.9m'/Kg VM * 6,170 KgVM/day) To avoid foaming, the minimum surtace area required to meet the condition of gas generated per Day per surface area, will be [6039+9] For operational flexibility and constructional reasons, it is suggested to install two diqesters of the following dimensions. Volume of each digester [14,624 m' 2] 0.9 rn'

6,039 rrr'

617

7,312

Minimum surface area of each digester 2] [617 Choosing the digester shape as a low, vertical cylinder and for a diameter of 34 m. the surface area of each digester will be Therefore the effective digestel depth will be { 7,312 908 rn"}

309

908 m 2

8.0 M

Volume
Volume for sludge storage during the monsoon period when the sludge dryin9 bed option is used for sludge dewatering For storage of 12 days {229 m'/day * 12 days} equivalent to 2748 rn' 908

Vd * T2

= =

2,748 3.0 m

Additional allowance for grit and scum accumulation Free board Therefore total additional depth

0.6 m 0.6 m

4.2 m

TWO DIGESTERS . EACH OF 34 M DIAMETER & 12.2 M DEPTH

529
High Rate Digesters

For a sludge temperature of C, the Solids Retention Time (SRT) required for 50% VSS destruction (refer Fig.17.3) Therefore the digester volume will be (Volume of fresh sludge * Retention time) Choosing two digesters, the capacity of each digester will be: Volume (12760 m ' + 2) Choosing a diameter of 27 M. the effective depth be Additional allowance for grit accumulation Free board Total additional depth

=
=
=

20 days 638 * 20 12760 rn"

6380

= =

11.2 M 0.5 M 0.6 M 1.1 M

Two digesters of 27 M diameter and 12.3 M depth Additional, separate sludge holding facility for storage during monsoon period (when sludge drying bed option is used for dewatering) is to be computed as before.

Flame pressure vacuum -manhole

Gas collector

.
r'"

..

SECTION TYPICAL DETAILS OF LOW RATE SLUDGE DIGESTER

531
APPENDIX 17,2 DESIGN EXAMPLE OF SLUDGE DRYING BEDS

Problem Statement
Design sludge drying beds tor digested sludge obtained trom low rate anaerobic digesters tor digesting a mixture ot primary and excess activated sludge, The capacity ot activated sludge plant is 50,000 m'ld and toll owing data is assumed:

i)

Volume ot digested sludge (Reter to design example on low rate anaerobic digester in Appendix 17.1) Dewatering, drying and sludge removal cycle Depth ot application of sludge Solution
a)

229m'/d

ii)

10 d

Total plan area ot sludge drying Number ot beds is assumed to be 7633 Plan area ot each bed

b)

229 x 10 0.3 7633 m' 30

254.43m'

c)

If per capita wastewater tlow is assumed as 150 Ipcd

contributory design population Plan area ot sludge drying bed

50000

10'

3,33,333

7633

3,33,333

0,023 m'/capita

532

NDIX

.tz 2

sludge

sludge chan riel

sand

gravel

open jonted pipes

SECTION

slope

TYPICAL DETAILS OF SLUDGE DRYING 8ED

533
APPENDIX SOIL PERCOLATION TEST

To design a suitable soil absorption system for disposal of effluent from septic tanks, percolation tests shall be carried out, on the proposed site lor location of the absorption system, in the following

Six or more test holes soaced unformly over the proposed absorption field shall be made, A square or circular hole with side width of diameter of 10 cm to 30 cm and vertical sides sball be dug or bored to the depth of the proposed absorption trench, The bottom and sides of the holes shall be scratched with a sharp-pointed instrument to remove smeared soil surfaces and to provide a natural soil interface into which water may percolate, The holes shall be filled for a depth of 5 cm with loose material to protect the bottom lrom scouring and settling, Before the actual readings for percolation tests are taken, it is necessary to ensure that the soil is the given ample opportunity to swell and approach the condition it will be in during the wettest season year, This is done by pouring water in the hole upto a minimum depth of 30 ern over the gravel and allowed to soak for 24 hours, If the water remains in the test hole after the overnight swelling period, the depth water shall be adjusted to 15 ern over the Then from a fixed point, drop rn water level shall be noted over a 30 min, period, This drop shall be used to calculate the percolation rate, no water in hole, at the end of 30 min. period, water shall be added to the depth of the water in hole 15 crn over gravel. From a fixed reference point, the drop in waler level shall be measured al30 min. inlevals for 4 hours, refilling to 15 cm level over Ihe gravel as necessary. The drop that occures during the 30 min. period shall be used to calculate the percolation rate. The during the periods infomation the modification of the procedure to suit local circumstances.
In sandy or other porous soils in which the first 15 ern of water away in less than 30 the interval between measurements shall taken 0 minutes after overniqht minutes and the test run for one hour. The that occurs in the final 10 rnunutes shall be used to calculate the percolation rate.

