Diabetes Control -6 Steps to Gaining Complete Control over Diabetes

Diabetes Control-6 Steps to Gaining Complete Control over Diabetes

A Diabetic’s Guide to Controlling Blood Sugar and More

Published by Thomas E Nelson at Smashwords

Copyright 2013 Thomas E. Nelson

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Smashwords Edition, License Notes

This ebook is licensed for your personal enjoyment only. This ebook may not be re-sold or given away to other people. If you would like to share this book with another person, please purchase an additional copy for each recipient. If you’re reading this book and did not purchase it, or it was not purchased for your use only, then please return to http://www.Smashwords.com and purchase your own copy. Thank you for respecting the hard work of this author.

For a free printable copy of the glycemic index table or other tables in this book contact the author- Click Here

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Disclaimer

By using this document you are accepting all the terms of this disclaimer notice. If you do not agree with anything in this notice you should not use this book.

This document is for general health information only; it is not to be used as a substitute for medical advice, diagnosis or treatment of any health condition or problem. Users of this document should not microphone on rely on information provided within this document for their own health problems.

Any questions regarding your own health should be addressed with your own physician or other healthcare provider. There are neither warranties nor express or implied representations whatsoever regarding the accuracy, completeness, timeliness, comparative or controversial nature, or usefulness of any information contained, or referenced in this document.

The author of this document does not assume any risk whatsoever for your use of the information contained herein. Health-related information changes frequently and therefore information contained within this document may be outdated, incomplete or incorrect. Statements made about products have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. Use of this document does not create an expressed or implied physician-patient relationship.

You are hereby advised to consult with a physician or other professional health-care provider prior to making any decisions, or undertaking any actions or not undertaking any actions related to any health care problem or issue you might have at any time, now or in the future. In using this document you agree that the author of neither this document nor any other party is or will be liable, or otherwise responsible, for any decision made or any action taken or any action not taken due to your use of any information presented within this document.

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Dedicated researchers seek better treatments and cures for diabetes, kidney disease, Alzheimer's and every form of cancer. But these scientists face an array of disincentives. We can do better. -Michael Milken

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Table of Contents

Disclaimer

Chapter 1-Introduction

Chapter 2-Cellular Basics

Chapter 3 How Diabetes Messes with Cellular Function

Chapter 4-Homeostasis

Chapter 5-The Cause of Diabetes

Chapter 6-Where Blood Sugar Comes From

Chapter 7-How Your Body Manages Blood Sugar

Chapter 8-How Diabetes Messes with Blood Sugar Control

Chapter 9-How to Fix Blood Sugar Control Issues- 6 Steps

Step # 1 -Restoring Vitamin and Mineral Deficiencies

Step #2 - Restoring Hydration

Step #3 - Change the Diet

Step #4 - Exercise

Step #5 - Weight Loss

Step #6 - Restore & Rebalance Your Immune System and Organ Function

Appendix

AGE’s -Advanced Glycation Endproducts

Amino Acids, Hormones, Fatty Acids, and Enzymes

Blood Type and Diabetes

Diabetes and Hypothyroidism

Stopping the Progression of Diabetes

Protecting Your Liver

Protecting Your Kidneys

Protecting Your Pancreas

Protecting Your Heart and Cardiovascular System

Protecting Your Bowels

Protecting Your Eyes

Protecting Your Spleen

Protecting Your Nervous System

Glycemic Index

Glycemic Index Table

About the Author

Other Books by the Same Author

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Chapter 1 Introduction

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"Life is not over because you have diabetes. Make the most of what you have, be grateful." Dale Evans

"Trying to manage diabetes is hard because if you don’t, there are consequences you’ll have to deal with later in life." Bryan Adams

"I can’t tell you, as a parent, how it feels when the doctor tells you your child has diabetes. First off, you don’t really know much about it. Then you discover there is no cure." John Lasseter

"Typically, when a diabetic does not know what to do about diabetic issues, they choose to do nothing, which unfortunately has very serious, dangerous, consequences." Tom Nelson

The overwhelming majority of diabetics are totally unaware that when their blood sugar is high, that serious damage occurs; every single time that their blood sugar rises above 110 mg/dL (6.1 mm/dl). That damage focuses on their brain (cognitive and memory function), their pancreas, kidneys, intestines, arteries and blood vessels, and red blood cells. And, most of that damage is permanent.

Years ago the term sugar diabetes was commonly heard to describe diabetes. Diabetics universally understand that blood sugars are a fundamental issue with diabetes, but few understand fully what that means. Certainly high or low blood sugars are a daily concern for diabetics, and controlling blood sugar can be a very confusing and frustrating undertaking. The time spent learning about how the body functions, how it manages blood sugar, and what happens when that fails, is time well spent. Half the battle is already won, because when you identify that something is wrong in your body, you will be empowered to analyze what is going on and know how to fix it; the problem can be easily identified and defined. Once a problem is identified and defined, it is much easier to design a plan to fix it.

Basically, sugar is a generic term used to identify the simple carbohydrates (monosaccharaides), like fructose, galactose, glucose, and disaccharides [maltose and sucrose (table sugar)]. Fructose, which is primarily found in fruit, is the simplest of these sugars. It has a low glycemic index, which means that it is absorbed into the bloodstream slowly. Fructose will not spike blood sugars, but instead, is quickly converted into glycogen (a stored form of glucose) and stored in the liver’s cells for times when a quick boost in blood sugar is needed; we will explain more about glycogen later. Fructose acts like a time-release food. Its impact on blood sugars is more gradual in terms of a rise or fall in blood sugar level.

Glucose is the primary form of sugar, and your body’s primary form of fuel. It has a high glycemic index, which means that it will cause dramatic (rapid) increases, or decreases, in blood sugar level. You will learn that the majority of what you eat is converted into glucose, and is transported (absorbed) into your bloodstream, and distributed throughout your body to be used as fuel. Glucose is less healthy for you than fructose, but you have to have glucose to survive, because it is the primary food (fuel) for your brain, central nervous system, and your heart. When your glucose levels are too high, or too low, bad things begin to happen as we will learn later.

