Electrical Load-Curve Coverage: Proceedings of the Symposium on Load-Curve Coverage in Future Electric Power Generating Systems, Organized by the Committee on Electric Power, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Rome, Italy, 24 – 28 October 1977

Yugoslavia.

List of Contributors

R.A. Addison,     Electrowatt Engineering Services Ltd., Zurich, Switzerland

Holger Ann and A.G. Siemens,     Erlangen, Federal Republic of Germany

Gregor Bär and Schluchseewerk AG,     Freiburg im Breisgau, Federal Republic of Germany

Claudio Barbesino,     Ente Nazionale per l’Energia Elettrica (ENEL), Rome, Italy

A. Bartschke,     ORGREB-Institut für Kraftwerke, Vetschau, German Democratic Republic Thure Berglund, Head of Production Planning, Swedish State Power Board, Vällingby, Sweden

J.G. Boggis,     member of the sub-committee on load-curve studies, International Union of Producers and Distributors of Electrical Energy (UNIPEDE)

John A. Burchnall,     Deputy Commercial Adviser, the Electricity Council, United Kingdom

C.B. Cassapoglou,     Public Power Corporation, Athens, Greece

Giovanni Chiantore,     ENEL, Rome, Italy

Roger Conrad,     Sous-directeur, Chef du Service des mouvements d’énergie, Electricité de France (EDF) Paris, France

Bruno De Martino,     Centro Nazionale di Controllo, ENEL, Rome, Italy

C. Derive,     Direction des études et recherches, Electricité de France, (EDF), Paris, France

Armando Di Perna,     Centro Nazionale di Controllo, ENEL, Rome, Italy

Julian Dorosz,     Institute of Power Engineering, Department of Energy Utilisation, Warsaw, Poland

K.W. Edwin,     Director, Institut für Elektrische Anlagen und Energiewirtschaft, RWTH, Aachen, Federal Republic of Germany

Karl-Peter Eichner,     ORGREB-Institut für Kraftwerke, German Democratic Republic

C.N. Eleftheratos,     Public Power Corporation, Athens, Greece

Georges Fiancette,     Service des mouvements d’énergie, EDF, Paris, France

Alain Fradet,     Service des mouvements d’énergie, EDF, Paris, France

M. Francony,     Service des études économiques générales, EDF, Paris, France

Horst Friedrich,     Institut für Energetik, Leipzig, German Democratic Republic

Giovanni Fusco,     Centro Nazionale di Controllo, ENEL, Rome, Italy

Istvan Futo,     Director, Energy Inspectorate, Budapest, Hungary

Zh.M. Gadeva,     Institute for Power Development, ENERGOPROEKT, Sofia, Bulgaria

Maurice Garlet,     Chef de département, Service des études économiques générales, EDF, Paris, France

Thea Gelsomini,     Gruppo per le Ricerche Commerciali e della Programmazione, ENEL, Rome, Italy

P. Godin,     Direction des études et recherches, EDF, Paris, France

K. Goldsmith,     Electrowatt Engineering Services Ltd., Zurich, Switzerland

Jozsef Halzl,     Institute for Energetics, Budapest, Hungary

Antero Jahkola,     Helsinki University of Technology, Helsinki, Finland

Francis P. Jenkin,     Central Electricity Generating Board, United Kingdom

Laszlo Jarfas,     Institute for Energetics, Budapest, Hungary

S.I. Kanchovski,     Institute for Power Development, ENERGOPROEKT, Sofia, Bulgaria

D.Z. Kanev,     Institute for Power Development, ENERGOPROEKT, Sofia, Bulgaria

Juan Kariger,     Hidroélectrica Espanola S.A., Madrid 1, Spain

H.-D. Kochs,     Institut für Elektrische Anlagen und Energiewirtschaft, RWTH, Aachen, Federal Republic of Germany

Ryszard Krochmalski,     Institute of Power Engineering, Department of Energy Utilisation, Warsaw, Poland

Jean Le Baut,     Direction des études et recherches, EDF, Clamart, France

Gilbert Le Gal,     Direction des études et recherches, EDF, Clamart, France

F. Lehmhaus,     Deutsche Verbundgesellschaft, Heidelberg, Federal Republic of Germany

Th. Lekane,     Société Traction et Electricité, 1040 Brussels, Belgium

Lothar Liebert,     Leipzig, German Democratic Republic

Fr. Linard de Guertechin,     Société Traction et Electricité, 1040 Brussels, Belgium