Based on the final drop. the percolation rate, which is Ihe time in minutes required for water to fall em, shall calculated.

CPHEEOIND/94

534
APPENDIX 21,2 DESIGN EXAMPLE OF LEACH PIT

Design example: Twin Leach Pits (Dry conditions) for 5 users:

1,

Assumptions: a) b) c) 9,5 liters of wastewater is generated per capita per day 5,0 liters ot water is used per day for floor wasbing and pan cleaning Tbe water tahle remains 2 meters or more below ground level through out tbe year for dry pit and 50 cm below for wet conditions The local
5011

d) e)

is porous silty loams and

The pits are designed for 2 year sludge accumulation capacity.

2.

The solution, 1 a) Calculate the total waste water flow (0) in liters per day

9.5 lid

5 users + 5 liters for floor wash etc.,

52.5 liters per day b) Assuming a pit of 800 mm internal diameter (inside lining 75 mm thick with brick on edge and effective depth 800 mrn, check for infiltrative surface area (A,); this is given by :

A,

rt

dh

Wbere d is the external diameter and h is the effective depth of the pit

A,
c)

0.95

x 0.8

2.39

m'

If the soil is porous silty learns. the infiltrative area required is 52.5120 2.62 : hence the infiltrative area provided is insufficient. Therefore by choosing a depth of 0.9 m; the infiltrative area At will be x 0.95 x 0.9 2.69 ,which is sufficient

d)

Check for the required solid storage volume (V) for a solids accumulation rate of 0.04 m' per capita per year, (Table for a dry pit with water being used for anal cleansing and for a desludginq interval of 2 years and a household size of 5 persons V
-x:

0.04 x 2 x 5

rn':

Whereas, the volume of proposed pit is :

535

Hence pit propsed e)

the sufficient storage capacity.

Allowing a free space of say 0.225 rn, the dimensions of the pit are as follows'
Internal diameter 800 mm Total depth 1125 mm (900 mm

225 mm free board) ground water table. the pit WIll

Since the pit bottom is more than 2 m above the function in dry condition. Solution.2 :

The ground water table is 50 em below the ground surface. but all other assumptions are tbe same as in the above example. The prt size is deterrnmed by taking the sludge accumulation rate from Tablo 21.4. Assuminq the pit period as 2 years. Volume of the pit 0.095 x 2 x 5 0.95 CU.M.

Allowing a free board of 0.225 rn. Pit dimensions come as follows: Internal diameter 1100 mm Total depth 1225 mm (1000 mm + 225 mm board)

536
APPENDIX

OPERATION TROUBLES IN SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

tn
waste unusuatcr

Or

often and

screerunqs
0'

Excc.ssfv

building

Report

diverted.

Excessrve

period

lonq

cross-Sectionat by flowing
hricks
ot cnanoet
Of

surcs

teshape 0'

reouc.e
flow present flow
01
O[

0'
by

0' oececse
reouce

01

movmq
..