However, there is much more to diabetes then just sugar. Diabetes impacts virtually every cell in your body, which means that it impacts every major organ in your body and every tissue in your body; including your brain, heart, and central nervous system. Unfortunately, because diabetes does not have any symptoms, no pain or obvious discomfort, diabetics tend to underestimate the damage that is occurring day by day. Diabetes is a progressive disease; meaning that it will slowly damage virtually every organ in your body. Make no mistake, the damage is occurring moment by moment day after day despite the fact that there are no sensations, unless you do something about it and stop the progression of diabetic damage.

If you have not already discovered, you soon will discover, your doctor is trained to match symptoms to medications; they treat symptoms. They do not seek to cure the majority of diseases, but merely to slow the progression of damage they cause. If you have a headache they give you medications to relieve the pain. They do not attempt to identify the cause of the headache. If you are experiencing indigestion they prescribe antacids to neutralize the acids. They do not seek to discover the cause of indigestion, which often is due to a deficiency in digestive acids. The pharmaceutical companies have been known to spend millions of dollars seeking to emulate effective natural substances in the form of a drug. There are numerous diseases that have been cured for hundreds, even thousands, of years using simple natural substances. Simply put, the drugs used today treat symptoms. The research is directed at masking symptoms and not on identifying and fixing the cause.

This book does not just talk about diabetes. It provides a step-by-step process that empowers you to not only understand diabetes, but to take constructive, effective steps towards taking charge of your diabetes. You will learn how to stop the progression of diabetic damage once and for all; permanently.

Metabolic Syndrome (Syndrome X)

It is estimated that as many as 40% of adults have metabolic syndrome, also known as syndrome X. You could also call it pre-diabetes, because the symptoms are the same. Years of bad diet, which leads to inflammation and vitamin and mineral deficiencies, along with inactivity (couch potato), sets up a variety of symptoms that eventually will trigger a genetic mutation that results in the manifestation of diabetes (or any of 30 other chronic diseases).

The symptoms are actually risk factors, which include elevated blood pressure, triglycerides, and cholesterol. Obesity in the form of central fat (visceral fat), also known as Pot Belly, is also a primary symptom. Together, they set up the conditions that are favorable for the development of heart disease and diabetes. They precede the actual manifestation of diabetes; being diagnosed.

Diabetes

Diabetes is essentially the result of the body’s inability to maintain healthy levels of glucose (homeostasis) in the bloodstream, in order to prevent damage from occurring; glucose is a very toxic substance if left in the bloodstream too long in high concentrations. The American Diabetes Association (1997) set the standard for determining when a person officially becomes diabetic (126 mg/dL -7 mmol/l or greater). That is an A1c blood test reading of 7.0 (7%) or greater. They also set the standard of less than 110 mg/dL or 6.1 mmol/l as the high side of the normal range. You will learn later how blood sugars above 110 mg/dL, or 6.1 mmol/l, is the starting point for damage due to diabetes.

Our ancestors ate a diet of very lean meats, proteins, nuts, seeds, vegetables, and fruits, which typically maintained their blood sugars within the 60-90 mg/dL range. But, they also ate potatoes, gravy, eggs, bacon, whole milk, and real butter nearly every day as well, and surprisingly, diabetes was unheard of then. You will learn how, over the past 100 years, changes in the diet and lifestyle have altered the health of the populace. Today’s diet is very highly processed, contains numerous chemicals, processed sugar and salt, and is very low in antioxidants which are extremely important to maintaining health. You will learn how these changes, and others, have altered your body’s ability to maintain a healthy existence.

This book is not just the usual rehash of the obvious, like so many books on diabetes. This book will compare how a non-diabetic’s body controls blood sugar and other functions, and how diabetes messes with that. You will learn what went wrong to cause your diabetes to manifest, how diabetes prevents your body from controlling blood sugars properly, then how you can take charge of it and gain full control over your blood sugar control issues. You will also learn how high, low, and/or erratic blood sugars are damaging and dangerous, and how they lead to numerous other diabetic complications.

But, in order to accomplish all of this, it will be necessary to spend a little time explaining how several basic systems function in your body. You will learn how your body’s cells actually work, how your brain controls many thousands of very important functions, and how diabetes impacts them. You will discover, after learning these important basics, how much easier it is to understand why your body is doing what it is doing. You will be much better equipped to develop a plan to deal with diabetes issues. Many things that heretofore were a totally frustrating mystery to you will begin to make perfect sense.

Previous versions of this book have been criticized for being too technical, so this version will reflect a great deal of effort to combine the technical side, which explains how your body and diabetes works, with practical advice that will simplify applying what you learn. You are always welcome to contact the author with suggestions to improve the material presented.

Scientists and doctors like to use fancy, multi-syllable, sometimes unpronounceable, words to describe pretty much everything that happens in your body. For example euglycemia is a medical term that simply means consistent normal blood sugar levels, hypoglycemia is their term to describe blood sugars that are consistently below normal, hyperglycemia describes the condition where blood sugar is consistently higher than normal, and dysglycemia is their term to describe consistently erratic blood sugar levels. They like to use the term lipids instead of fats. Liquid and solid fats actually both qualify as being called a lipid, but generally, only liquid fats are technically lipids. They also love to use phrases like Post Prandial, which simply means after eating. You will find many medical terms used (and explained) in this book, because many readers like to conduct expanded research on their own. However, every effort is made to make the material understandable. Many of the things that go on in your body are very complex. There are some things that are difficult to simplify, but again, every effort has been put forth to make it understandable.

