Postharvest Biology and Technology 27 (2003) 87 /101 www.elsevier.

com/locate/postharvbio

Maintaining optimal atmosphere conditions for fruits and vegetables throughout the postharvest handling chain
J.K. Brecht a,1, K.V. Chau b, S.C. Fonseca c, F.A.R. Oliveira d, F.M. Silva e, M.C.N. Nunes f, R.J. Bender g
a Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, PO Box 110690, Gainesville, FL 32611-0690, USA Agricultural and Biological Engineering Department, University of Florida, PO Box 110690, Gainesville, FL 32611-0690, USA c Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Catolica Portuguesa, Porto, Portugal d Department of Process Engineering, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland e Escola Superior Agraria de Santarem, Instituto Politecnico de Santarem, Quinta do Galinheiro /S. Pedro, 2001-904 Santarem, Portugal f Department of Soils and Agrifood Engineering, University Laval-FSAA, Quebec, Canada G1K 7P4 g Departamento Horticultura et Silvicultura, Faculdade Agronomia, Universidade Federal Rio Grande do Sul, 91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil b

Received 10 January 2002; accepted 23 July 2002

Abstract Optimal controlled and modified atmospheres (CA and MA) for fresh produce vary according to the specie, its maturity or ripeness stage, the temperature, and the duration of exposure. However, individual lots of produce are typically handled for different times and at different temperatures during storage, transportation, and retail display. In this paper, we review some of our previous work showing the potential for using different atmospheres for mangoes (Mangifera indica L.) and strawberries (Fragaria )/ananassa Duchesne) depending on the anticipated storage length and temperature. Since it would be desirable, especially for produce transported over extended distances, as in marine transport, to maintain optimal atmosphere conditions throughout the postharvest handling chain, we also describe our procedure for designing a combination CA/MAP system that involves first designing the MAP for a particular commodity that will produce an optimal atmosphere for retail display conditions, then selecting a CA that will interact with the MAP to produce the optimal atmosphere within the packages during transportation at a lower temperature. An example of the design procedure is given from our work with fresh-cut kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala DC.). Another example of this proposed MAP/CA system deals with its application to mixed load transportation of strawberries and snap beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Controlled atmosphere; Mango; Mixed load; Modied atmosphere; Package design; Snap bean; Strawberry; Temperature; Transportation

1 Corresponding author. Tel.: '/1-352-392-1928; fax: '/1-352-392-5653 E-mail address: jkb@ifas.ufl.edu (J.K. Brecht). 0925-5214/02/$ - see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 9 2 5 - 5 2 1 4 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 8 5 - 0

88

J.K. Brecht et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 27 (2003) 87 /101

1. Introduction Traditionally, optimal conditions for CA and MA storage have been selected based on the understandable goal of achieving maximum extension of postharvest life. This usually leads to selection of the least advanced maturity or ripeness stage that will provide minimally acceptable taste quality and the most extreme O2 and CO2 levels that the particular commodity is able to tolerate without injury until its storage life is finally ended due to deterioration of one quality parameter or another. The prime example of the success of this approach is CA storage of apples [Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill.] and pears (Pyrus communis L.). Application of CA and MA storage to many other fruits and vegetables has not been nearly as successful, we feel primarily due to less clear economic incentives to extend their market seasons, but also due, in many cases, to inherently shorter postharvest life spans that result in comparatively modest potential lifespan extensions from CA and MA technology. However, the rise in recent years of international trade in horticultural products and the consequent extension of transport times has challenged the ability of postharvest handlers to deliver high quality products. This, in turn, has created a new opportunity for application of CA and MA to products for which a 2- or 3-week-long transit time may represent a very significant portion of their potential postharvest life. Similarly, the rise in popularity of fresh-cut vegetables and fruits has created a large number of extremely perishable products for which even normal domestic distribution represents a considerable challenge. Virtually all fresh-cut products are by necessity handled in MAP to achieve the necessary postharvest lifespan. Postharvest fruits and vegetables are usually exposed to varying surrounding temperatures during handling, transportation, storage and marketing. During marketing, the surrounding temperature is usually higher than during shipping or storage. The changes in surrounding temperature create a special problem in MAP design because the temperature dependence of the respiration rate is different from that of the permeabilities of MAP films (Cameron et al., 1993). Due to this fact, it is

difficult to maintain an optimum atmosphere inside a package when the surrounding temperature is not constant. In order to maintain the same gas concentrations in varying surrounding temperature conditions, the permeabilities of the packaging film or perforation must change at the same rate as the respiration rate over the temperature range of interest (Talasila et al. , 1992, 1995). Packages are normally designed for specific constant surrounding temperatures. All calculations of the internal atmosphere in sealed packages assume constant permeabilities of the film or perforation and respiration rates of the produce at some constant temperature (Ben-Arie, 1990). Several investigators have studied the effects of temperature and gas concentrations on product respiration and package O2 and CO2 levels (Beaudry et al., 1992; Talasila et al., 1992; Cameron et al., 1994; Joles et al., 1994). Because of the difference in the rates of change of permeability and respiration rate with temperature, a film that produces a favorable atmosphere at the optimal storage temperature may cause excessive accumulation of CO2 and/or depletion of O2 at higher temperatures, a situation that could lead to metabolic disorders (Beaudry et al., 1992; Cameron et al., 1993; Exama et al., 1993; Cameron et al., 1994; Joles et al., 1994). The adverse effect of temperature fluctuations could be counter-balanced by a safety device such as a temperature responsive valve or film that allows more O2 to enter the package at high temperatures (Exama et al., 1993). Recently, packages have been made commercially available that the manufacturer claims are able to automatically adjust permeability in response to temperature changes by a phase change in the polymer structure of a semipermeable coating on a microporous patch (Clarke and DeMoor, 1997). To complicate things further, some shippers would like to send mixed loads of several crops in one large container in order to maximize space usage and reduce transport cost. It is conceptually possible to design systems that include MAP inside a CA container such that the MAP is optimized for one set of conditions (usually higher temperature warehouse or retail display conditions) and the CA chosen so that, when used in combination with that MAP, an optimal within-package atmo-

J.K. Brecht et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 27 (2003) 87 /101

89

sphere will develop under a given set of transport conditions. Such a CA environment, when properly designed, could correct for changes in respiration rates and package gas permeation rates caused by changes in the surrounding temperature at different steps in the postharvest handling sequence. Such a MAP/CA system can, within limits of temperature and other relevant compatibilities, allow mixed commodity loads to be transported with each commodity being surrounded by its own optimal atmosphere.