Carrvcver

and

short

more

mcrease

or

sectionaf a-ea ot

Sedimentation
m Ftoatinq

decompoainq rr

ano

au

tanks

tenks

too

sewaqe
Report

to

ntrectec tanks

as
Of

diqester supematent

'0 unprovmq pr e.areation 01 orqaruc

10

sephcitv by

wastes
or nnprcve or bvpas s

svs.tern

dcqestcr

as
qualitv

reduce

ccmpetelv supernentent to

uu

nnproves

cross-sccnonet arce

mner alonq
wilh

01 suitable channel: aqitate prevent

deposuion

.pended

'0
test

,over
or

Flow
pet returned

en

Some

too

seweqe

raecn.c

to

tanks

537
Excessive in or

choke

mote often

contains qnt
pe.rsis!s report Chanqe piping if necessarv

surging of

r ates

pumping rates to to 'Jew or Or adjust reduce and to effective flow across the width of lank

hard

remove

content

clay content. or or

mere often 01 Low

or ether in ponding

too

or not

Rake or surface

roces or Idrn surtacu

the

water under

stop
over th
with

and
01 dose application 0/ tuter severe! or the or

(S Mg/I at
Iiher out of media

do

dry environment bioloqical 24 hours

Of

or or

ns
or wasf of the

weue

(3 5 mg/l) for sevrnar nours at trequenl nnstvars 1 to 2 cr DDT Of other

oecomposrtion

studqe or

conditions system growth or short

nus

IOf

Or orqaruc

Surface

()"C:
tcrnperoture cr

Der

of raters
improve or

dis.tnhuliun
or hreuk

tuter a

reduce prevaihnq

Decrease aeration liquor suepenceo Of ot activated sludqe

by aoori.

n.dex

to

uccreasc into

rero

speeo ot
in
of

tne mecr-anrsoi
10 me-case
aeiation

detenuou peoou

decrease

aer ation

eprnvs in

u-o

areas or apptv

in
increase in degree of purification

detoamants in

Ftuctualion in

tetuperetcue

ct uan
coolinq

roils lorminq
neot uanster

01

.cutece

o!

accumulation. or
ace or cxceessive acid

in

Connot s.curn

prevent

wastes by
metsjs

efrminate
to quanlttv
trom

betweeo

Zn

539

Foaming

buffered sludge in of raw content}; Of POOl contents; Of temperature row for prolonged periods tcsowed by of digester contents: or withdrawal 100 muc'} or scum grit diqester: Of high

of

reduce or slop additions; Of add keep pH between 6.8 to ether are undertaken: Of restore good or 10 range; breakup scum large quanitdies 01 oil Of are empty

Drying Sludge more usuat

Sludge layer too Second dose water surface
Rake over. rec-ess scrtece

Pul on too

sludge

Do not apply started dly off Decant water

if

nrst

drains

SCHEDULE OF

MAINTENANCE

No

be

uf

pres sure uno

in

Six

sfu-a valve

vatvea

Exhaust

S; it-s

Six

effictencv

(2)

SCHEDULE OF

MAINTENANCE

o!

pert

neotor

Slip

cnu

stator no

SCHEDULE OF

MAINTENANCE

Remarks
at maintenance to done

vottaqe

must the

oil,
{ HT of uts bolts

of
LT both}. sockets

Ir anstormar

coos
teukaqos
upto 40 KV tor

Year

of conddicn

01 core or

MAINTENANCE (

SI No

o!

or

out

et

maeuaoeuce
done
I

Air

and
contacts movmq

or
matn

mo-ubs

contacts

mov.nq

No vol!
of

coil

on.
ere
ot

a
& or

Six

nanqmq of
ct

transtoirner oil of oil

veers

weeretq
etc.}

01
etc.

542
(5)

SCHEDULE OF PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Sedimentation

Clarifier and

drive

01 atttenoed

10

ocr

interval which maintenance

Lobncat.n

One month lopping lopping oi! onrevet of carbon brushes. months Three months Four months

2
3
4
Table Vertical slip

Box

Motor

Dust etc of gap alignment Ctteckinq of

two

&

months

sourpears condition
& tear

Six
Six months
old

Rubber

01

instanaucns

M,S,

01 nurs parts mechanism

ot its etc

reprecemeru

(If

Turn

APPENDIX 24.1 MINIMUM LABORATORY EQUIPMENT NEEDED FOR TESTS

of

5 MLD
x

MlO

..