You will learn where blood sugar comes from, and how it gets into your bloodstream. You will then discover how your body measures your blood sugar; how it even knows when your blood sugars are high, or low, and how it attempts to control it. Then, as stated, you will learn how diabetes interferes with your body’s attempts to control your blood sugars. You will learn how years of lifestyle and dietary errors have misaligned many body functions, especially how your brain controls your health, and how it causes massive hormone imbalances. While this may sound technical, it actually isn’t, once you learn what they are and how they work.

This book is structured to provide a chapter-by-chapter, step-by-step program that will systematically reverse diabetic damage, restore important deficiencies and functions, and rebalance, and restore, your immune system and hormones. Each step will significantly reduce your risk of heart disease or stroke, prevent the development of cataracts, or blindness, stop the progression of neuropathy, eliminate the risks that result in amputations, and much, much more. Your blood pressure, cholesterol, and triglycerides will also return to normal levels.

You will reach a point where you will, while working with your doctor, eliminate the majority of your medications, and significantly reduce the dosage of the medication(s) that remain. You will discover numerous diabetes related complications that you didn’t realize were even related to diabetes; like skin conditions, allergies, tinnitus (ringing in the ears), foot, leg, joint, and body pain or discomfort, vision issues, hair loss, excess nasal phlegm, digestive issues, immune system issues, arthritis, osteoarthritis, constipation or diarrhea issues, low energy, depression, and many others will go away. You will feel better than you have in many years. You will look the best that you have in many years. But most important, you will have stopped the progression of your diabetes, and your control will be amazingly easy.

Understanding how diabetes functions, and how it changes how your body works, is a powerful tool that will empower you to understand why your body is doing what it is doing. You will be empowered to make better decisions regarding your diabetes and overall health management. Again, it is very important that you understand that diabetes is a progressive disease, which means that it is currently, slowly, breaking down (destroying) your body. Over time it will severely damage your body unless you learn how to stop its progression. Many thousands of diabetics have stopped the progression of their diabetic damage, and substantially improved their quality of life, increased their life expectancy, and have eliminated the fear of heart attacks, strokes, blindness, kidney and liver failure, amputations, and many, many, other complications by applying what was learned from this book. So, let’s get started.

A Little Practical Advice for Diabetics

Glucose is the primary form of sugar and it’s also your body’s primary form of fuel. Glucose as a high glycemic index substance, which means that it can cause a very dramatic and rapid increase in your blood sugar. Everything that you eat is broken down into glucose, vitamins and minerals, and food particles, fats, and other things. Once broken down, the particles of food and nutrients are transported into your bloodstream which travel directly to your liver. Your liver processes the nutrients and glucose, stores some of the glucose in a compact form called glycogen, it stores some of the vitamins and minerals in its cells, and the balance is transferred into the bloodstream where it will circulate throughout your body and be utilized by your body’s cells to produce fuel.

You will soon learn that diabetes impacts virtually every cell in your body. Unfortunately, because diabetes produces little or no discomfort or pain, we typically tend to do very little in terms of managing it. Partly because we don’t know what to do, but largely, because when we don’t know what to do we usually do nothing. Diabetes is a progressive disease, if nothing is done to resolve the issues that are common to diabetes, and changes are not made to eliminate the causes of diabetic complications, the diabetes related damage will continue to progress slowly and quietly. Additional complications will develop that can lead to very serious consequences and conditions. Make no mistake, if you ignore your diabetes and simply resolve to taking your medications and seeing your doctor quarterly, you stand a very high likelihood of being one of the 85% of diabetics that die from a heart attack or stroke, and/or suffer the consequences of the many very serious diabetic complications that very likely will develop.

Again, it is important that you understand that your doctor. does not seek to stop the progression of diabetes, but merely to slow it down. The medications your doctor prescribes can add to the problem, because the vast majority of medications contribute to vitamin and mineral deficiencies. You will learn in step #1 how vitamin and mineral deficiencies contribute so heavily to diabetes control issues and complications. Then you will learn how to restore those deficiencies.

Diabetes manifests when your body is no longer capable of maintaining healthy levels of glucose in the bloodstream. A process called homeostasis, where your hypothalamus (your brain’s control room), which regulates things like blood sugars, breaks down and results in uncontrolled blood sugars, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, high triglycerides, excess weight, and numerous other conditions. You will learn more about homeostasis in the beginning chapters of this book.

100 years ago, your ancestors ate basically everything that our doctors now tell us we should not eat, like mashed potatoes and gravy, real butter, whole milk, eggs and bacon, fatty red meat, and bakery goods. Yet diabetes was unheard of then. Over the past century numerous changes have occurred in our diet that have led to this epidemic of diabetes and the other chronic diseases that we see today. Our farms changed from small organic family-owned farms, to huge corporate run conglomerate farms that we see today, some as large as 7000 acres. Many changes in our diet and lifestyle have contributed and caused the rapid rise in the chronic diseases that we see today. Shortly we will discuss each of those major changes and demonstrate how they have led to the circumstances that we are left to deal with today.

As you read through the chapters that follow you will learn that there are six primary steps that need to be taken to modify your lifestyle errors, and to gain complete control over your diabetes. You will find a section at the end of each chapter that will provide fundamental advice for you to follow and apply. The fundamental advice sections will basically summarize what you have just read and hopefully enable you to gain an understanding of the key points. This book is written to teach diabetics the basics of how the body functions, how diabetes interferes with how the body functions, which will equip you with the knowledge necessary to interpret what your body is doing, and empower you to fix it. Previous editions of this book have demonstrated that there are two extremes in the spectrum of readers. Some seek a more in depth, technical, description of how their body functions and how diabetes impacts it, while others merely seek very practical basic instruction on how to treat diabetes. This book is written to help both. It will provide enough technical information to satisfy the techies, and provide an abundance of practical advice for those that just want the basics. If you are not a techie, please do yourself a favor and read through every section of this book. Every effort has been made to make the material as understandable as possible. All of the material contains valuable information that will help you if you give it a chance.

