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    M.J.adams-An Introduction To Optical Waveguides

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    Santi Martinez C

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    Copyright © 1981 by John Wiley & Sons Lid Allright Reserved No past ofthis book may be reproduced by any means, nor tansmited, nor translated into ‘machine Language without te writen pertain ul ibe publisher, British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data: Adams, M. ‘An introduction 1 optical waveguide, Opuiest wave gue theory thie S589 QCA 50-42059 ISBN 0 474 27969 2 Typeset by Macmillan ind Li, Bangalore ant ponte Unie Sets of Ar by Vatallow Pres In, Highton, No Contents Preface ibliography Historical Introduction 1, Two-dimensional Conduaing wall Waveguides... LL Transverse Electromagnetic Waves LILI Plane-polarized TEM wave ia an unbounded dielectric 151.2 Parallel strip ansmission line 1.2 Ray-Mode Connections 1.24 Ray treatment of (wo parallel plane mirrors 1.22 Mode teatmen: of two parallel mirsors 123 Normalized variables 2. Three-layer Dielecric Slaa Wavepuides 2.1 Reflection and Refraction at a Plane Dielectric Interace 2A Snel’ laws c 2.1.2 Fresne's laws 2.13 Normal incense 2.14 Brewster angle 21.5 Cntical ange 2.16 Phase sill on total internal election 2,7 The Goos-Hasnchen shift 2.18 Summary and tumerical example. 22 Ray Treen’ of the Dire Sab Waveguide Bound Ray 221 Eigenvalue equation 222 Effective width 223 Group veloc 224 Losses Eectromagnétic Mace Treatment of the Dielectec Slab Waveguide Gude Modes 23.1 Transverse elec rc (TE) guided modes 23.2 Transverse magnetic (TM) guided modes 2.33 Mode numbers and eut-ol 234 Normalization in terms of power How 235 Weakly-guiding symmetric slab waveguide 2.346 Wavegulding properties of heterostructure injection Tasers 24 EMects of Loss and Gain 24.1 Mode stability 2.42 Mode cut-ols 2 2.4.3 Pure gain-guidance 2.44 Application to stipe-geometry lasers 25 Metal-cad and Hollow Waveguides 25.1 Waveguide classification 252 Asymmetric metal-lad dielectric waveguide 2:5 Symmetric metaF-clad guide 2.54 Hollow dielectric guide 26 Multilayer Waveguides 26.1 Four-layers asymmetric sab theory 2.62 Applications of the four-ayer slab 2.6.3 Fiveslayer symmetcic slab theory 2.64 The W-guide 3. Two-dimensional Parabolicindex Media 41 Ray Treatment of Parabolicindex Media, = 31.1 Local plane weve derivation of ray equations 5:12 The ray trajectory and transit time. 3.13 Phase shift at a caustic 3.14 The eigenvalue equation 532 Electromagnetic Mode Treatment of Parabolicindex Media 32.1 The vector wave equations for general graded-index media 3.2.2 TE solutions for parabolic-index media 32.3 TM solutions for paraboliesindex media 3:24 Group delay and radiation confinement factor 33 Variation of Loss or Gain 3.3.1 General beam modes 332 Mode stability 33.3 Phase front curvature. 334 Equilibrium solutions 4. Other Graded:index Two-dimensional 4.1 The Exponential Profile 4.11 Ray treatment of the strongly asymmetric profile 4.1.2 Mode treatment ofthe strongly asymmetric profile 4.1.3 The effects of a diclcine caver 4.1.4 The symmetric exponential profile 42 The Linear Profile 421 Ray teaiment of the strongly asymmetric profile 42.2 Mode treatment of the strongly asymmetric profile 42.3 The ellos ofa dielectric cover 4.24 The symmeri linear profile 43 The Epsten-layer mode! 43.1, Mode weatment ofthe general profile 43.2 Moda results forthe symmetric profile 43.3 Ray paths forthe symmettie profile ides S. Approximate Methods for Two-dimensional Graded-index Guides 5.1 Perturbation Theory : S111 Perturbation solution ofthe ray equatigns S| 5.1.2 First-order perturbation theory forthe salar wave equation 3 | 5.13 Polynomial index profiles 5 || 5.14 The cladded-paraboie profile 3 52 The WKB Approximation