Chlorine comparator

Drying

(hot

ctwomotoqrnph
Hot

x
C (BOD)

x
Kiehldahl Unit

binocular with

immersion

couretnq

Furnace Orsat or equivalent

pH comparator (Colorimetric)
pH with scare elect ces

x
apparatus

pH

prot

x x

x x

Rafter turme,

sampler
Soxhtet exnecticn Spectrophotometer {atomic with without
j

x
x x

crqanic carbon Turbidirneter

Vaccurn pump
controued)

APPENDEX 24.2

TESTS RECOMMENDED TO BE CARRIED OUT ON UNITS OF SEWAGE TREATMENT

1

Voleu!c

o
10

"
X

14

x
X

c-orirent s

x
X

7,
X X X

tnflucn r tanks hnhoff

X X

8.

10.

sct ttcct

12.

x
X

x x

x
X

J4.

tnnucru
X X X

APPENDEX
(Cosstd )
SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS CARRIED

TESTS RECOMMENDED TO

our ON UNITS

'rre unem

cvs

ee

iull".

of

In.

x x

IZ,

13,

546

APPENDIX 25.1 DESIGN EXAMPLE FOR VENTURIMETER

Problem. Design of Venturi Meter using

A venturimeter wili be provided (36 in.) diameter.

following data: force force main is 92 cm

tube beta ratio (diameter of throat/diameter or equal to 05 Maximum

force main) shall

minimum flow ranges are 1321 and 0.152 m1js respectiveiy. 0.75 percent at all flows.

flow measurment error shall be less head loss shall not flows.

15 percent of the meter readings at all

The selected venturimeter shall be capable of mesuring flows bearing liquids

of solids

Solution:

Q
(I)

Where

o
H, Hz

A, A2

pipe flow upstream peizometric head, m throat peizometric head, m force main m' throat area,

H,

Hz, m

Under actual operating conditions and for standard meter tubes, including allowance for friction, above equation reduces to

K
(2)

547

Where

C,
K

Velocity, friction or discharge coefficient (dimensionless) Coefficient (dimensionless)

I
(4)

0" diameter of pipe and throat, m. For Standard Venturi meter the diameter of the throat is one third to one half of the pipe diameter and the value of k lies between 1.0002 and 1.0328. The value of C, generally ranges from 0.97 to 0.99. The value of C, is normally provided by the manufacturer.

Unit Sizing and Calibration Curve.

1. Determine constants. The venturi meter tube has O2/0, diameter O2 46 ern.

0.5

10328

2.

Develop calibration equation from equation 2 Assume C, 0.985

4
07489

3.

Develop calibration curve. Assigning different values of differential head recorded by the meter, the pipe discharge can be obtained from equation. At maximum peak design and minimum initial flows of 1.321 and 0.152 CuM/s the differential meter readings will be 3.1 and 0.041 m respectively and 161 in.). The calibration curve is shown in figure. If mercury is used in the glass tube, then the differential pressure readings must be adjusted for the specific weight of mercury (13.58).

Head loss Calculations :

In a venturi meter tube. due to gradual contraction of the approach section. the head loss is considered negligible. Likewise, due to short length of the the head loss in this section can be neglected. The head loss in the recovery section is estimated from.

Where

o 14 for

head loss through the venturimeter. m angles of divergence of 5 the head losses are

At maximum and minimum flows of 1.321 and 0.152 calulated as follows

0,14 1,321

hL at maximumflow

0.45m

APPENDIX.25.1
0.14
4

hi arminimumflow

0.152

0.46) 2

These head loss values are 14.8 percent of the differential readings of the meter at respective flows. m 3/s. Head loss when the flow is 50 mid.
0.14

0.578

u,

/
3.0

o
.09

E
I

/
/
1

z
u,
u,

V
o
0
Q25

.:
a75
100

7.

u,

125

rsa

DISCHARGE

m 3/sec

CALIBRATION VENTURI

CURVE OF THE METER

TUBE

550 APPENDIX 27 BIBILOGRAPHY and wastewater Enqineerinq" Vol I and Okun, DA, 1981, & Toppan. Supply and Wastewater Removal", Valli and Fair, G.M., and

2.

Enqineerinq : Eddy, Inc. Revised

Disposal and Tara

Second Edition Hill, New Deihl.

Motealt and

3.