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Chapter 2-Cellular Basics

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"The human cell is a living miracle, an absolute marvel, in that something that is 1/10th the diameter of a human hair can be an independent living organelle, that contains thousands of different functioning things, like enzymes; some of which number in the millions." Tom Nelson

"You can free yourself from aging by reinterpreting your body and by grasping the link between belief and biology."-Deepak Chopra

"In Darwin's time all of biology was a black box: not only the cell, or the eye, or digestion, or immunity, but every biological structure and function because, ultimately, no one could explain how biological processes occurred."-Michael Behe

Since diabetes starts and functions at the cellular level, we will examine some basic facts about cellular function. At times you’re going to wonder why a book about diabetes is focusing on things like cellular basics and homeostasis. But, you will soon learn that a simple basic understanding of these two topics will significantly increase your ability to interpret the things that your body is doing, and know how to resolve them. If you are not a techie, you simply don’t care about how your body functions, or how diabetes impacts it, focus instead on the section at the end of the chapter (A Little Practical Advice for Diabetes). However, you are encouraged to at least try reading through this material, it will prove to be very rewarding if you do.

Every living thing is made up of cells. Some are made up of only one cell (single cell organisms-bacteria and protozoa), while others contain trillions of cells; like us humans. All cells are independently living and functioning organelles, whether they are a single cell organism, or if they are a small part of a larger system, where the cells function in concert with each other. So, your body is constructed from 10 trillion individual, independently operating, cells that work in concert with one another to keep you alive and functioning. In all cases, these cells are too small to be seen by the naked eye; a microscope will be required to see them. The average human cell is about 1/10th the diameter of a human hair (about 10 microns).

All of these cells have adapted over many billions of years to where there are a very large number of them that are capable of living in a very wide range of environments, and to function in very varied and specific roles. For example, nerve cells have a very long (up to several feet long) thin extensions and serve to enable the transmission of nerve signals; and accomplish that very quickly. Muscle cells are usually long and tapered at each end, and are capable of contracting and relaxing as needed to perform acts; like lifting a weight and setting it down. Most of your tissue cells are ball shaped.

As stated, there are approximately 10 trillion cells in your body. Your body has over 200 different types of cells; each designed to perform a specific function. Some are very rigid; like the enamel of your teeth, or the structure of your bones. Others are very soft, some are transparent; like the cells of your eyes. Cells not only vary in type, but size as well. The largest and smallest cells in your body are sex cells; called the gamete cells. The largest cells in the human body are the female gamete cells (the egg or ovum), which is about 1,000 micrometers (one millimeter) in diameter, which is just large enough to be visible to the naked eye; without needing a microscope to see it. They are about the diameter of a human hair. The large size is necessary to provide nourishment before it implants itself into the uterus. The smallest cells in the human body are the male’s gamete cells, which is the spermatozoan (sperm cells), at about 60 micrometers long. Regardless of how much they differ in size, structure, and function, they are all reliant upon the same basic things to maintain their structure, keep things inside that are critical to their function, keep things outside that could be detrimental, to allow specific things to pass into, or out of, their inside environment, to replicate themselves, maintain their health, and to function.

Everything that happens in your body starts at the cellular level, including healing an infection or a broken bone, fighting bacteria, or even reproducing. Even glucose and insulin management starts at the cellular level. Anything that has to do with your genes (DNA) has to do with your body’s cells. Advancements in technology regarding DNA has changed every aspect of your life, and will continue to do so throughout your life. Genetic engineering has become a huge industry not just in agriculture, as we will discuss later, but in medicine and our legal system as well; including fighting crime, because DNA is found in every cell. So, it stands to reason that diabetes starts at the cellular level; all types-type I, type II, MODY, LADA and others.

Glucose is the primary fuel your body’s cells rely on to function. Just as your car relies upon gasoline as a fuel to function, your body’s cells rely on glucose and fat as a fuel source to function. So understanding blood sugar management has to start at the cellular level as well. Diabetes damage begins at the cellular level and progresses beyond the cellular level. So it only makes sense that you understand how your cells function, and how diabetes messes with your cells. Then your efforts to interpret what your body is doing, repair damage, or restore proper function will make perfect sense.

The Amazing World Inside Each Cell

The inside of each cell is an amazing place. As stated, the average cell is about 1/10th the diameter of a human hair, and not visible to the naked eye, yet it contains millions of things that are responsible for maintaining the function of the cell. Just for fun pull a single strand of hair off of your head, then look at it from one end. Then think about the fact that each of your body’s cells are 1/10th the diameter of that strand of hair.

The cells of your body are fluid filled (called cytoplasm). Your body’s fat cells are about 85% liquid fat instead of cytoplasm. Your cells hold 2/3rds of the total fluid contained in your entire body. Seventy percent of the interior of a cell is fluid, the remaining thirty percent is the other support organelles and supplies. This fluid is packed with a massive amount of cellular machinery, structural elements, hormones, enzymes, amino acids, fats, and nutrients. The number of proteins found inside your cells outnumber those found outside the cells.

Each cell is like a giant warehouse, despite its very small size, that stores a huge number of microscopic sized substances needed by the cell in order to function. Shortly, you will learn how specialized mechanisms, like the cilia, receptors, gates, and transporters on each cell’s outer membrane are constantly taking in supplies from the river of nutrient rich blood that flows past the cells, allowing the cell to attract, capture, and uptake those nutrients to restock its shelves to replace what has been consumed.

The Parts of the Cell

All cells regardless of size or function contain the same organelles, which are independent functioning miniature organs, that make it possible for your cells to function and to replicate. Let’s examine each of these parts and discover how they contribute to cell function. It may prove helpful to refer to the following illustration to develop a mental picture of each part, which will help you remember what they are and what they do.