2. Literature review 2.1. Control of the temperature during the postharvest handling chain The maintenance of a constant optimal temperature throughout the postharvest handling chain (i.e. from the grower to the retail display) is one of the most difficult tasks and is far from being universally attained. Even when transport by truck or sea can provide satisfactory temperatures within the limits of acceptability, the transport time may be too long for short-life products to be transported over long distances. On the other hand, the speed of air transportation makes it a tempting alternative for transporting highly perishable and very short-life commodities. However, we should bear in mind that air transport typically involves a significant break in the cold chain of perishables handling. The major causes for this rupture are either the fluctuating or very high/low temperatures often encountered during flight and ground operations. As an example, for strawberries shipped from California to Montreal by truck vs. plane, the most common temperature/time profiles inside a container, commonly encountered during postharvest handling operations, are summarized in Table 1 (Emond et al., 1996; Villeneuve et al., 1999). Although the temperature throughout the trip by truck can be maintained within the limits of acceptability, the length of the transport significantly reduces the marketability time considering the relatively short shelf life of strawberries (5 /7 days). On the other hand, the transport by plane is very rapid but the temperature is rather

inconsistent and overall not adequate for strawberries. In fact, the fluctuating temperatures often encountered during the handling chain can have a very negative effect on the quality of horticultural crops (Nunes et al., 1999; Nunes et al., 2001). For example, when we stored Opus snap beans at two different temperature regimes (semi-constant and fluctuating) typically encountered during ground and in-flight handling operations, pods from the semi-constant temperature regime lost less weight, had better visual ratings for color, firmness and shriveling, and less incidence of browning and bruising than those stored in fluctuating temperatures (Nunes et al., 2001). In addition, snap beans from the fluctuating temperature were considered unmarketable before exposure to retail conditions. The semi-constant temperature was equal to the average of the fluctuating temperature regime, suggesting that the temperature fluctuation per se may have had negative effects separate from that of higher temperature exposure alone. Results from Nunes et al. (2001) indicated that, even for short periods of time, fluctuating and/or high temperatures during handling might result in rejection of the whole load. Given such facts, it is obvious that something needs to be done in order to improve the conditions endured by horticultural products during postharvest handling in order to reduce losses and provide consumers with products of the best possible quality and safety. For long distance shipments by land, sea or even air, the establishment of suitable gas compositions (CA or MA) helps overcome some inherent deficiencies of the transport technologies and of product postharvest life. 2.2. Controlled atmosphere storage at non-optimum temperature conditions The best way to maintain the quality of fresh fruits and vegetables is undoubtedly by maintaining an adequate temperature throughout the postharvest handling chain. But as discussed above, a constant and optimum temperature is rarely either attained or maintained. Although the use of CA

90

J.K. Brecht et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 27 (2003) 87 /101

Table 1 Approximated normal handling times and temperatures for strawberries transported from California to Montreal by truck or plane Transport by truck Handling steps Warehouse (grower) Time (h) 12 Temperature (8C) 2 /3 3 /7a 3 /7 3 /7 3 /7 3 /7 3 /7 3 /7 8 20 Transport by plane Handling steps Warehouse (grower) Truck Tarmac Airplane Tarmac Truck Distribution center Truck Backroom (supermarket) Retail display Total Time (h) 12 3 2 7 2 5 12 6 12 48 109 Temperature (8C) 2 /3 3 /7 10 (1 h)'/20 (1 h) 20 :/ 23 3 /7 3 /7 3 /7 8 20

Truck

96

Distribution center Truck Backroom (supermarket) Retail display Total

a

12 6 12 48 186

Maximum value for temperature corresponds to a mixed load of fruits and vegetables that included strawberries.

storage does not replace the benefits of an optimum storage temperature, it can in some cases alleviate the effects of non-optimum temperatures. For example, when we stored Chandler strawberries in 5% O2'/15% CO2 or 10% O2'/20% CO2 for up to 2 weeks at 4 or 10 8C to study the effects of CA at temperatures above the optimum for strawberries, the results indicated that the CA was, in fact, still beneficial (Nunes et al., 1995). However, the benefits of CA storage in terms of minimizing changes in weight loss, firmness, color and composition were greater at 4 8C than at 10 8C (Table 2). In contrast, when the two CA treatments were compared, strawberries stored in 5% O2'/15% CO2 lost less weight, maintained better firmness, and had a lighter, more intense, pure red color (higher lightness, hue, and chroma values) than those stored in 10% O2'/20% CO2 (Table 2). Furthermore, the 5% O2'/15% CO2 maintained higher levels of acidity and soluble solids than 10% O2'/20% CO2, but the latter maintained higher levels of ascorbic acid. Storage of pink Buffalo tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) in 4% O2'/2% CO2 at 12 8C contributed to extended shelf life (Nunes et al., 1996). However, storage of these tomatoes in the same CA at 6 8C caused CO2 injury and accentuated the development of chilling injury symp-

toms such as watersoaking, pitting, discoloration, and loss of brightness. In contrast, Ratanachinakorn et al. (1997) found that pink Bermuda tomatoes were not injured by exposure to 0.5% O2 for 1 day or 80% CO2 for 2 days at 22 8C. Results from these and other similar studies illustrate that O2 and CO2 levels need to be adjusted to maximize their beneficial effects on the quality characteristics of fruits and vegetables depending on the anticipated temperature during postharvest handling. 2.3. Modied atmosphere packaging at varying temperatures In the particular case of highly perishable products such as fresh-cut fruits or vegetables in MAP, which have a relatively short shelf-life and are very vulnerable to temperature abuse, the maintenance of an adequate temperature near 0 8C is obligatory to keep the product safe for consumption. Increases in the temperature during shipping, handling or retail display result in decreased O2 and increased CO2 levels inside the package due to a rise in the respiration rate of the product. Most MAP systems are designed for a specific temperature, and films with adequate O2 permeability, adequate response to temperature

J.K. Brecht et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 27 (2003) 87 /101

Table 2 Weight loss, esh rmness, color, and composition of Chandler strawberries after 1-week storage in CA at 4 or 10 8C plus 1 day at 20 8C (from Nunes et al., 1995) Harvest Temp. (8C) Atmosphere (% O2'/CO2) Weight loss (%) Flesh firmness (N) Color L1 First Second Third Fourth LSD0.05 4 10 4 10 4 10 4 10 5'/15 10'/20 5'/15 10'/20 4.03 6.67 8.23 12.83 5.53 8.23 8.63 11.93 1.24 6.97 5.56 4.83 4.28 4.71 4.33 4.70 4.32 0.29 Hue Chroma 7.74 6.42 4.98 4.62 6.04 5.73 5.67 5.03 0.36 64.72 56.99 52.11 43.07 53.66 45.71 46.52 41.80 2.10 514.91 425.37 548.21 510.62 568.20 404.05 602.93 534.24 31.03 Titratable acidity (% dry wt) Soluble solids (% dry wt.) Ascorbic acid (% dry wt.)