"Environmental Enqineerinq" Hill Book Company.

H.S, RoweD.R., and Tchobanoqlous

Mc.Graw -

4.

"Wastewater Treatment Plants and

Planuinq, Desiqn

Operation",

Oasim, S.R., Holt,

5.

Treatment Publishinq company.

Pollution Control".

Arceiva!a, S.J., Tata Mc-Craw Hill

Treatment Handbook" 5th Edition,

Deqremont, John Wiley & Sons.

7.

"Seweraqe and E.R.

Treatment" First Indian Edition

H.E. and Baumann.

8.

Heallh Disposal, EscritU B. "Public Health

Practice" Fourth Edition 1972. Vol Il-Seweraqe and

in

Seweraqe, Bartlett R.E

10.

"Desiqn and Construction of Sanitary and Storm Sewers", Revised Edition 1970, Manual of Practice Water Pollution Control Federation, Washinqton, D.C. U.S.A. "Sewage Treatment Plant desiqn" Federation, Washington, DC Manual of Practice No.8, Water Pollution Control

11.

12.

"Disposal of and WatelSorne Wastes', Second Edition W.J. and Thistlewayte D.K.B. "Wastewater Systems Enqineerinq"

lmhott K.M , Muller

14. 15.

"Advanced Wastewatel Treatnv.nt" 1971, GUlp R.L and Culp G,L "Sewaqe Treatment-Basic Principles and Trends", Second Edition 1972, Bolton R.L and Klein L. Disposal of Thu d Editin 1956, Veal T.H.P.

16.

551

1956, Hardenbergh

Operations of Sanitary
19. "Environmental and

Rich
Second Ed.tion 1971, Salvato
Jr.

"The Desiqn and Operation of "Environmental Enqineerinq Handbook"

22.

Works"

Barnes

and Wilson

Pollution, Liptak and Sorensen

Book of Applied Hydraulics" Third Edition 1969, Davies "Open Channel Hydraulics" 1959, Ven Te Chow.

24,

Treatment

of

Sewage

and

Wastes"

and

Eckentelder
25. House Edition Southhall and Prentice H.O.

"Chemistry for Sanitary Engineers"

Sawyer

and McCarty P.L

"Microbinlogy for Sanitary Engineers" 19132, McKinney

28.

"Waste Stabilisation Ponds" Construction and Operation in Heallb Enqineerinq Research Institute, Nagpur "Methods for the Examination of Water, of Medical Research and Industrial Wastes"

Central Public

Indian Council

Treatment for Small Communities Developments" Indian Association for Watel Pollution Control. Technical Annual (convention number), V. Raman. "Upflow Anaerobic A Simple Sewage Treamont lnternational Conference on Water Pollution Control for Developing Countries, Banqkok. V. Raman and A.N. Khan. "Process Design Manual for Upqradinq Existinq Wastewater Treatment Plants" Technoloqv Transfer, U.S. Envirornental Protection Agency,
1974,

Technical Grade lines 00 'TWill Pit Pour Flush Latrines" prepared by Ministry of Urban Development and Regional Water and Sanitation South Asia UNDP/World Sanitation Progress April 1992.

Bks.

553
APPENDIX 28
Geometric Elements For Circular Channel Sections
y
p

y
do

dO'
...

do

do'

do
0.53 0.54 0.55 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59

do
..

do
0.2591 0.2620 0.2649 0.2878 0.2703 0.2728 0.2753 0.2778 0.2797 0.2818 0.2839 0.2860 0.2881 0.2899 0.2917 0.2935 0.2950 0.2973 0.1715 0.1772 0.1825 0.1878 0.1933 0.1987 0.2041 0.2092 0.2146 0.2199 0.2252 0.2302 0.2358 0.2407 0.2460 0.2510 0.2560 0.2608 0.2653 0.2751 0.2794 0.2640 0.2888 0.2930 0.2969 0.3008 0.3045 0.3062 0.3118 0.3151 0.3182 0.3212 0.3240 0.3286 0.3307 0.3324