a S2.1 Approximate solution near a eaustic a | 522 Solutions in the presence of two caustics n 523 Solutions inthe presence ofan index dscontiuity s 524 ‘Buried’ modes nea: an index discontinuity 3 52.5 WKB tunneling cefiient for leaky waves 3 5.3 Variational Meihods R 5.1 The variational principle for eigenvalues... i 532 A general lationship between phase and group velosts 5313 Ae alterative stationary expression : x 53.4 Solution by the Rayligh-Ritz method iy 5.3.5 Results for spesfiindex profes a 54 Other Numerical Methocs 2 SA Series solution a 5.42 Mulilayer ‘suireae” approximation a 543 Evanesant Sold theory i“ 5:44 “Exact solution forthe cladded-parabolic profi = 6 Guided of Rectangular Cross-section = 61 Rectangular Conductngsvall Waveguides 10 11 TE moses ae 61.2 TM modes to 6.13 Modal eharacersios tos 62 Rectangular Delete Waveguides. 10 621 Approximate mods analysis 408 622 The effective index method : 109 623 Stab-coupld guide £624 Hollow guides 13 63 Three dimensional Graded-indes Waveguides, 13 631 Diftsed channel waveguides na 6532 Strip-oaded difsed guides 16 6333 Stripe geometry heterostructure lasers 7 19 17 Circular Waveguides and Stepindex Fibres. 12 7.1 Propagation in Hollow Cucular Pipes. 12 TILT Geometi optics derivation ofthe eigenvalue equation 13 1.1.2 Maxwells equation in circular cylindrical coordinates wes 113 TE and TM modes 128 12 Stepindex Opsial Fibre 128 721 Cire dete “od Boo 122 Weakly-guiding optical fibres 132 123 Properties of LP nodes 4 7244 Relovant properties of praca bes... 7255 fects of small degartres from circularity 136 73 Stepindex Guides of More Complicated Structure 136 7311 Holow and metalic waveguides 16 7.32 Multilayer guides Le 1a a3 145 M6 ur as 9 12 135 136 137 160 161 163 166 16 168 m 6 mer 228 2 239 250 261 8. Graded:index Optical Fibres 8.1 Patabolicindex Media in Three Dimensions 8.1.1 Ray equations for general graded-index media 8.1.2 Geometric optics results for parabolic index-profls 8.1.3 Vector field theory for general graded-index media 8.1.4 Modal results for parabolic index-proiles 82 The WKB Approximation in Graded-index Fibre Analysis 821 Formal theory 8.22 Alpha-profles and their optimization : 8.2.3 Wavelength-dependence of multimode fibre bandwidths 8.24 More complicated index profiles 8.25 Leaky modes on fibres of arbitrary index profile 8.26 Impulse reponse 82.7 Leaky mode attenuation 8.3 Variational Methods 83.1 The conventional approach 83.2 An alternative approach 83.3 Results for alpha-profiles 8.4 Perturbation Theory : 84.1 Fourth-order polynomial profes 84.2 Small departures from desired profiles 8.43 Cladded a-proties 85 Summary of Methods for Graded-index Fibre Analysis 8.5.1 Mutimode nbres 8.5.2 Monomode fibres References Indes, 28 2 235 230 293 297 297 302 0s as m0 328 330 339 339 3a 348 350 asi 383 337 360 360 a0 sor Preface ‘The reasons for adding another book on optical waveguide theory tothe numberof excellent texts already available see Bibliography) are many. In the fist place, it has been my experience when asked to recommend an introductory treatment for someone new to the field chat it is dificult to recommend any one book; each is more than adequate in its Ureatment of certain selected areas but none covers al aspects (including up-to-date results) from a sufficiently general point of view. Similarly, when called upon 10 advise on background reading to supplement lecture course inthis field, one again faces the same dilemma and usually ends by recommending individual parts of several texts. Tbe main Giferences between these tens stem from the varying interests of workers in te fld of planar oF rectangular guides, as opposed to those inthe branch ofthe subject dealing with cicculaly-symmetre structures. Whereas the former are usually motivated by interests in integrated optics or semiconductor