36.71 33.61 39.36 35.19 31.99 36.37 33.93 31.29 33.80 33.91 31.80 32.08 36.11 33.41 36.61 34.94 32.33 34.71 35.11 30.76 35.82 32.76 28.52 32.05 0.64 1.13 1.00

91

92

J.K. Brecht et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 27 (2003) 87 /101

variations, or both are rare (Cameron et al., 1995). Therefore, when the temperature increases, respiration tends to increase more that the permeation of the package, thus creating fermentative conditions. Nevertheless, many MAP products are prepared, shipped and stored at temperatures between 5 and 10 8C (Watada et al., 1996; Verlinden and Nicola, 2000) owing to the defi ciencies of environmental control often encountered during transportation. Cameron et al. (1995) reported that in MA-packaged pre-cut salad greens purchased at a supermarket the O2 levels measured inside the packages were very low and ethanol accumulation was present in the majority of the packages. In this case, the packages were either not well designed or they were subjected to higher temperatures than those for which the packages were designed. Another problem associated with temperature variations during marketing of MAP products is the development of high humidity inside the package, which favors condensation on the film and on the package contents. The presence of liquid water (i.e. condensate) may promote the development of decay (Brackett, 1987) and may also block O2 diffusion into the tissues and through the film, causing fermentation (Cameron et al., 1995). Fluctuating temperatures encountered during postharvest handling can have particularly negative impacts on the quality of products in MAP (Chambroy et al., 1993; Sanz et al., 1999; Tano et al., 1999) due to the danger of reaching injurious levels of O2 or CO2. It is also possible for O2 and CO2 levels to become inadequate to control microbial growth and development or even to favor microbial proliferation when the temperature increases. Chambroy et al. (1993) stored Pajaro strawberries in different MA packages at 10 or 20 8C and observed a rapid reduction of O2 and increase in CO2 during the first 24 h for both temperatures. However, the growth of pathogens at 20 8C was relatively high despite the high CO2 content. Although at 10 8C the films tested provided adequate CO2 levels (5 /10%), for short periods at 20 8C, only the most permeable films avoided the risk of metabolic deviation. More recently Sanz et al. (1999) studied the effects of commercial handling temperatures (3 days at 2 8C

plus 4 days at 20 8C) used by strawberry producers in southwestern Spain on the quality of Camarosa strawberries packed in perforated polypropylene films and observed that although the atmosphere inside the packages at 2 8C was close to that recommended for strawberries, color quality was reduced and off-flavor developed upon exposure of the fruit to 20 8C. In another study, Tano et al. (1999) evaluated the effects of temperature fluctuations on the atmosphere inside packages with diffusion windows for gas exchange and their impact on the quality of mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus Lange). The authors observed that CO2 levels inside the packages subjected to fluctuating temperatures followed the temperature changes, while the O2 decrease that accompanied the first rise in the temperature remained the same at 1.5% despite variations in the temperature throughout the storage. Unchanging O2 levels regardless of the fluctuating temperatures are probably a result of irreversible membrane damage and reduced mitochondrial activity (Tano et al., 1999). Unpleasant odors, loss of tissue firmness, and increased enzymatic browning can occur due to low O2 (B/ 2%) and high CO2 (/12%) levels inside of the mushroom MAP as a result of temperature fluctuations. 2.4. Tolerance of different crops to CA under different conditions The tolerance of a specific crop to a low O2 level and/or a high CO2 level may be evaluated by the onset of fermentation. Simple indicators of fermentation are increases in the RQ (the ratio between CO2 production and O2 consumption rates) and the production of ethanol. A linear relationship exists between the concentration of ethanol and the RQ (Beaudry, 1993; Joles et al., 1994). Under aerobic O2 concentrations the RQ remains relatively constant. As O2 levels decline, fermentation is induced and the RQ increases, due to greater production of CO2 with very little or no consumption of O2. The lowest O2 concentration surrounding the product that does not induce fermentation has been expressed as the external lower O2 limit (LOL), the O2 at the RQ break-

J.K. Brecht et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 27 (2003) 87 /101

93

point, the anaerobic compensation point (ACP), the anaerobic fermentation induction point, or the fermentation threshold (Boersig et al., 1988; Beaudry et al., 1992; Talasila et al., 1994; Yearsley et al., 1996; Lakakul et al., 1999). That the surrounding O2 concentration at the RQ breakpoint increases with temperature was first reported for blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) (Beaudry et al., 1992). These O2 values increased from 1.8 to 4.0% as the temperature increased from 5 to 25 8C. Others have since also reported increases in the O2 tolerance limit with increasing temperature (Joles et al., 1994; Maneerat et al., 1997; Lakakul et al., 1999). One possible explanation advanced by Beaudry et al. (1992) is that the fruit skins permeability to O2 does not rise as rapidly as O2 consumption increases with a temperature rise, leading to an increase in the lowest external O2 concentration tolerated by the product. Although Boersig et al. (1988) suggested, based on work with cultured pear fruit cells, that there may be a higher O2 requirement for aerobic respiration at higher temperatures, Yearsley et al. (1997b) found little effect of temperature on the internal LOL of apple fruit, save for a sharp increase above 28 8C. The critical O2 limit may be simple to determine if the increase in RQ is very pronounced, with a clear breakpoint. It may be graphically determined for each experimental temperature due to a sharp increase of RQ versus O2 concentration (Beaudry et al., 1992). However, the O2 tolerance limit is much more difficult to define if the increase in the RQ is gradual with no clear breakpoint (Joles et al., 1994). The association between ethanol production and off-flavors with the RQ allowed Joles et al. (1994) and Lakakul et al. (1999) to suggest avoidance of RQ values higher than 1.3 to 1.5 in order to avoid fermentative induction. Different species have different tolerances for elevated CO2 and this can influence their critical O2 limit in CA storage. The LOL of raspberries (Rubus idaeus L.) at 20 8C did not change with CO2 levels from 3 to 17% (Joles et al., 1994), which is within the range tolerated by most berries and small fruits. Similarly, Beaudry (1993) reported that the O2 level at the RQ breakpoint was 6 or 7% at 15 8C for blueberries with CO2 levels of 5 or