Human Cell (Figure 1)

The Cell’s Membrane

All cells have an outer protective layer called the membrane. The membrane is a highly specialized shell-like structure, that is equipped with many specialized mechanisms that attract, capture, and transport specific substances into, or out of, the inside of the cell. They are selective filters called transporters, gates, or receptors. Each transporter is designed to attract and capture a specific substance, like insulin, or a vitamin. The membrane has to be selectively permeable to many substances inside and outside of the cell. It permits the passage of small molecules, but blocks large molecules from passing through. These specialized ports (transporters, receptors, and gates) are specially designed to allow the larger molecules through as needed (discussed individually shortly).

As stated, there is a river of blood flowing past each cell (discussed shortly), which supplies each cell with all of the substances that are needed in order to function (described in detail later). However, there are many substances that can be found in the bloodstream that could be detrimental to the cell if allowed to enter. So the membrane’s primary function is to protect the cell from the bad things in its surrounding environment, while providing an ideal environment inside to allow the cell to function efficiently.

The cell membrane allows water, nutrients, oxygen, and many other substances to enter the inside of each cell. However, the fluid inside the cells is not blood. It is a mixture of water taken from the bloodstream, and the many substances needed to support cellular function.

The cell membrane is also permeable, which means that fluids can be allowed, but are regulated, to pass through the membrane to the inside, or from the inside to the outside of the cell. The cell membrane is sometimes called the plasma membrane. The cell membrane are constructed from fat based molecules (phospholipids), which control how much fluid (water) passes through the membrane, if any. As mentioned, your cells are full of fluid (cytoplasm), which we will discuss in greater detail shortly. The fluid level of the cell must be maintained very diligently in order maintain the cell’s health and enable it to function. In Step #2 you will learn how diabetes causes dehydration, which robs the cells of the fluid inside that is so important to cellular function. Then you will learn how to rehydrate your cells and maintain proper hydration.

The cell’s membrane regulates what is known as passive diffusion and osmosis. These are simply more technical terms that scientists love to throw around. There are many very small molecules and ions, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2) that can move through the membrane by diffusion (a passive transport process). When substances build up on one side of the membrane, or the other, the difference in their concentration gradient across the membrane sets up what is called an osmotic flow for the water. Water (fluid) will move through the plasma membrane from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration; called osmotic pressure. The substances of different concentrations will seek to equal out on both sides of the membrane. Osmosis is referred to passive, because it does not require energy to occur.

An example of this process would be when you fill a glass with a very cold drink; including ice cubes. Heat will move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. The air surrounding the drink is warmer than the drink. Heat will slowly move from the area around the drink into the drink, which will slowly equalize the temperature of the drink to be equal to that of the air surrounding it. Or, if you put hot food on a plate, the temperatures will eventually equalize in like manner. Likewise, substances in your blood that are in high concentration, will seek to move through the membrane into the inside where the concentration is lower. The membrane’s job is to regulate that process and only allow just enough through to the inside to provide for the cell’s needs; to restock the warehouse.

The chemistry and structure of the cell’s membrane is considerably more complex than what you have just read, but, you are not looking to become an expert on membrane structure, you just need a basic understanding of the part it plays in cell function.

Antigens

The membrane also houses a very specialized protein structure called an antigen (an ti jen). Antigens are specific, antennae like structures, that are particular to each of the 4 blood types; each blood type has a unique antigen, which is why blood types are important during blood transfusions. Antigens are unique to each individual; in addition to their specific blood type characteristics. It is very rare that any two individuals have identical antigens.

The antigens serve to protect your body from invaders, or unnatural substances. Nearly every cell in your body contains antigens. Everything in existence has its own unique antigen. Anything that enters your body, whether inhaled in the air you breathe, ingested in the food or water you consume, or anything that you apply to, or that touches your skin, will be subjected to inspection by the antigens of your body’s cells. If they are compatible, or neutral, with your body’s antigens they will be allowed to enter without conflict. However, if they are detrimental (not complementary), or are unnatural (synthetic-chemical), the antigens will initiate an alarm signal to your immune system to destroy it. We will be taking a much closer look at how all of this works later. You will discover latter how chemical exposure in your food and environment have caused your antigens to initiate an immune response that contributed to weight gain, and the manifestation of diabetes.

Receptors, Transporters, and Gates

Nutrients [including glucose, fats, vitamins and minerals, and essential amino acids (those from food)]must enter the cell in order to be utilized, and waste products have to be removed from the cell to be disposed of. Some cells manufacture hormones, enzymes, and amino acids that are placed into the bloodstream to be transported to other areas of the body; like insulin, which is produced in the cells of the pancreas, placed into the bloodstream, then utilized by cells throughout the body.

Transporters (also called transmembrane transporters, receptors, and gates) selectively attract, capture, and transport various specific substances through the membrane. Each transporter (receptor) and gate are protein structures that are specially designed to capture and transport one specific substance. For example, there are insulin receptors that capture insulin; but no other substance but insulin. Others capture cholesterol, and others capture and transport the thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), just to name a few. Once the insulin molecule has docked on the insulin receptor, a series of enzyme reactions will activate gates that allow a single molecule of glucose to enter. The glucose enters through a specialized gate that will only allow glucose to enter; but again, not until after an insulin molecule has docked to activate the gate.

In specific cases, cell membranes can capture and engulf substances; a process called endocytosis (en dō sī tō sis). The membrane creates a small deformation (inward- called a invagination). Once the desired substance enters, the deformation pinches off from the membrane on the inside of the cell resulting in the transport of the substance to the inside of the cell. It is as if a bubble forms on the outside of the cell, which encapsulates a desired substance, then moves inward and bursts releasing the substance to the inside of the cell. This process requires energy to be completed (discussed later).

A similar process, known as exocytosis (ek sō sī tō sis), discharges substances from the inside of the cell to the outside. In a similar fashion, a small deformation is created on the inside of the membrane, which engulfs a substance, and transports it to the outside. Exocytosis is frequently used to export enzymes and hormones that are manufactured inside the cell to the bloodstream for use elsewhere. They also play a role in the function of the Golgi apparatus (discussed shortly), which also packages substances and transports them through the membrane to the bloodstream.