lasers, the later are almost always concerned with ‘optical fibres. This divergence of interests has led toa Somewhat artificial separation ofthe ‘subject nto two halves with the consequence tkat new results or techniques derived ist in ‘one half may take some time to become well known amongst workers in the othe area, Hence there is certainly a need to encourage crosstertlization of ideas between (he wo halves by emphasizing the overall unity ofthe subject. In tis respect there isan important ‘ontribulion to be made in untying ie notation employed s0 as (o make as clear as Possible where appropriate the similanties of approaches between planar, rectangular, and citcular waveguides, Tn a recent book review Felix Kapron has noted that “usually, books writen by theoreticians in the ido ier optics cover some elementary waveguide optics in pethapsa rove fashion, and then preseata unified view of the authors papers to date’ Whilst have tried to avoid this fairly obvious tap, it isinevtable ina book of this size that certain areas of the subject have had to be excluded. For example, no discussion is given ofthe elfcts of bends, of mode coupling o cf lured patterns of waveguides. Thus the book presets an introduction only tothe theery of perfect optical waveguides. The layout of the book is straightforward: Chapters 1-5 deal with two-dimensional waveguides, ie. planar guides With one direction of propagation and one of confinement. The sequence of topics covered i to progress from conduecting-vall guides through uniform-core dielectric guides to aded- index structures. Chapter 6 repeats this sequence for waveguides of rectangulat cross: fection, whilst Chapters 7 and 8 deal respectively with uniform-core and graded-index ‘optical bres. The references to the literature, although rather comprehensive, ae not intended to be exhaustive The lst of acknowledgements to people who have helped me learn about optical ‘waveguides would be too longto even attempt. Toallof these offer thanks, whilst accepting {ull responsibility for my erros of understanding or interpretation. Especial thanks are due to my colleagues in the optical flbre research group at Southampton for their tolerance ‘during the long period of writing this book, lam overwhelmingly grateful tomy wi or her ‘encouragement and forbeararce during thistime, and futher indebted to her for typing and retyping) the manuscript with unfailing accuracy and patience Southampton M. J. ADAMS, August 1980 Bibliography ‘A. Books on Optical Waveguides Kapany, N.S, (1967). Fre Optics, Academic Press, N.Y Kapany, N.S. und J.J. Burke (1972), Optical Waveguides, Academic Press, N.Y. Marcuse, D. (1972), Light Transmission Opuics, Van Nostrand Reinhold, N.Y. Marcuse, D. (1974). Theo:y of Dielectric Optical Waveguides, Academic Press, N.Y. Arnaud, J. A (1976), Beam and Fiber Oprics, Academie Press, N.Y. Unger, HG. (1977). Planar Optical Waveguides and Fibres, O.U.P., Oxford, Sacha, M.S. and A. K, Ghatak (1977). Inhomogeneous Optical Waveguides, Plenum. Press, London. BB, Books on Optical Fibue Communications Barnoski, M. K. (Ed. (1996), Fundamentals of Optical Fibre Communications, Academic Press, NY. Ostrowshy, D. B. (Ed) (1978), Fibre and Invegrated Optics, Plenum Press, N.Y Elion, G. R. and H. A. Eli m(1978). Fiber Optics in Communications Systems, Marcel Dekker AG, Basel Midwinter, J. E. (1979). Optical Fibres for Transmission, Witey, New York. Sandbank. C. P. (Ed) (1979). Opuical Fibre Communications Systems, Wiley, Chichester Miller, 8, E. and A. G. Chynoweth (Eds, (1979). Optical Fibre Telecommunications, ‘Academic Press, NY. endow, B. and S. S. Mitra (Eds.) (1979). Fibre Optics, Plenum Press, N.Y. Howes, M. J. and D. V. Morgan (Eds. (1980), Optical Fibre Communications, Wiley, Chichester. CCSELT staff (1980), Opti:a! Fibre Communication, Lartotto and