20%. However the apparent RQ breakpoint increased to 11% and 23% O2 with CO2 levels of 40 and 60%, respectively. The LOL is also cultivardependent (Gran and Beaudry, 1993; Watkins and Pritts, 2001). For example, with nine varieties of apples tested at 0 8C, the LOL ranged from 0.8 to 2.0% O2 (Gran and Beaudry, 1993). Mathematical modelling of RQ with influencing variables may allow the critical O2 limit to be easily predicted. Joles et al. (1994) developed an empirical model relating RQ with O2 concentration and temperature for raspberries. Lakakul et al. (1999) empirically fitted the fermentative threshold of sliced apples with temperature using an exponential equation and established a practical LOL three times higher than the fitted one. Beaudry (1993) presented an empirical equation relating RQ of blueberries with O2 and CO2 concentrations at 15 8C. A different approach involves modelling the CO2 production due to fermentation. Beaudry et al. (1993) and Andrich et al. (1994) applied an exponential function to describe the fermentative CO2 production. The fermentative CO2 production has also been modelled based on enzyme kinetics (Banks et al., 1993; Peppelenbos et al., 1993; Peppelenbos et al., 1996; Hertog et al., 1998). Hertog et al. (1998) presented a model of the fermentative CO2 production with a competitive inhibition for O2 and CO2 and a temperature dependence according to Arrhenius law of the model parameters. LOL values may also be determined based on internal O2 concentration instead of the external value (Yearsley et al., 1996; Yearsley et al., 1997a; Yearsley et al., 1997b). In addition to temperature, CO2, and cultivar dependence, the LOL is also duration-dependent, but this effect has not yet been as intensively studied as the other factors. Little information is available about the time dependence of the O2 tolerance limit. Most workers have considered only an instantaneous time of exposure to the atmosphere (Beaudry et al., 1992; Beaudry, 1993; Gran and Beaudry, 1993; Joles et al., 1994; Maneerat et al., 1997; Lakakul et al., 1999). Peppelenbos et al. (1993, 1996) averaged the gas exchange rates between measurements on different days, ignoring possible time influence. Boersig et al. (1988) reported a decrease in the ACP, defined

94

J.K. Brecht et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 27 (2003) 87 /101

as the O2 concentration for a minimum CO2 production rate, of pear cell cultures after having been under low O2 treatments for 2, 8 or 21 h at 25 8C. Our observation (Bender et al., 2000) that the lag time before the onset of ethanol production by mature-green Haden and Tommy Atkins mangoes increased from 5 days to more than 2 weeks as O2 concentrations increased from 2 to 5% suggests the opposite of Boersig et al. (1988), namely that the O2 tolerance of mangoes decreases over time with exposure to reduced O2 levels. However, it is not possible to say with certainty whether this apparent change is in response to extended exposure to the reduced O2 or to changes associated with ripening during storage since we also observed enhanced ethanol production by tree-ripe compared with mature-green mangoes exposed to the same levels of O2 (Bender et al., 2000).

3. Examples of CA and MA for non-optimal conditions 3.1. Controlled atmospheres for transport of treeripe mangoes Mature mangoes do not store well for periods longer than 2/3 weeks in air at the optimum (i.e. non-chilling) temperature of 12 8C. Fruit softening occurs very rapidly and is one of the main causes of quality deterioration during postharvest handling. Excessive softening renders mangoes more susceptible to impact and compression bruises and establishment of postharvest pathogens. In order to avoid the excessive softening of fully mature mangoes, the fruit are harvested at earlier stages, resulting in firmer fruit, but with inevitable negative effects on the final fruit quality. Consequently, there is a need for the development of transport and storage conditions to delay softening. Based on results of CA and MA storage of temperate fruits, researchers started to investigate in the 1960s the applicability of CA storage to extend shelf life and deliver better quality mangoes to the market. The various combinations of atmospheres and temperatures tested, however, usually

did not show very dramatic results (Yahia, 1998). These early experiments had the traditional objective of CA storage studies, which was to maximally extend the storage time for minimally mature fruit. It is clear from our work, however, that mangoes can benefit greatly from CA conditions, especially if fruit are harvested at more advanced ripeness stages and if a relatively short storage time is considered that is consistent with typical marine transport times of 2/3 weeks. Our first attempt was to evaluate with more detail different atmosphere combinations, mainly looking at higher CO2 atmospheres since work in which insecticidal atmospheres were tested had shown that mangoes are more tolerant of very high CO2 levels for short term exposure than had been suspected based on the previous long-term CA storage studies (Yahia et al., 1989). It was possible to establish that 25% CO2 is the upper limit that mature-green New World mango cultivars tolerate for 3 weeks at 12 8C (Bender et al., 1994). Atmospheres with CO2 concentrations higher than 25% resulted in elevated ethanol production and damage to epidermal color development of the mangoes. Off flavors were also common. It also was necessary to define the lower limit of O2 in the storage atmosphere. The results from our mango work (Bender et al., 2000) indicate that reducing O2 atmospheres from 5 to 2% at 12 8C significantly increases ethanol production rates in both in Haden and Tommy Atkins fruit, which was attributed to upregulation of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) isozymes as already observed by Ke et al. (1990) for pears. Besides the effect of O2 concentration it became evident that ripeness stage influences ethanol production. For example, Haden mangoes that entered a 2-week storage period at the onset of the climacteric peak produced ten times more ethanol than preclimacteric mangoes of the same cultivar (Bender et al., 2000). From these results we concluded that ripeness stage also had to be investigated since the current practice (i.e. harvest at the mature-green stage and storage in refrigerated air at 12 8C) resulted in poor visual and eating quality mangoes. When comparing storage of tree-ripe to mature-green mangoes at 12 8C, ripening, especially of the tree-

J.K. Brecht et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 27 (2003) 87 /101

95

Table 3 Flesh rmness (N) of Tommy Atkins mangoes stored in air or in 5% O2'/10 or 25% CO2 for 21 days at 12 or 8 8C (from Bender, 1996) Treatment Mature green 12 8C At transfer from storage Control (air) 21.58 5% O2'/10% CO2 23.53 5% O2'/25% CO2 28.44 After 5 additional days in air at 20 8C Control (air) n.da 5% O2'/10% CO2 n.d. n.d. 5% O2'/25% CO2 LSD (p B/0.05)
a

Tree ripe 12 8C 8 8C

4.90 10.59 7.06 n.d. n.d. n.d. 2.35

12.45 14.71 37.75 11.47 13.14 19.32

synthesis. In our experiments, chroma values of mesocarp tissue of Keitt mangoes stored at 8 8C were lower after retrieval from the 3-week CA storage, but after 3 days in air at 20 8C, mesocarp color development resumed (Table 4). Ethylene production, as an indication of stress, of tree-ripe Tommy Atkins stored in air at 8 8C was lower (below 0.05 ml kg(1 h(1) than ethylene production of tree ripe fruit at 12 8C (between 0.05 and 0.1 ml kg(1 h(1). After transfer to air at 20 8C, ethylene production of fruit from 8 8C was still lower than that of fruit stored at 12 8C. Keitt mangoes stored at 8 8C repeated the same pattern. After a 5-day transfer period to air at 20 8C, ethylene production remained low, less than 0.3 ml kg(1 h(1. 3.2. Design of a combination CA/MAP system for handling fresh-cut kale

n.d., not determined due to over-ripening.