The membrane of each cell is actually a bilayer (two layered) structure. The membrane consists primarily of a thin layer of fat, water repelling (hydrophobic) surface and a water attracting surface (hydrophilic). You are likely aware that fat will not dissolve in water. These fat layers are impermeable to most substances, including water, amino acids, certain acids, carbohydrates, proteins, and ions, but they do allow the passing (diffusion) of other important substances. Together, the bilayers maintain a separation between the inner and outer environments. You will learn later about how cholesterol plays a major role in maintaining this bilayer membrane and its permeability.

Cilia

The outer membrane is also covered with hair-like structures called cilia. They are microscopic organelles that play a vital role in everyday life. They are only about 1-10 microns long and are only one micrometer wide, which is very tiny.

There are two types of cilia [motile cilia and non-motile (primary) cilia], which function separately, but sometimes together. The motile cilia are found on nearly every cell in the human body. They are found in very large numbers on the outer surface of the membrane of a cell, and they beat in a coordinated wave pattern. Their wave motion propels fluids past the cells. They are best known for their function in the lungs, respiratory tract, and the middle ear. They serve to keep your airways clear. The term motile means moving, which means that they wave back and forth to perform numerous functions; like clearing mucus and dirt from your airways, allowing you to breathe easier, moving blood towards the many receptors, transporters, and gates, and they reduce irritation. They also propel sperm.

The non- motile cilia serve primarily as sensory organelles. There is typically only one on each cell. They enable the cells to communicate with one another. They are found in the urinary tract, and it is the flow of urine past them that enables you to feel the flow of urine; indicating that urine is flowing. In your eyes they are found inside the light-sensitive cells of the retina, where they form a microscopic track that guides the transport of vital molecules from one end of the photoreceptor to the other.

Cytoplasm/Cytosol

Your body contains approximately 5 liters (or 5.28 quarts) of fluid, of which 2/3rds is inside your 10 trillion cell’s membranes; which means 1/3rd is blood and 2/3rds cytoplasm. Cytosol is the actual fluid within which all of the cell’s organelles reside (all the hardware shown inside the cell in the above diagram), and where the majority of the cellular metabolism takes place. Cytoplasm is a collective term for the cytosol plus the organelles that are suspended within it. It ranges between 70-90% water and is usually colorless. It is composed of salt (sodium) and other organic molecules. Most of the cellular activities occur within the cytoplasm; even cell division.

The cytoplasm serves as a warehouse for everything that will be required for the cell to carry on daily (moment to moment) functions. While it may sound like a contradiction of terms, the cytoplasm is a microscopic, but giant, warehouse. Microscopic because it is so small in actual size 1/10th of the diameter of a human hair, yet giant, because it houses multiples of millions of enzymes, hormones, food molecules, oxygen, glucose, fatty acids, and numerous organelles.

If just one of your cells were to be compared to a life-sized warehouse, it would have to be very large, and would require a very sophisticated computer system to manage the shipping, receiving, manufacturing, and warehousing of all of the substances needed to allow it to function efficiently; then imagine there being 10 trillion of them, all of which are 1/10th the diameter of a single hair.

The Nucleus (Control Center)

The cell’s nucleus functions as the brain of the cell. Virtually everything that occurs inside the cell is monitored, and likely controlled, by the nucleus. It is not always found in the center of the cell, however it is rarely found near the outer edges of the cell; possibly to protect it. It is the largest organelle inside the cell. The outside of the nucleus is a double membrane that is covered with pores that serve to aid in the nucleus’ communication with other organelles inside the cell. The nucleus is surrounded by cytoplasm (cellular fluid). The nucleus contains a complete copy of the DNA and RNA for the body. Each cell, therefore, contains a complete copy of the DNA and RNA. However, the cells of a particular organ, for example, will only read the DNA for that particular organ, despite the fact that the DNA is present for every other part of the body.

The nuclear envelope, the membrane of the nucleus, surrounds the nucleus and all of the other contents. When the cell is at rest, chromatin (made from DNA and RNA) is in the nucleus. DNA and RNA are the nucleic acids inside each cell. When it is time for the cell to divide the chromatin becomes very compact, and when chromatin becomes very compact, it condenses. When the chromatin are condensed, the chromosomes become visible under a microscope, and appears like a nucleus inside the nucleus.

The nucleus sends out ribosomes, which take position on the rough endoplasmic reticulum, which play a major role in the synthesis of proteins (like amino acids).

Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are a network of tubular membranes located within the cytoplasm of each cell. There are two types, the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. They are both involved in the transport of materials. Both types have membranes. About half of the total membrane surface in animals and humans is provided by endoplasmic reticulum (ER). They are both very important in the manufacture of fats (lipids), and many proteins; including amino acids and enzymes. The proteins and manufactured and exported to other organelles. The two types reside separate from one another inside each cell.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

The rough endoplasmic reticulum is an extensive organelle. As stated it is a greatly convoluted, flattish, sealed sack, which is continuous with the nuclear membrane. Its name comes from the rough appearance due to the numerous ribosomes that stud its surface. The surface is in direct contact with the cytosol (fluid). The rough endoplasmic reticulum are named rough because its outer surface is studded with ribosomes, which gives it a very rough appearance.

Ribosomes are a large and complex molecular machine. They are a primary site for the production of proteins (amino acids and enzymes). They link amino acids together according to the recipe provided by the RNA in the control center. The sequence of DNA encoding for a protein may be copied many times into the messenger RNA chains, which are of a similar sequence. Ribosomes can use RNA as a template to produce many different types of proteins: to ensure that the correct recipe is followed. The proteins they produce are either used within the cell, or are exported to the outside of the cell; into the bloodstream. The protein production is initiated in the ribosomes, then transferred into the inside of the ER, where their structure is completed. Some proteins are sent to the Golgi Apparatus for final processing. Then they are delivered to their final destination. The ribosomes are firmly attached to the outer surface of the ER. They are called membrane bound ribosomes, that number in the millions (about 13 million are found in the liver’s cells). Their density becomes greater near the Golgi Apparatus.