M.E. Marciani,     chairman of the sub-committee on load-curve studies, UNIPEDE

Ezio Mariani,     Centro Nazionale di Controllo, ENEL, Rome, Italy

Lennart Moden,     Head of Planning, Krangede Power Pool, Stockholm, Sweden

P. Mondolot,     member of the sub-committee on load-curve studies, UNIPEDE

Yves More,     Chef du service des relations commerciales, EDF, Valenciennes, France

Jean-Pierre Moreau,     EDF, Paris, France

Helmut Mühlhäuser,     Head of Tendering Office for Large Steam Turbines, BBC Brown Boveri S.A., Baden, Switzerland

Mihaly Ocsai,     Technical Director, Power Station and Network Engineering Co., Budapest, Hungary

Liam O’Donnell,     Head of Rates and Statistics, Electricity Supply Board, Dublin, Ireland

K.J. Oehns,     member of the sub-committee on load-curve studies, UNIPEDE

Georg Oplatka,     BBC, Brown Boveri S.A., Baden, Switzerland

Gian Guido Paniale,     Gruppo per le Ricerche Commerciali e della Programmazione, ENEL, Rome, Italy

Luigi Paris,     Director of Studies and Research, ENEL, Rome, Italy

Marcel Penel,     Service des Mouvements d’énergie, EDF, Paris, France

Erich Pfisterer,     managing director, Schluchseewerk AG and Rheinkraftwerk Albbruck-Dogern AG, Freiburg im Breisgau, Federal Republic of Germany

Peter Reeh,     Bayernwerk AG, Bayerische Landeselektrizitätsversorgung, 8000 Munich 19, Federal Republic of Germany

Juan Ruiz,     Hidroeléctrica Espanola S.A., Madrid 1, Spain

C. Sabelli,     Centro Nazionale di Controllo, ENEL, Rome, Italy

Luigi Salvaderi,     Studies and Research Division, ENEL, Rome

A. Sauer,     ORGREB-Institut, Vetschau, German Democratic Republic

Dominique Saumon,     Direction des études et recherches, EDF, Paris, France

J. Schmelzer,     Federal Republic of Germany

Gottfried Schmitz,     Power Economics Department, Preussische Elektrizitäts-AG, Hannover, Federal Republic of Germany

Peter Schnell,     Energie-Versorgung Schwaben AG, Stuttgart, Federal Republic of Germany

W. Sommer,     Federal Republic of Germany

I.S. Sotirov,     Institute for Power Development, ENERGOPROEKT, Sofia, Bulgaria

Emil Sovary,     Power Station and Network Engineering Co., Budapest, Hungary

J.-C. Stoffer,     Head of Dispatching Centre, Hamburgische Elektrizitäts-Werke AG, Hamburg, Federal Republic of Germany

Ludwig Strauss,     Bayernwerk AG, Bayerische Landeselektrizitätsversorgung, Munich, Federal Republic of Germany

R.J. Taud,     Institut für Elektrische Anlagen und Energiewirtschaft, RWTH, Aachen Federal Republic of Germany

Günter Traeder,     Institut für Elektrische Anlagen und Energiewirtschaft, RWTH, Aachen, Federal Republic of Germany

Jiri Tuma,     Deputy Scientific Director, Power Research Institute, Prague, Czechoslovakia

Marino Valtorta,     Deputy Director of Programming, ENEL, Rome, Italy

Endre Varga,     Energy Inspectorate, Budapest, Hungary

J. Velghe,     Société Traction et Electricité, 1040, Brussels, Belgium

Luigi Vergelli,     Centro Nazionale di Controllo, ENEL, Rome, Italy

Peter Voigtländer,     ORGREB-Institut für Kraftwerke, Vetschau, German Democratic Republic

Irina M. Volkenau,     Institut ENERGOSETPROEKT, Moscow, USSR

Marian Wach,     Institute of Power Engineering, Department of Energy Utilisation, Warsaw, Poland

Herbert Wagner,     Siemens AG, Erlangen, Federal Republic of Germany

Rolf Warncke,     Manager of the Dispatching Centre, Preussische Elektrizitäts-AG, Hannover, Federal Republic of Germany