0.01 0.02 0.03 0 04 0.05 0.08

0.0013 0.0037 0.0069 0.0105 0.0147 0.0192 0.0242 0.0294 0.0350 0.0470 0.0534 0.0600 0.0739 0.0885 0.0961 0.1039 0.1116 0.1281 0.1365 0.1535 0.1623 0.1800 0.1890 0.1982 0.2074 0.2187 0.2355 0.2450 0.2546 0.2739 0.2836 0.2934 0.3032 0.3132 0.3229 0.3328 0.3527 0.3627 0.3727 0.3827 0.3927

0.2003 0.2838 0.3482

0.0066 0.0132 0.0197 0.0326 0.0389 0.0451 0.0513 0.0574 0.0635 0.0695 0 0754

0.0000 0.0002 0.0005 0.0009 0.0015 0.0031 0.0040 0.0052 0.0065 0.0095 0.0113 0.0131 0.0152 0.0173 0.0220 0.0247 0.0301 0.0333 0.0359 0.0394 0.0427 0.0497 0.0536 0.0571 0.0610

1.8911 1.7113 7315 7518 0.5018 0.5212 0.5308 0.5404 0.5499 0.5594 0.5687 0.5780 0.5964 0.6054 0.6143 0.6231 0.6318 0.6404 0.6489 0.6573 0.6655 0.6736 0.6815 0.6893 0.7043 0.7115 0.7186 0.7254 0.7320 0.7380 0.7445 0.7504 0.7560 0.7612 0.7662 0.7707 0.7749 0.7785 0.7816 0.7841 0.7854 1.8338

0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.15

0.5355 0.5735 0.8094 0.6435 0.6781 0.7075 0.7377 0.7670 0.8230 0.8500 0.8763 0.9020 0.9521 1.0003

0.64 0.65

1.8965

0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.30

0.0986 0.1042 0.1097 0.1152 0.1206 0.1259 0.1312

0.70 0.71 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.77 0.78 0.80 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99

2.0042

2.0714 2.1176 2.1412 2.1652 2.1895 2.2143 2.2395 2.2653 2.2916 2.3462 2.3746 2.4341 0.3017 0.3025 0.3032 0.3037 0.3040 0.3042 0.3044 0.3043 0.3041 0.3038 0.3033 0.3026 0.3017 0.3008 0.2996 0.2980 0.2963 0.2944 0.2922 0.2864 0.2830 0.2787 0.2735 0.2665 0.2500

1.0701

1.1373 1.1593 1.1810 2239

0.33 0.35

0.38 0.39

1.3284 1.3490 1.3694 1.3898

0.45

0.1466 0.1516 0.1566 0.1614 0.1662 0.1709 0.1755 0.1801 0.1848 0.1891 0.1935 0.1978 0.2020 0.2061 0.2102 0.2142 0.2181 0.2220 0.2257 0.2294 0.2331 0.2400 0.2434

0.0735 0.0776 0.0820 0.0864 0.0955 0.1020 0.1050 0.1147 0.1196 0.1245 0.1298 0.1348 0.1401 0.1452 0.1505 0.1558 0.1610

2.5322 2.5681 2.6061

2.7389 2.6578 2.9412 3.1416

0.3350 0.3353 0.3349 0.3340 0.3322 0.3291 0.3248 0.3117

0.50

1.5508 1.5708

do
Y

0.2500 0.2531 0.2561

P
r

diameter depth flow water area wetted perimeter Hydraulic radius.

CPHEEO/ND/94

ERRATA
8 1.6.2 3 3.1 Chapter 3

2 3

11 41

1.8.2.3-b 3.3.1.3

7.3.1 intensity duration

7.1.3 intensity and duration

46

3.4.2.1

xt
5 49 3.4.2.5 Below Table 3.5

S
These pipe

* These pipe
the first pipe 4fll intercepted, high at least

6 7 8

61 61 66 3.5.4.1 4 4

the pipe 411 intercepted high atleast

9 10

77
95

4.2.1.2 6.3.2.1 (a)(i) 7.1.1.3

3 3

5 3

ratios

ratio
or

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 127 128 129 155 157 165 165 169 170 175 176 178 180

of 1 2 4 3 2 1 3 2

7.1.2 7.1.2.2(b) 7.1.3.1 9.5.2.1

activity zones
leads hunching dru

activity zones,
loads haunching dry well

9.7.5.5

2,13 20

nett Nett

net Net

9.7.8 9.7.9.4 9.7.10.2 9.7.10.3 9.8.8 9.9.4

drawn
consumable

draw
consumebles

aceel
pumps complied

acceleration
pump compiled

3 3

Table 9.5

Row 2/line 3. Col.4

IS 7098
consumable
consumabies putrescible
wastes

25 26 27

181 188 189

9.11.1 10.5.4 10.6 2 2

putrescoblo
waste

ERRATA

101

4(a) & 4(b) col.t organic'