Certain types of cells produce and use more amino acids and enzymes than others. Many produced within the intestinal tract are digestive enzymes. Some produced within the liver help produce and manage cholesterol, and others modify glycogen so that it can be inserted into the bloodstream as glucose.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

The smooth ER are tubular in shape and do not have the rough surface; they do not have the ribosomes attached to their surface. It forms a separate sealed interconnecting network, and it is evenly distributed throughout the cytoplasm. It is devoted nearly completely to the manufacture of lipids, and in some instances the metabolism of them or associated products. An example would be found in the liver. Within the liver’s cells the smooth ER enables glycogen, which is stored on the external surface of the smooth ER, to be broken down into glucose, transferred to the Golgi Apparatus , then transported into the bloodstream. The smooth ER also participates in the production of steroid hormones inside the adrenal cortex, and the endocrine glands.

The smooth ER do not package proteins; like their counterpart the rough ER. The smooth ER carry out a number of metabolic reactions within its membrane. Its functions vary from carbohydrate metabolism, to lipid (fat) synthesis, and also includes breaking down (detoxifying) drugs; primarily in the cells of the liver. The drugs and other chemicals are modified to become water soluble, which makes it easier for the kidneys to filter them out and dispose of them; including medications you take.

So, you will see that the organelles within the cells of specific organs will serve specialized purposes. For example, the ER in the pancreas produce insulin and release it into the bloodstream to be used by other cells. Cells within your liver capture and process chemicals and other harmful substances to remove them from your body. The same organelle can be found in all cells, each serving specific functions as directed by your DNA.

The smooth ER also play an important role in the storage of calcium ions, which is very important for muscle contraction. When an electrical impulse from the nerves stimulates a muscle to function, these calcium ions rush into the cytosol and trigger the actual muscle contraction.

The smooth ER inside the liver detoxifies a large number of organic chemicals, by converting them into safer water soluble substances that can be removed by the kidneys. The smooth ER detoxify alcohol after drinking, and barbiturates from overdoses. If drug exposure is common, the smooth ER is capable of doubling its surface area within a short period of time; a few days to a week. It will return quickly to its normal size if the overconsumption discontinues.

The Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi Apparatus is named after Camillo Golgi (Italian physician), the person that discovered it. It is an organelle consisting of 5 to 60 layers of cup shaped flattened sacs (called cisternae), that look like a stack of flattened balloons. the number of Golgi Apparatus will vary from cell type to cell type depending upon the cell’s function. It is usually located close to the cell’s control center (nucleus).

The Golgi Apparatus collects and processes secretory and synthetic substances from within the cells; especially the smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum (cellular factories that produce enzymes, hormones, and amino acids). It can be compared to the shipping department of a factory. The Golgi Apparatus prepares substances that are to be exported from the cell into the bloodstream, then becomes a transporter that moves the substances through the membrane and discharges it into the bloodstream.

The Golgi Apparatus modifies proteins and fats (lipids) that have been manufactured inside the endoplasmic reticulum (ER factories), prepares them for export and for transport to other areas within the cell. The smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum produce products and release them inside a protective bubble (lysosomes). The bubbles are picked up by the Golgi Apparatus where the substances are released from the protective packaging, further processed, combined with other molecules, or modified, then released in the area where they will be used. The substances enter in one end of the apparatus and exit, completed, from the other end. There are a number of substances that are manufactured inside the Golgi Apparatus

Mitochondria

Mitochondrion (or mitochondria plural) is an organelle surrounded by a membrane, much like all of the other organelle inside the cell’s cytoplasm (fluid). They range in size from 0.5-1.0 micrometer (μm) in diameter. They are commonly referred to as the cell’s power plant, because they burn a variety of fuels inside each cell to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is a form of chemical energy. However, the mitochondria are involved in other important tasks, such as signaling, cellular differentiation, and cell death. They control the cell’s growth and cell cycle.

Mitochondria are composed of compartments (regions), each designed to carryout a specific function. The regions include the outer membrane, inter-membrane space, the inner membrane, and the cristae and matrix regions (described below). In humans there are over 600 distinct types of proteins found within each of the mitochondria. Mitochondria have a separate nucleus, which is distinct from the nucleus of the cell it is found in. It is believed to be a carryover from evolution, where mitochondria were believed to have been single celled functioning organelles that had been gobbled up by larger cells. Despite evolving, the cell’s mitochondria retained their nucleus. The DNA found in the nucleus of the mitochondria is not an exact match to the DNA found in the cell’s nucleus, and it shows similarities to bacterial genomes.

There are several characteristics that make them unique. The number of mitochondria in the body’s cells will vary widely, depending upon which tissue or organ it is found in, and how active a person is; each cell’s energy requirements. Some cells will only contain one mitochondria, while others like the brain and heart, can contain upwards of 10,000 mitochondria. The liver’s cells contain about 2,000 mitochondria. It is all dependent upon how much energy the cells require in order to function.

There are five distinct parts to a mitochondrion. The mitochondria’s membrane is a double membrane that is very similar to that of the cell’s membrane; made up of phospholipid bilayers and proteins. The outer membrane is the first part. The second part is the inner membrane space, which is a space between the outer and inner membranes. Third is the inner membrane. Fourth is the cristae space, which is formed by the in-folding of the inner membrane. And the fifth part is the matrix, which is space within (inside) the inner membrane.

The outer membrane encloses the entire structure (organelle), and it contains a protein to phospholipid ratio that is similar to that of the cell’s membrane, except that larger proteins can enter the inside if a signaling transporter sequence is functioning. The mitochondria’s outer membrane can communicate with the endoplasmic reticulum membrane, which transfers lipids (fats) from the ER to the mitochondria.