ripe fruit, was not hindered. These fruit came out of the 3-week storage period too soft (Table 3). Total sugars and titratable acidity (data not shown) were also affected (Bender, 1996). From this point on we concluded that in order to assure good quality fruit after a 3-week CA storage period, temperature had to be reduced below 12 8C. Several experiments were conducted in which tree-ripe mangoes were stored in atmospheres of 5% O2 plus 10 or 25% CO2 at temperatures of 8 8C or even 5 8C. The reduction of storage temperature had a significant effect on quality, especially fruit firmness. There was a striking additive effect of 8 8C storage temperature and CA with 25% CO2 on fruit firmness, which was maintained for 3 weeks in CA and during an additional 5 days in air at 20 8C for both Tommy Atkins (Table 3) and Keitt (data not shown) mangoes. Neither cultivar at the tree-ripe stage stored at 8 8C exhibited any evidence of chilling injury as indicated by visible symptoms or by elevated ion efflux of mesocarp tissue at retrieval from CA storage. There were, however, indications of both chilling injury and CO2 injury when the mangoes were stored in CA with 25% CO2 at 5 8C. Chaplin et al. (1991) reported that chilled mango fruit had a paler mesocarp tissue color, which was associated with reduced carotenoid

The design of a combination CA/MAP system to accommodate different temperatures during transport and retail display is a simple procedure that involves four steps (Brecht et al., 2002): first it is necessary to establish the design criteria, i.e. desired temperatures, times, and package O2 and CO2 levels; next the respiration rates for the desired temperatures and atmospheres must be known or determined empirically; the MAP system is designed to maintain the optimum atmospheric conditions at the higher, retail display temperature with surrounding air; finally, the

Table 4 Mesocarp tissue chroma values of Keitt mangoes stored in air or in 5% O2'/10 or 25% CO2 for 21 days at 8 8C plus 3 days in air at 20 8C (from Bender, 1996) Treatment At transfer from storage 58.05 58.84 51.82 56.00 After 3 additional days in air at 20 8C

Initial Control (air) 5% O2'/10% CO2 5% O2'/25% CO2 LSD (p B/0.05)

56.20 60.42 61.82 3.36

96

J.K. Brecht et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 27 (2003) 87 /101

surrounding CA conditions that will maintain the optimum atmospheric conditions within the MAP for the lower, transport temperature are calculated. The equations to calculate the required flux of gas through a package at steady state are: For perforation-mediated MAP KO2 )(ye 2 (yeq2 )0 RO2 )M O O KCO2 )(yeq 2 (ye 2 )0RCO2 )M CO CO and for MAP using polymeric film, PO2 ) A L L )(ye 2 (yeq2 )0RO2 )M O O )(yeq 2 (ye 2 )0RCO2 )M CO CO (3) (4) (1) (2)

PCO2 ) A

where K is the mass transfer coefficient for gas through a tube in mol Pa (1 s (1; ye and yeq are the gas partial pressures (Pa) outside the package and the equilibrium gas partial pressures within the package, respectively; R is the respiration rate of the product in mol kg(1 s (1; M is the mass of product in kg; P is film permeability in mol m (2 m Pa(1 s (1; and A and L are film area and thickness in m2 and m, respectively. For packages using a tube, the tube dimensions (i.e. length and diameter) must be defined in order to calculate the mass transfer coefficients as described by Fonseca et al. (2000). Use of a single tube in a package is assumed here because draft effects occur when two or more tubes or perforations are used, greatly complicating the package design. For example, gas exchange rates for two tubes are faster than three times those observed for a single tube (Fonseca, 2001). For packages using polymeric film, the film surface area and thickness must be defined in order to select a film with the necessary permeability coefficients. For microperforated films, empirical determination of the effective film permeability is necessary. Shredded Galega kale is a traditional fresh-cut vegetable in Portugal. The thinly sliced leaves are an ingredient in a traditional soup called caldo verde. The shredded kale is commonly prepared at the retail level prior to display for sale at ambient store temperatures, however, the shelf life is very short, typically 1 day or less. A combination CA/

MAP system could allow preparation of fresh shredded Galega kale to be carried out at central distribution facilities, with associated reductions in the cost of production. We determined the optimum atmosphere for fresh-cut kale during 4 days in MAP at 20 8C (i.e. simulated retail display) to be about 1/2% O2'/15 /20% CO2 (Fonseca et al., 2002a). At 1 8C, the optimum atmosphere would be around 1% O2'/10% CO2. The respiration rates for fresh-cut kale (Table 5) are from a model developed from measurements of O2 uptake and CO2 production in all combinations of 1, 5 and 10% O2 plus 0, 10 and 20% CO2 at 1, 5, 10, 15 and 20 8C (Fonseca et al. 2002b). The gas fluxes shown in Table 5 are those required to establish an equilibrium atmosphere of 2% O2 plus 17% CO2 at 208C in a MAP with surrounding air. In order to design such an MAP system, either the tube dimensions (for a perforation-mediated MAP) or the film type and film surface area plus film thickness (for a film-based MAP) that result in the required flux have to be determined. For this example, a perforation-mediated package is the only possible approach because the ratio of CO2 and O2 permeance must be nearly unity in order to establish the optimum atmosphere combination. In order to determine the necessary surrounding gas composition at the lower, transit temperature that will result in the desired equilibrium gas composition in the package, the effect of temperature on the product respiration and the film permeability or gas diffusion (for a perforationmediated package) must be taken into account. Based on (1) the desired gas levels inside the MAP at 1 8C, (2) the respiration rate for that temperature and atmosphere, and (3) the gas flux at 1 8C (assumed to be 10% less in this example), the surrounding CA for the lower (i.e. transit) temperature can be computed. For this example, using the equations given above to calculate ye 2 and ye 2 for the desired O CO package atmosphere composition of 1% O2 plus 10% CO2 at 1 8C results in: ye 2 0 O 0:122 ) 10(6 ) 0:15 4:403 ) 10(12 101325 100

'

)1

05071 Pa 05:0%

J.K. Brecht et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 27 (2003) 87 /101 Table 5 Required package gas ux at 20 8C for MAP of shredded kale to produce steady state package levels of 2% O2 and 17% CO2 with surrounding air, and the surrounding O2 and CO2 levels (i.e. CA) required to produce steady-state levels of 1% O2 and 10% CO2 in the same MA package at 1 8C (from Brecht et al., 2002) Outside O2 and CO2 levels

97

CO2 (%)

0.03 7.1

ye 2 0 CO

101325 0:114 ) 10(6 ) 0:15 )10( 100 4:536 ) 10(12 (])

20.8 5.0

O2 (%)

0 7179 Pa0 7:1%

Required gas flux for desired O2 and CO2 levels in package

Thus, a perforation-mediated MAP for shredded kale that develops an equilibrium atmosphere of 2% O2 plus 17% CO2 at 20 8C will develop the desired atmosphere of 1% O2 plus 10% CO2 at 1 8C if stored in a surrounding CA of 5.0% O2 plus 7.1% CO2.