Bella, Torino Couannet, A, J. Fleurt, H. Maite, and M, Rousseau (1981). Oprique er Telecommunications, Eyralles, Paris. . Books on Integrated Optics and Semiconductor Lasers ‘Tamir, T. (Ed) (1973) Integrated Optics: Topies in Applied Physies, Vol. 7 Springer- Verlag, Berlin, Kessel, H.J- and J. K. Butler (1977). Semiconductor Lasers and Heterojunction LED's, ‘Academic Press, NY. Casey, H. C. and M. B, Panish (1978). Heterostructure lasers: Part A-Fundamental Principles; Part B~ Materials and Operating Characteristics, Academie Press, N.Y. ‘Thompson, G. H. B. (1980), Physics of Semiconductor Laser Diodes, Wiley, Chichester. Kessel, H. (Ed) (1980), Semiconductor Devices for Optical Communications, Springer Veriag, Berti, D. Colletions of Reprints Marcuse, D. (Ed) (1973). Intgrated Optics, IEEE Press, N.Y. Clarricouts, P. J. B.(Ed.) (1975). Optical Fibve Waveguides, Peter Peregrinus Lid, on behalf of IEE, London, Glogs, D. (Ed. (1976). Optical Fibre Technology, IBEE Press, N.Y. Butler, J. K. (Ed. (1979). Semiconductor Injection Lasers, IEEE Press, N.Y. Charricoats, P. 3. B. (Ed) (1980). Progress in Optical Communication, Peter Peregrinus Ltd, on behalf of IEE, London, Kao, K. C. (1980). Oprical Fiber Technology, IEEE Press, N. ¥. E. General Waveguide Texts Brett, LM: (190) Wane In Layered Meda Academie Pres, NY Shercheko ¥. V9) Conta Patio Opn Menus Col Pre, Conde, Lwin L979, Ten of Wages: Tees forthe Soin of Weve Se -ChL———T—_T. evn D-C Chang an Kates (197,Blcramagntie Woe and Cased Struts, Peter Prins Lid on bl of IE, London Spree, Fs and HG. Unger (99D, Wasegde Taos Transtins and Cope Peter Peregrinus Ltd, on behalf of IEE, London. ° Historical Introduction From a historical viewpoin, although dielectric guides have been studied sine the early years ofthis century (Hondros and Debye, 1910) the interest in optical applications has only ‘ome about durin the ast wo decades. The achievement of lasing action in semiconductors by thre groups in 1962 (Hill era, 1962; Nathan eal, 1962; Quist eta, 1962) was soon followed by the realization shat guidance in the p-a junction plane was closely associated with this phenomenon (Yar and Leite, 1963; Bond era, 1963). Improved understandi ofthe nature of this guidingled eventually to the development ofthe heterostructure laser in the late 1960s (Kessel and Nelson, 1969; Hayashi eta, 1969; Panish era, 1968; Aiferov 1a, 1965) with the breakthrough of ew. room-temperature operation in 1970 (Hayashi tal, 1970; Alferov etal, 1970a). Ina closely related field it was found in 1964 thatthe {guiding action of a p-n junction could be used in a modulator via the eleceo-optic effect, (Nelson and Reinhart, 1964) The development of the pn junction modulator has since followed that of the junctor laser va the steps of epitaxial GaAs flms (Hall eral, 1970) and beterosteuctures (Reinhart and Miller, 1972). In the area of planar passive guides, early work on thin lms (D. B. Anderson, 1965; Osterberg and Smith, 1964) led eventually to the new concept of integrated optics (Miller, 1969). The problem of counling laser beams into planar guides was solved by the prism coupler (Tien er al, 1969) end the grating coupler (Dakss era, 1970). As regards active components for integrated aptics, in ation tothe eletro-optic modulator noted above (and other versions in other materials) there have also been developments in acousto-optic (Kahn er a, 1971) and magneto-optic (Tien et al, 1972) techniques. The distributed feedback (DF) principle (Kogeinik and Shank, 1972), first éemonstated in dye lasers, has provided an important source for integrated optics in the semiconductor DFB laser (Nakamura er af, 1973), which in its heterostructure form can operate c.w. at room temperature (Nakamura eal, 1975) Asitisnow clear that epitaxial layers of AIGaAs can be used to produce all the cements