The ATP is produced inside the inner membrane. The inner membrane is compartmentalized into numerous spaces, which increase the surface area of the inner membrane. The increased surface area increases its ability to produce ATP. This is especially true of muscle cells, which have even more compartments.

The matrix is the space inside the mitochondria, which is enclosed by the inner membrane. It houses approximately 2/3rds of the total protein, which is held inside the mitochondria. The matrix plays a major role in the production of ATP synthesis. It contains a highly concentrated mixture of hundreds of enzymes, specialized mitochondrial ribosomes, RNA, and copies of the mitochondrial DNA genome. The primary enzyme inside the mitochondria are specialized in the oxidation of pyruvate and fatty acids, and they play major roles in the citric acid cycle.

As stated, the mitochondria have their own genetic material, which means that they manufacture their own RNA and proteins. The mitochondrial DNA sequence has over 16,500 base pairs encoding a total of 37 genes. There are 13 mitochondrial peptides (amino acids) in humans, which are integrated into the inner membrane.

The mitochondria have been linked to a number of human diseases; like mitochondrial disorders, cardiac dysfunction and even in the aging process. Pesticides cause mitochondrial damage that is believed to lead to later onset of Parkinson’s disease. Mitochondrial disorders are often a contributor to neurological disorders, and can manifest as myopathy, diabetes, and a variety of other diseases. Mitochondrial disorders are also linked to schizophrenia, bipolar disorders, dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, epilepsy, strokes, cardiovascular disease, and retinitis pigmentosa.

As stated, the number of mitochondria in each cell varies, depending upon the energy needs of the cell. The liver cells contain between 1,000-2,000 mitochondria per cell, which accounts for approximately 20% of the entire cell volume. The primary function of mitochondria is to produce ATP, which is often referred to as the energy currency of the cell (citric acid cycle-or the Krebs cycle). Energy is produced by oxidizing glucose, fatty acids, pyruvate, and NADH, which are produced inside the cytosol (called cellular respiration or aerobic respiration); all of which require the presence of oxygen.

When oxygen is not readily available glucose is converted into ATP through a process called anaerobic fermentation. Anaerobic fermentation is a process that is independent of the mitochondria, where pyruvate is a byproduct, which is used to produce energy, but the yield is considerably lower. The production of ATP from glucose yields 13 times more energy during aerobic respiration compared to anaerobic fermentation. For example, when a person engages is extreme physical activity, the body will not be able to provide oxygen at a rate that will enable the body to keep up with the rate that the fuel is burned (to keep up with the energy needs of muscles); known as anaerobic exercise.

So we have established that the mitochondria are the power plants of the cells. They make it possible for the cells to make efficient use of fuel molecules. They use a process called oxidative metabolism to convert food into fuel energy. Oxidative metabolism converts more fuel into energy during aerobic processes (with oxygen) than it does during anaerobic (without oxygen) processes. Cells can be much larger in size, because of mitochondria; they are capable of producing more energy to support the larger size. The mitochondria function very much like batteries, because they convert energy from one form into another (food nutrients into ATP). Often, when greater energy needs are required more batteries can be placed in parallel or series to increase the amount of energy available. Cells do the same thing by increasing the number of mitochondria to provide for the energy requirements of the cell. The energy requirements of a couch potato will be significantly less than that of an Olympic athlete.

Later you will learn how your mitochondria controls your metabolism. Then you will learn how to use your metabolism to help regulate blood sugars and your body weight. You will learn how to use your mitochondria, and your metabolism, to burn the excess fat that is so difficult for diabetics to remove.

Cellular Energy Production in the Mitochondria

The overwhelming number of activities that take place inside each cell, every second of every minute, requires energy to occur; which can include chemical reactions, the synthesis of proteins (amino acids and enzymes) or even the contraction of a muscle cell, just to name a few. Energy is the ability (potential) for doing work, or to cause motion. The common forms of energy include heat, light, sound, electrical energy, mechanical energy, and chemical energy. Chemical energy is the primary source of energy in your body. When the bonds between the atoms of molecules are broken, energy is released.

The food consumed during a snack or meal in the form of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, are broken down during digestion (usually by enzymes), inserted into the bloodstream and circulated throughout your body, picked up by your cells, stored, and then used as fuel. The fuel is burned to produce a storable form of energy called ATP, which you will learn more about shortly. All of this is in the interest of accumulating a variety of fuels that can be selectively used, through a wide variety of conditions, as needed to provide for the body’s energy needs; they all produce energy in the same form, which is ATP.

Bottom line, your body’s cells will require different amounts of energy, depending upon what you are doing, whether it is sitting on a couch watching cartoons, or participating in an iron man competition. Your body’s energy production system is designed to meet those needs quickly and as efficiently as possible. Your body is programed to provide energy to deal with any scenario, especially in the event of fight or flight for survival.

Some of the cells in your body plug along using about the same amount of energy day-in and day-out regardless of how active you are; like your skin cells, hair cells, and others. On the other hand, some cells like your heart muscle, and skeletal muscle cells, will have varying amounts of energy requirements; depending upon activity levels. Very little energy will be needed while sitting on a couch watching cartoons, but massive amounts will be needed quickly and reliably during an iron man competition. There are a massive number of variables at play at any given moment.

Your body’s cells have preferences as to the type of fuel they use, with glucose being the overall favorite. Certain cells can only use glucose as a fuel (they cannot use any other form of fuel), like your central nervous system, so your body has to make certain that there is always a store of glucose available to keep them functioning. Other cells like your heart and brain can function on other types of fuel in a pinch, but their overall performance will suffer. So your body will seek to use glucose if at all possible.

Because there are so many variables, your body had to be ingeniously designed to be able to provide the energy needed in any type of activity, yet manage the stores of fuel to ensure that the body is capable of responding to any kind of emergency. You will learn later about how your body has adapted (evolved) to a feast or famine lifestyle, as was common with our ancestors 45,000 years ago, so that your body would not run out of