KCO 2 (mol Pa (1 s (1) KO 2 (mol Pa (1 s (1)

4.892)/10 (12 4.403)/10 (12

5.040)/10 (12 4.536)/10 (12

3.3. A combination CA/MAP system for transportation of mixed loads of strawberries and snap beans In the following example, we attempted to demonstrate the feasibility of designing a procedure whereby proper atmospheres are maintained for a mixed load of two fresh products in a CA/ MAP system when exposed to a low temperature for a few days followed by 2 days at near ambient temperature and atmosphere (Silva et al., 1999). This simulated the situation where the two products are shipped in mixed loads under refrigeration followed by 2 days of display in the store. Strawberries and snap beans were used to test the procedure. This experiment was carried out by first storing the MAP products in CA at 7 8C for 4 days (simulated transportation or storage conditions) and then in air at 19 8C for another 2 days (simulated retail display). Recommended storage conditions for strawberries and snap beans are 0/5 8C and 5 /10% O2 plus 15 /20% CO2 and 4/7 8C and 2/3% O2 plus 10/12% CO2, respectively (Refrigeration Research Foundation, 1988; Kader, 1993; Saltveit, 1993; Costa et al., 1994; Costa, 1995). Since no published information was available indicating the best atmosphere at typical retail display temperatures, for the purposes of this experiment, the proper atmosphere at 19 8C for strawberries and snap beans was assumed to be the same as at 7 8C or lower temperatures. In order to obtain the proper atmosphere for strawberries, any package used must have a permeance ratio for CO2 and O2 of approximately one. Tubes or perforations have this permeance

Desired O2 and CO2 Respiration rates at desired O2 and CO2 levels levels

CO2 production (mol kg (1 s (1) O2 uptake (mol kg(1 s (1) CO2 (%) O2 (%)

Temperature Amount per package (8C) (kg)

20 1

0.15

2 1

17 10

0.621)/10 (6 0.122)/10 (6

0.578)/10 (6 0.114)/10 (6

98

J.K. Brecht et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 27 (2003) 87 /101

ratio. Therefore, a glass jar fitted with a small brass tube inserted in the lid was adopted as the container that would provide the MA for the strawberries. The tube diameter and length were chosen based on preliminary experiments to obtain respiration rate data at 19 8C, previously measured respiration rate data under different atmospheres (Talasila et al., 1992), and by using a MAP computer program (Silva, 1995). Jars (3.8-l) containing 1 kg of strawberries and fitted with a 12 mm-diameter )/40 mm-long brass tube were used. The transmission rates for O2 and CO2 at 7 8C were, respectively, 2.54 )/10(6 and 2.29 )/10(6 mol atm(1 s (1 and at 19 8C were, respectively, 2.98 )/10(6 and 2.54 )/10 (6 mol atm (1 s (1 (Silva, 1995). The CO2:O2 permeance ratio was 0.9 at both temperatures. The predicted respiration rate at 19 8C was 2.8 )/10(7 mol kg(1 s (1 (Talasila et al., 1992). The predicted atmosphere inside the strawberry MAP was 10.0% O2 plus 11.3% CO2 at 19 8C in surrounding ambient air and 10.0% O2 plus 11.8% CO2 at 7 8C in surrounding CA of 14.8% O2 plus 8.3% CO2. For snap beans, a permeable plastic film bag (Fresh Pak, SR Plastics, Denver, CO) was chosen based on the film permeability ratio requirement (:/1.4). The bag has a thickness of 38.10 mm and dimensions of 30.5 )/40.2 cm. The O2 and CO2

permeances at 7 8C were, respectively, 1.46 )/ 10(10 and 2.65 )/10(10 mol Pa(1 s (1 m(2 and at 19 8C were, respectively, 2.05 )/10(10 and 3.62 )/10(10 mol Pa(1 s (1 m (2. The permeance ratio was about 1.8 at both temperatures. The plastic bags were thermosealed after being filled with snap beans. Because reliable information on snap bean respiration at various temperatures and atmospheres was not available at the time of the experiment, computer predictions for the gas concentrations inside the MAP were not possible. Based on the results of preliminary tests carried out with different snap bean weights inside the bags at 19 8C, a product weight of 0.5 kg was chosen. Concerning strawberry MAP, overall the O2 level was maintained within the recommended range at both temperatures (Table 6). The CO2 levels inside the strawberry jars at 7 and 19 8C were maintained at about 13% and 16 /19%, respectively (Table 6), with the levels at 19 8C much larger than those predicted. The change in gas levels and deviation from predicted gas levels at 19 8C, especially on day 6, might have been due to two possible reasons: (a) error in the estimation of the respiration rate; and (b) fungal growth. Decay (gray mold rot due to Botrytis cinerea) was visible on a few strawberries on the second day at

Table 6 Atmospheres achieved inside MAP for strawberries and snap beans using a combination CA/MAP system (from Silva et al., 1999) Commodity Amount per package (kg) Temperature (8C) Day Surrounding atmosphere (%) O2 Strawberry 1.0 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 14.8 (0.4)a CO2 8.3 (0.3) Package atmosphere (%) O2 13.6 11.8 11.0 11.0 9.2 6.9 (1.0) (0.3) (0.3) (0.4) (0.7) (0.7) CO2 8.2 12.1 13.1 13.3 15.8 19.2 (0.7) (0.1) (0.1) (0.4) (0.8) (1.4)

19

Ambient air

Snap bean

0.5

14.8 (0.4)

8.3 (0.3)

19
a b

Ambient air

n.d.b n.d. 2.6 (1.1) 3.2 (0.9) 3.9 (1.3) 5.2 (0.7)

n.d. n.d. 15.9 (2.5) 15.1 (1.3) 12.1 (3.9) 9.0 (1.6)

Numbers in parentheses */standard deviation of means for three replicate chambers or packages. Not determined.

J.K. Brecht et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 27 (2003) 87 /101

99

19 8C. It is possible that the MA at 19 8C, which was within the recommended range for strawberries at lower storage temperatures, was not sufficient to control gray mold rot development at 19 8C. The Fresh Pak bags containing snap beans reached a steady state atmosphere in the CA container at 7 8C of about 3% O2 plus 15% CO2 (Table 6). Thus, under CA at 7 8C, the CO2 level went beyond the maximum recommended level of 12%. The O2 level for snap beans slightly increased and the CO2 level decreased from 15 to 12% when the snap bean bags were changed from 7 8C/CA to 19 8C/ambient air conditions (Table 6). Thus, due to different CO2 requirements for the two products, the within-package CO2 levels at 7 8C were higher than the recommended value for snap beans and lower than the recommended value for strawberries. A slight increase in strawberry weight or a lower permeability tube would achieve better results for strawberries. No improvements in CO2 levels could be made by changing the CA because an improvement in the snap bean Fresh Pak bags would require a decrease in CO2, while the strawberry jars needed higher CO2. Although the proposed CA/MAP system was investigated at only two temperatures, the basic approach should work when products are exposed to more than two temperatures. If, for example, between refrigerated shipment and retail display, the products are kept in a warehouse at another temperature, a second CA or a pallet-scale MAP system at the warehouse may be used to maintain the recommended levels of O2 and CO2 inside the MA packages. When shipping mixed loads, only a limited number of combinations of compatible commodities may be shipped together in the same container, even with a CA/MAP system, because of their different temperature and atmosphere requirements.

duct at a more perishable but higher quality maturity stage from point A to point B is desired, then the optimum atmosphere conditions will likely be much different than for a less perishable maturity stage of the product intended for longterm storage. In designing CA, MA or MAP systems for horticultural crops, it would be prudent to realistically evaluate the time and temperature conditions that the products will likely encounter along the postharvest chain, as well as the likelihood of mixed load conditions. It then will become possible to design systems such as a combination CA/MAP that can maintain optimum atmospheres throughout the postharvest handling chain.