required—sourees, modulators, couplers, waveguides, fand detectors—this may well be the material for true optical integration in the future “Already there have been cemonstrations of laser-waveguide-modulators (Reinhart and Logan, 1974), laser-taper-ccupler-modulators (Reinhart and Logan, 1975a), monolthiesly integrated optical repeaters (Yust er a, 1979), and Itequency-multiplexed sources using ‘monolithically integrated DFB lasers (Aiki eral, 1976). Whilst practical applications in optical communications hive been relatively slow to materialize, in the area of signal processing the advantages offered by integrated optical systems, eg. an RF spectrum ‘nalyser (Hamilton etal, 1977), ought to ensure a future for this eld of research, Inthe circular cylindrical waveguide carly work on modes in dielectric rods (Snitzr, 1961; Snitzer and Osterberg, 196!; Kapany and Burke, 1961) was followed by the suggestion of ‘sing optical fibres for long-distance communications (Kao and Hockham 1966, Werts, 1966; Borner, 1966) The high losses present in fibres at that time were overcome first by ‘workers a Corning Glass Works who demonstrated loss of only 0 dB kr at 0.6328 pm in 1970 (Kapron et af, 1970), Subsequent improvements led to a minimum loss around 2.dB/km in 1974 French etal, 1974; Payne end Gambling, 1974), 0.47 dB km at 1.2 ymin 3 : ia e ig ie i is ik 9 le gE SR 4 R teal 5 Sie ee 3 ea Figs () important devon in opt waver my x0 $ 0 it a fog j 1% 3 Fs «| Ose get “Tee isre T8790 Figure (i) Number of papers published each year i a ew relevant (echnical journals o-~Eleironice Lens ®-— Applied Optics ‘eBlecionicr Leters ata. Applied Optce and Bell Systems Techical Journal 1976 (Horiguehi and Osanai, 1976) and 0.2 dB km at 1.55 ym in 1979 (Miya etal, 1979) [Although single-mode fibres offer the ultimate bandwidth for optical communications, the tight tolerances on joints, coupling to laser sources, ec. make the multimode fibre with srided refractive index profile strong contender for some systems. The prediction of a precise form ofthe profile tobe employed hs stimulated much theoretical study, rom the carly suggestions ofa parabolic variation with radius (Kawakami and Nishizawa, 1968) to the more sophisticated madifiations of current interest (Gloge and Marcatil, 1973; ‘Olshansky and Keck, 1976; Arnaud, 1977; Marca, 1977; Olshansky, 1978, 1979). rent evelopment has been the interat in operation at longer wavelengths than hitherto, since both attenuation and chromatic dispersion properties of high-silica fibres are minimized in the range |,2-1.6 um (Payne ane Gambling, 1975; Gambling eta, 1979). This, in turn, has ‘stimulated interest in new soures for use at longer wavelengths where the larger spectral Widths of LED's need not be a major disadvantage ithe fibre material dispersion i small LED's for the wavelength range 11.6 am are now becoming available and are based on. quaternary semiconductor materials rather than binary or temary compounds. The ‘quaternary In,Ga,_,As,P,_, has been used for high-power LED's (Goodfellow et a, 1979) find fore w. room-temperature lasers with long operating lives (Hsieh eta, 1976;Shen eva, 1979. Ths bret historical summary should suffice to show the main areas of interest in optical waveguides and to illustrate the recent eapid growth of interest inthe potential applications In communications systems. The situation is expressed in an oversimplified but dramatic fashion by the graphs in Figures (i) and (i. Figure (i) marks some of the important developments in the subject on a datline over the last twenty years. Figure (ji) gives an indication of the increase of inte-est in the feld by ploting numbers of published papersina few relevant technical journals. shows that each aew breakthrough leads toa resurgence of interest until the next major problem is encountered. On