30 31

191 192 10.9.3

Table 10.1

Equation 10.1
3 3 Table 10,2

of
&

32
33 34

193 193 194

Column 2 (heading) Row 1, S)

35

194

Table 10.2

1+Kd
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 199 199 200 203 206 208 209 226 237 3 4 10.10 10.10 11.1.1 Table 10.3 Table 10.3 3 31i1lb cot.e 3{iir)coI.2 8 8

areas
nonputrescrible

area
nonputrescible 10 degrees C velocities

iO
velocition
particle nave comparston

have comparision

Table (Titles)
Eq.14.2 Table 14.2 14.3.1 Heading 3

octumn.s

45 46 47 48

246 251 254 259

BOD loadind RECENT 4 1

BOD loading PERCENT

suitably
1 1 tK,1

49 50 51 52

259

15.3.2 16.2.3

4 headIng

03

266j
266

Fixed

Fixed film
or settleable

4
1

for settlaolo

270
270

17.1 17.1 2 4

53

aim

RRATA

.. ,

tiotaucn 271 273

,!

')

floatation

uctaucn

298 300 64 301

c;

4
2

sould at to Cotiforms

305

Column.a

Colitomrs

307 67 68 308 320 328

fable 2

S.No.12

l.anqoller
(F) cultrue usually A to F

69
70

olruamtenance
Line 2
337 338 338 4

maintenance

71 72 73 74

2
3 7

Appendex

nad
oder

and
odour
Silty

342

21,5

silty Silty
2
clay

75

21,5

Line 2
76

21.3.2.3

4 2

and 2M

or

77
78 350 351 21 2 2 2

imperivous
2 eleminated foating odor minimum vent pipe 3 necessarav

impervious

odour
vent:

22,3,1

ERRATA
S.No Article

Para

Instead areation 2

Read As aeration chemical

85 86

365
365 Table 222 22,3,9 23.2.1 2 CoL2

protecitve throughly

protective thoroughly characteristics thorough

3 90 370 3

chracteristics through stablisation

92

371 371

throughly

thoroughly

contains
5 23.2.5.1 4 5 6 23.3.2 23.3.2 6 6

94 95 96 97

372 372 374 376 377 377

interfers
operting lubricted

interferes operating

4
2

vattile
operted manually
Wherever necessary

volatile operated automatically (wherever necessary) extinguishing

100

378

101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108

378 383 383 383 383 385 24.2.1.16

4 3 2 3 4

extenguishing fumr andied efrigerators eary concentratons

24.2.1.11
24,2.1,15

fume
handled

refrigerators

easy
concentrations detaches

2 11 388 3

detches

mircorbial
precausions

microbial
precautions

110 111 112 113

424 430

10 8

vesses
Verted

vessels
Inverted

458

i.e
73 x 25 1 73x25

ERRATA

17 11
509
3
10299m

Assuming

t;

checkfor
loading

50,00xl0xl(lxll 2866
q

50,00xl0xl (1 + I)

118

513

Average charge per lateral

11

513

under
system

26

Appendix

514 3

122
123

514 518
design Exit channel

Appendix

Appendix

(AlPlol !r/(wl'2dl}

IA/Plol

520
521

Appendix
Appendix 15.1

2
pond size
pond size

125 126 127

para 2
para 2

1001 180 kg
Drying Furnace funner

+0,003x1)

521

Appendix 15.1

Kg
Drying oven

Appendix 24.1

8th Row 18th Row

24th Row

545 129

Appendix Aepend!x

Muffle Furnace
funnel