References
Andrich, G., Zinnai, A., Balzini, S., Silvestri, S., Fiorentini, R., 1994. The kinetic effect of p CO2 on the respiration rate of Golden Delicious apples. Acta Hortic. 368, 374 /381. Banks, N.H., Dadzie, B.K., Cleland, D.J., 1993. Reducing gas exchange of fruits with surface coatings. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 3, 269 /284. Beaudry, R.M., 1993. Effect of carbon dioxide partial pressure on blueberry fruit respiration and respiratory quotient. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 3, 249 /258. Beaudry, R.M., Cameron, A.C., Shirazi, A., Dostal-Lange, D.L., 1992. Modied atmosphere packaging of blueberry fruit: effect of temperature on package O2 and CO2. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 117, 436 /441. Beaudry, R.M., Uyguanco, E.R., Lennington, T.M., 1993. Relationship between headspace and tissue ethanol levels of blueberry fruit and carrot roots in sealed LDPE packages. In: Blanpied, G.D., Barstch, J.A., Hicks, J.R. (Eds.), Proc. 6th Int. Controlled Atm. Res. Conf., Ithaca, NY, NRAES-71, vol. 1, pp. 87 /94. Ben-Arie, R., 1990. Plastic packaging of fresh horticultural products for export: status and prospects. Prof. Hortic. 4, 83 /87. Bender, R.J., 1996. Elevated CO2 in controlled atmosphere storage and regulation of mango ripening. PhD dissertation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 169 pp. Bender, R.J., Brecht, J.K., Campbell, C.A., 1994. Responses of Kent and Tommy Atkins mangoes to reduced O2 and elevated CO2. Proc. Fla. State Hortic. Soc. 107, 274 /277. Bender, R.J., Brecht, J.K., Sargent, S.A., Huber, D.J., 2000. Mango tolerance to reduced oxygen levels in controlled atmosphere storage. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 125, 707 /713. Boersig, M.R., Kader, A.A., Romani, R.J., 1988. Aerobicanaerobic respiratory transition in pear fruit and cultured pear fruit cells. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 113, 869 /873.

4. Conclusion Maximum extension of postharvest life is not necessarily the only possible goal of CA or MAP technologies. If transport of a horticultural pro-

100

J.K. Brecht et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 27 (2003) 87 /101 development of perforation-mediated modied atmosphere packaging. J. Food Eng. 43, 9 /15. Fonseca, S.C., Oliveira, F.A.R., Brecht, J.K., Chau, K.V., 2002a. Evaluation of the physiological response of shredded Galega kale under low oxygen and high carbon dioxide concentrations. Acta Hortic. (Proc. 8th Int. Controlled Atm. Res. Conf.), in press. Fonseca, S.C., Oliveira, F.A.R., Frias, J.M., Brecht, J.K., Chau, K.V., 2002b. Modelling respiration rate of shredded Galega kale for development of modied atmosphere packaging. J. Food Eng. 54, 299 /307. Gran, C.D., Beaudry, R.M., 1993. Determination of the low oxygen limit for several commercial apple cultivars by respiratory quotient breakpoint. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 3, 259 /267. Hertog, M.L.A.T.M., Peppelenbos, H.W., Evelo, R.G., Tijkens, L.M.M., 1998. A dynamic and generic model of gas exchange of respiring produce: the effects of oxygen, carbon dioxide and temperature. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 14, 335 /349. Joles, D.W., Cameron, A.C., Shirazi, A., Petracek, P.D., Beaudry, R.M., 1994. Modied-atmosphere packaging of Heritage red raspberry fruit: respiratory response to reduced oxygen, enhanced carbon dioxide, and temperature. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 119, 540 /545. Kader A.A., 1993. A summary of CA requirements and recommendations for fruits other than pome fruits. In: Blanpied, G.D., Barstch, J.A., Hicks, J.R. (Eds.), Proc. 6th Int. Controlled Atm. Res. Conf., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY, NRAES-71, vol. 2, pp. 859 /887. Ke, D., van Gorsel, H., Kader, A.A., 1990. Physiological and quality responses of Bartlett pears to reduced O2 and enhanced CO2 levels and storage temperature. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 115, 435 /439. Lakakul, R., Beaudry, R.M., Hernandez, R.J., 1999. Modeling respiration of apple slices in modied-atmosphere packages. J. Food Sci. 64, 105 /110. Maneerat, C., Tongta, A., Kanlayanarat, S., Wongs-Aree, C., 1997. A transient model to predict O2 and CO2 concentrations in modied-atmosphere packaging of bananas at various temperatures. In: Saltveit, M.E. (Ed.), Proc. 7th Int. Controlled Atm. Res. Conf., Univ. Calif., Davis, vol. 4, pp. 191 /197. Nunes, M.C.N., Morais, A.M.B., Brecht, J.K., Sargent, S.A., 1995. Quality of strawberries after storage in controlled atmospheres at above optimum storage temperatures. Proc. Fla. State Hortic. Soc. 108, 273 /278. Nunes, M.C.N., Morais, A.M.B., Brecht, J.K., Sargent, S.A., 1996. Quality of pink tomatoes (cv. Buffalo) after storage under controlled atmosphere at chilling and nonchilling temperatures. J. Food Qual. 19, 363 /374. Nunes, M.C.N., Emond, J.P., Brecht, J.K., 2001. Temperature abuse during ground and in-ight handling operations affects quality of snap beans. HortScience 36, 510(abstract). Nunes, M.C.N., Villeneuve, S., Emond, J.P., 1999. Retail display conditions affects quality of broccoli orets. Paper