Otto Weber,     Brown Boveri AG, Mannheim, Federal Republic of Germany

Hans-Günter Weidlich,     ORGREB-Institut für Kraftwerke, Vetschau, German Democratic Republic

W. Weiss,     ORGREB-Institut für Kraftwerke, Vetschau, German Democratic Republic

Kari Wellman,     Helsinki University of Technology, Helsinki, Finland

L. Wong,     Electrowatt Engineering Services Ltd., Zurich, Switzerland

Optimum Composition of the Generating System

Consolidated Report

Valtorta Marino,     Deputy Director of Programming, Ente Nazionale per l’Energia Elettrica (ENEL), Rome, Italy

Publisher Summary

This chapter describes the composition of the generating system in the way which best matches the load from the technical and economic points of view with the quantities of electric power required at any time by consumers. The load curve coverage is to be considered from two points of view: planning and operation. To interpret the various patterns of load variations, and in particular the associated rates, the chronological diagram is needed: from a yearly diagram of this kind, it can be realized at once that high variation rates appear in daily cycles. The shape of the daily diagram, its weekly and seasonal diversification and their statistical features, depend on the behavior of different consumer groups in their totality and on their relative participation. In regard to hydro units, the head variation is reflected in the maximum capacity, and the constraint on their capability imposed by the availability of water has a stochastic nature possibly modified by the policy or reservoir exploitation. The transmission network can provide valuable help to the load coverage problem, but possible bottlenecks may require special flexibility characteristics in the generating units.

FOREWORD

The composition of the generating system in the way which best matches the load from the technical and economic points of view with the quantities of electric power required at any time by consumers in their totality is in fact the subject-matter of the whole symposium. The optimum coverage of the load curve, in the short, medium and long term is indeed the main objective of electricity supply systems.

In order to attain such an optimum composition, it is necessary to identify the relevant characteristics of the load-curve on one hand and of the means of generation on the other. The performance of different means in the load curve coverage are interrelated. Therefore, in the search for the optimum, the whole system of generating units available for orchestration in the supply of the whole load should be considered.

This report is concerned with those papers dealing specifically with the general problem of the optimum composition of the generating system. Due to the above-mentioned interrelationships, reference will however be made to many other papers dealing with more particular items.¹

The subject-matter to be considered is so large and manifold that this report really cannot be exhaustive. It is intended on one hand to establish through a general survey a common glossary (the wording of different authors having more or less different meanings) and on the other to indicate some discussion topics, the various papers touching more or less deeply on a very wide range of problems.

The Load-curve Characteristics

The load curve coverage is to be considered from two points of view: planning and operation. In both perspectives different time intervals have to be examined, ranging from a year to a few minutes or seconds.

Looking at the year as a whole, the synthetic picture of the yearly load duration curve gives the first information about the occurrence of different demand levels, and conversely about the utilization factor of power layers at different levels.

But the yearly load duration curve is obviously too concise: the main shortcoming is that the chronological sequence is lost and therefore demand values are brought close to each other and are associated in a rather misleading way (R.23). Therefore special care should be taken in handling such curves of such duration.

In order to interpret the various patterns of load variations, and in particular the associated rates, the chronological diagram is needed: from a yearly diagram of this kind, it can be realized at once that high variation rates appear in daily cycles.

The daily diagram of load as a function of time (after filtering the noise of very small, short and frequent fluctuations due to the random change of load structure and of single consumer demand) shows several ripples R.11, R.39, R.41) and then several peaks and hollows. Among these the maximum peak and the minimum hollow and their ratio (R.21, R.42) have a particular interest. But also the number of ripples, the amplitude of variations both upward and downward and the rates of rise of fall (variable during each rise or fall) are important characteristics. It should be pointed out that the largest variation in amplitude is not necessarily related to the maximum peak and the highest rate is not necessarily related to the largest variation (R.23, R.42). On the other hand, the width of the intervals of continuous persistency of different demand levels or demand layers at different levels, and of spans between them should be considered. Furthermore, high variation rates have different importance in relation to their persistency.

The pattern of daily diagrams and all the above mentioned characteristics are different for various days of the week: working days (separate consideration is generally needed for Monday), Saturday and Sunday (likewise holidays). And for these typical days the pattern can be different according to the season.

The instantaneous values of load during a given weekday, in a given season, even after noise filtering, have a further random variability due to occasional load concentrations or reductions of larger amplitude and duration¹ than the noise fluctuations; moreover, differences affecting the whole daily diagram, perhaps for several consecutive days, may appear from one year to another as a result of the influence of special economic circumstances or climate conditions on the electricity (energy and power) demand.