the whole, however, the growth is exponential, with many major problems being solved (or atleast defined) in the last few Seats, It would therefore appear that the broad field of optical communications has en Ueaurad futur, with many fe trial of high-bandaidth long-haul systems already in progress or in preparation (Seamoto and Okura, 1976; Jcobs, 1978; Midwinter, 19794; Mogensen, 1980) tis with this ature in mind that this book has been prepared; clearly there willbe a need for engineers in optical communications to have a knowledge of the principles of optical ‘waveguides. Indeed, some partsof the text have been developed from lectures given to fnal- year undergraduates in electron, The layout is such that the subjects of planar, rectangular and cieulae guides are dealt with in sequence, with, in each case, progress from the onducting-wall o dielectric versions, including praded-index distributions. The notation throughout sas consistent as sezmed reasonably possible and tis hoped that this wil ead to fa simple way for the studen! (o make meaningful comparisons between the various waveguides discussed. The task facing the writer of a work which is to be used for teaching, reference, oF background reading, is quite ciflerent from that undertaken by the euthor of a research ‘monograph. Here we try to combine the two approaches by tackling simple problems immediately to give the reader confidence without 100 much emphasis on formality. Later it {sshown that similar methods are useful in problems tthe present state-of-the-art of optical ‘waveguide research and that general statements of some overall validity may be usefully mmede for cerlain castes of waveguides. Hence itishoped thatthe text could at as a stimulus for further research by directing the reader fairly quickly rom the elementary concepts tothe problems of current interest Chapter 1 Two-dimensional Conducting-wall Waveguides In order to introduce the concepts, notation, and approaches to be used in dielectric waveguide problems later, we treat fst the case of two-dimensional wavegvide whose boundaries are assumed to be perfect conductors. For simplicity, consider the waveguide 10 befilled with s homogeneous isotropic medivm of (eal) dielectric permitivity cand magnetic permeability o Le the permeability of fre space) We show frst that the familar plane= polarized transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave isa solution of the two-dimensional Conducting wall guide problem and is therefore a waveguide mode. By the term "waveguide mode’ we shall mean an elementary wave characteristic ofthe waveguide; it propagates with well-defined phase velocity, group velocity, cross-sectional intensity distribution, and polarization Tn microwave terminology the (wo-dimensional guide with perfectly-conducting walls would be called the parallel stip trensmission line, neglecting edge effects and problems {associated with non-infinitecondectivty(3kin-depth’yan approach via Maxwell'sequations ‘would then be appropriate. However, in optical terms the problem is equivalent to the situation of wo plane parallel mitrors; inthis case the simple concept of ay propagating by fepeated reflection from the miro surfaces forms an alternative treatment. It willbe shown, tha the results of this geometrcalapproach are the same those resulting from the rigorous electromagnetic theory. This thereof the duality of mode and ray pictures in the treatment fof waveguide problems willbe steed throughout the book, soitis important that it should bbe well-established by this very simple example “The chapter concludes with theintroduction ofa set of normalized variables which reduce the results to avery general form easily applicable to any set of numerical parameters. This tse ofa consistent st of normatzed variables forms a second theme running