Brackett, R.E., 1987. Microbiological consequences of minimally processed fruits and vegetables. J. Food Qual. 10, 195 /206. Brecht, J.K., Chau, K.V., Fonseca, S.C., Oliveira, F.A.R., 2002. CA transport of fresh produce in MAP: Designing systems for optimal atmosphere conditions throughout the postharvest handling chain. Acta Hortic. (Proc. 8th Int. Controlled Atm. Res. Conf.), in press. Cameron, A.C., Patterson, B.D., Talasila, P.C., Joles, D.W., 1993. Modeling the risk in modied-atmosphere packaging: a case for sense-and-respond packaging. In: Blanpied, G.D., Barstch, J.A., Hicks, J.R. (Eds.), Proc. 6th Int. Controlled Atm. Res. Conf., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY, NRAES-71, vol. 1, pp. 95 /102. Cameron, A.C., Beaudry, R.M., Banks, N.H., Yelanich, M.V., 1994. Modied-atmosphere packaging of blueberry fruit: modeling respiration and package oxygen partial pressures as a function of temperature. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 119, 534 /539. Cameron, A.C., Talasila, P.C., Joles, D.W., 1995. Predicting lm permeability needs for modied-atmosphere packaging of lightly processed fruits and vegetables. HortScience 30, 25 /34. Chambroy, Y., Guinebretire, M.-H., Jacquemin, G., Reich, M., Breuils, L., Souty, M., 1993. Effects of carbon dioxide on shelf-life and post harvest decay of strawberries fruit. Sci. Aliments 13, 409 /423. Chaplin, G.R., Cole, S.P., Landrigan, M., Nuevo, P.A., Lam, P.F., Graham, D., 1991. Chilling injury and storage of mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit held under low temperatures. Acta Hortic. 291, 461 /471. Clarke, R., DeMoor, C.P., 1997. The future in lm technology: a tunable packaging system for fresh produce. In: Gorny, J.R. (Ed.), Proc. 7th Int. Controlled Atm. Res. Conf., Univ. Calif., Davis, vol. 5, pp. 68 /75. Costa, M.A., 1995. Controlled atmosphere storage of snap beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) to avoid chilling injury and extend storage quality. MSc thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 90 pp. Costa, M.A., Brecht, J.K., Sargent, S.A., Huber, D.J., 1994. Tolerance of snap beans to elevated CO2 levels. Proc. Fla. State Hortic. Soc. 107, 271 /273. Emond, J-P., Nunes, M.C.N., Mercier, F., 1996. Development of packaging systems allowing efcient distribution of perishable products (fruit and vegetables) in New Quebec. La Federation des Cooperatives du Nouveau-Quebec. Personal communication. Exama, A., Arul, J., Lencki, R., Li, Z., 1993. Suitability of various plastic lms for modied atmosphere packaging of fruits and vegetables: gas transfer properties and effect of temperature uctuation. Acta Hortic. 343, 175 /180. Fonseca, S.C., 2001. Development of perforation-mediated modied atmosphere packaging for extending the shelf life of shredded Galega kale. PhD dissertation, Universidade Catolica Portuguesa, Porto, Portugal, 305 pp. Fonseca, S.C., Oliveira, F.A.R., Lino, I.B.M., Brecht, J.K., Chau, K.V., 2000. Modelling O2 and CO2 exchange for

J.K. Brecht et al. / Postharvest Biology and Technology 27 (2003) 87 /101 no. 277. Proc. 20th Int. Congr. Refr. Sydney, 19 /24 Sept., 1999. Peppelenbos, H.W., vant Leven, J., van Zwol, B.H., Tijskens, L.M.M., 1993. The inuence of O2 and CO2 on the quality of fresh mushrooms. In: Blanpied, G.D., Barstch, J.A., Hicks, J.R. (Eds.), Proc. 6th Int. Controlled Atm. Res. Conf., Ithaca, NY, vol. 2, pp. 746 /758. Peppelenbos, H.W., Tijskens, L.M.M., vant Leven, J., Wilkinson, E.C., 1996. Modelling oxidative and fermentative carbon dioxide production of fruits and vegetables. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 9, 283 /295. Ratanachinakorn, B., Klieber, A., Simons, D.H., 1997. Effect of short-term controlled atmospheres and maturity on ripening and eating quality of tomatoes. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 11, 149 /154. Refrigeration Research Foundation, 1988. Beans, snap (Green or wax): storage, processing & handling. Commodity Storage Manual. Bethesda, MD, 5 pp. Saltveit M.E., 1993. A summary of CA and MA requirements and recommendations for the storage of harvested vegetables. In: Blanpied, G.D., Barstch, J.A., Hicks, J.R. (Eds.), Proc. 6th Int. Controlled Atm. Res. Conf. Ithaca, NY, NRAES-71, vol. 2, pp. 807 /808. Sanz, C., Perez, A.G., Olas, R., Olas, J.M., 1999. Quality of strawberries packed with perforated polyethylene. J. Food Sci. 64, 748 /752. Silva, F.M., 1995. Modied atmosphere packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables exposed to varying postharvest temperatures. ME thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 102 pp. Silva, F.M., Chau, K.V., Brecht, J.K., Sargent, S.A., 1999. Modied atmosphere packaging for mixed loads of horticultural commodities exposed to two postharvest temperatures. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 17, 1 /9. Talasila, P.C., Chau, K.V., Brecht, J.K., 1992. Effects of gas concentrations and temperature on O2 consumption of strawberries. Trans. ASAE 35, 221 /224. Talasila, P.C., Cameron, A.C., Joles, D.W., 1994. Frequency distribution of steady-state oxygen partial pressures in

101

modied-atmosphere packages of cut broccoli. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 119, 556 /562. Talasila, P.C., Chau, K.V., Brecht, J.K., 1995. Modied atmosphere packaging under varying surrounding temperature. Trans. ASAE 38, 869 /876. Tano, K., Arul, J., Doyon, G., Castaigne, F., 1999. Atmospheric composition and quality of fresh mushrooms in modied atmosphere packages as affected by storage temperature abuse. J. Food Sci. 64, 1073 /1077. Verlinden, B.E., Nicola, B.M., 2000. Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables. Acta Hortic. 518, 223 /230. Villeneuve S., Pelletier, W., Dea, S., 1999. Evaluation des Installations Cargo de Differentes Compagnies Aeriennes Ayant un Transit a laeroport International de Miami. ` Personal communication. Watada, A.E., Ko, N.P., Minott, D.A., 1996. Factors affecting quality of fresh-cut horticultural products. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 9, 115 /125. Watkins, C.B., Pritts, M.P., 2001. The inuence of cultivar on postharvest performance of fruits and vegetables. Acta Hortic. 553, 59 /63. Yahia, E.M., 1998. Modied and controlled atmospheres for tropical fruits. Hort. Rev. 22, 123 /183. Yahia, E.M., Medina, F., Rivera, M., 1989. The tolerance of mango and papaya to atmospheres containing very high levels of CO2 and/or very low levels of O2 as a possible insect control treatment. In: Fellman, J.K. (Ed.), Proc. 5th Int. Controlled Atm. Res. Conf., Wenatchee, WA, vol. 2, pp. 77 /89. Yearsley, C.W., Banks, N.H., Ganesh, S., Cleland, D.J., 1996. Determination of lower oxygen limits for apple fruit. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 8, 95 /109. Yearsley, C.W., Banks, N.H., Ganesh, S., 1997a. Effect of carbon dioxide on the internal lower oxygen limits of apple fruit. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 12, 1 /13. Yearsley, C.W., Banks, N.H., Ganesh, S., 1997b. Temperature effects on the internal lower oxygen limits of apple fruit. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 11, 73 /83.