through the book. Numerical and analytical solutions tothe various waveguide problems will therefore be given whenever appropriate in terms ofthese variables, LL Transverse Electromagnetic Waves LL Plane-polarized TEM wave in am unbounded dielect Consider the electric and magnetic eld vectors associated wit a plane-polaized wave in an tunbounded isotropic medium. Fer a trenavers clectromagnetic (TEM) wave the electric field E.and magnetic field H ace at right-angles to eachother and to the direction of propagation, taken asthe z-axis Th situation shown in Figure 1.1 where a Cartesian coordinate system has been chosen so that Em (£,,0,0) H=(0,41,.0) 1 Frigate let nd magnetic eld configurations for a plane-polaied TEM ‘anve an unbounded dike We now apply Maxwell's equations (se, for evample, Stratton, 1941} _ al be extn (0) = (2.00) es one (928-2) = (ato) wa Nae" By [Assume E, and H, to havea periodic time- and z-dependence given by explifs —iiat) Then equations (1) and (1.2) give ven to obtain BH, =twE, and pe, alt, Ba when 3 [Asa consequence we have the following elementary results: on o ol Phase veloc Vpn nee (1 soup vo Bo Je (=H os Poynting veto: = Belt = (0.06.4) os Tome-averaged power flow (Ex H* gues a Consider now an electromagnetic wave ravellingina medium bounded by two parallel plates sssumed to have infinite conductivity. Let the plats be parallel othe y-z plane, of width d 41.1.2 Parallel stip transmission tine Figure 1.2. Paral conducting planes which may guide a TEM mode -parated by distance 2a, and of infinite length, as illustrated by Figure 12. (The reason for Choosing 2a as the seperation distance is to conform with later notation when we will ‘consider guides of ercular cylindrical geometry with radius a) The boundary conditions to be obeyed by the electric and magnetic fields at the surface of each plate are then as follows (Stratton, 19415 (Ean = 6B, = 5 (surface charge density) CEhaann # (E, and B,) = 0 Comat = He = 0 hapa (Say) = K (curret/unit width). rom the way these equations have been formulated i clear thatthe TEM elds (E,, 0,0} (0, #y,0) satisfy these conditions, The results are then summarized as follows: Vang hows wpe == 2a, ws isnseans power =f [tt dn0y= 0 oan tn fact it is easily shown tat the eld patterns of principal waves on transmission lines of| arbitrary cross-section are also TEM modes (Hunley, 1947; Colin, 1960) and the results (1.8) {1-11 may be generalized o permit ransmision lines to be discussed either in terms of electromagnetic theory or in the language of circuit theory. “The TEM wave is not the only one which can be propagated along parallel strip transmission lines; other modes are also possible, as will become evident in subsequent 12 Ray-Mode Connections isappropriateat this stage to iricoduce some concepts of ray optics into our discussion. We therefore r-interpret the two-cimensional guide with conducting walls in terms of two parallel plane mirrors separated by distance 2a. In this ease i is sensible to reler to the Figare 1.2 Zigzag cay path between wo parallel plane mirors refractive index n ofthe medium between the mierors, rather than the delete permitivity fcthe two are related by e-= 2eo where ais the permittivity of free space. The situation is ‘ustrated by Figure [3 where & xig-zag" ray path is also shown; the ray propagates by repeated reflection at the surlace ofeach mirror in tura, the ray path between reflections taking the form of straight line segments since the medium is homogeneous and isotropic. TInorder to see the connection between the zig-agray modeland ih electromagnetic mode picture which was used in previous section, consider what happens when a ray is incident a “angle 0 on the surface of one micror, as shown in Figuce L4. From Snell's law, we know that \

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