Therefore all the characteristic parameters indicated previously (values of peaks, variation number, amplitude, rate, etc.) are random variables with a distribution which has to be statistically investigated and represented: not only the values of averages but in many cases the whole distribution and extreme values with associated probabilities have to be taken in account.

The representation of the load daily pattern as a continuous function of time is difficult and obviously too cumbersome to handle in studies and calculations. A step-wise model is often adopted as an approximation (R.30, R.31, R.38), in particular corresponding to the hourly or half-hourly sampling of measurements; it should be kept in mind that such approximations mask the actual rise or fall of load and can give misleading information on their actual rates. Special care should be devoted to collecting information on these rates and to relating them to the step-wise model. The statistical nature of step levels should in any case be considered.

On the daily and weekly time scale, the load duration curves (in continuous or step-wise form) are more significant than for the whole year. In fact for one day or week the duration curve brings close to each other demand values not so far apart as those which occur in building the yearly curves, and the same aggregate of generating units is set up to match all demand levels so that the actual distribution of demand values through the time interval can be disregarded for some purposes; of course the characteristics with a bearing on the change toward different values must be separately dealt with.

The shape of the daily diagram, its weekly and seasonal diversification and their statistical features, depend on the behaviour of different consumer groups in their totality and on their relative participation. Different patterns occur in different areas not only in a continent-wide country (R.53) but also in different regions of a smaller one: such variety depends on the possible differences in the structure of load as mentioned above but can be strongly influenced by different climatic characteristics.

The characteristics of the daily load-curves are not fixed but their evolution can be identified over periods of years of varying length (R.11, R.21, R.34). This evolution depends on the slow modification of the structure of consumers in the aggregate, and on individual consumer behaviour, which is in many ways related to economic and social development; substantial alterations, however, may result from the load management provisions (R.21, R.41).

The evolution of load-diagram characteristics is of paramount importance in the planning stage (R.11, R.21, R.42).

A deeper investigation of load-curve and of factors which influence it will be dealt with in a subsequent session of this Symposium, in which the appropriate analysis methodologies will be discussed.

The general analysis outlined above merely gives a background to consideration of the demand features which influence the problem of making up the generating system for the demand coverage.

The characteristics previously identified can be grouped according to their different nature:

– static characteristics related to the demand values without reference to the transition from one to another;¹

– dynamic characteristics related to the demand changes,

all relevant parameters being identified by their own statistical distribution.

Characteristics of Generating Units

A number of types of generating unit is available for the composition of the generating system, each type having from the technical point of view natural characteristics. As the load-curve characteristics require a corresponding function, these types should be grouped as follows:

– static characteristics related to the capability to deliver energy at a required amount of power;

– dynamic characteristics related to the capability to shift from one power value to another.

As far as static characteristics are concerned, the main difference lies between thermal units which have, in principle, unlimited primary energy available, and hydro units which have more or less limited amount of primary energy at their disposal; in the first case, the duration of power output is, in principle, unlimited, in the second there is a link between power output and its duration.

For thermal units any output value between the minimum and maximum capacity can be obtained; some minor restrictions may derive from the temperature of cooling fluids, but an output over the normal rating can be obtained for more or less limited periods with the reduction or the by-pass of steam extractions for feedwater heaters. In an analogous way (R.26, R.36) the steam extraction for district heating can be temporarily reduced, the heat delivery being compensated by heat-storage capacities in the heat distribution system; when back-pressure turbines are utilized for this purpose the heat storage capacities make it possible to increase the heat production and the related electric power during some periods (R.36).

With regard to hydro units the head variation is reflected in the maximum capacity, and the constraint on their capability imposed by the availability of water has a stochastic nature possibly modified by the policy or reservoir exploitation.

The dynamic characteristic of different generating units during their operation is expressed by the rate of output change; this rate can have different values in loading and deloading and for different amplitudes of variation ranges and different starting output levels.

Other very important characteristics concern the fact that generating units cannot be kept continuously in operation. The maintenance outages can be planned in advance and therefore the relevant characteristic, the maintenance duration, is of static and deterministic nature. Other planned outages can be requested leading even to an intermittent operation; the maximum number per year of planned outages can be assumed so as to express the likelihood of this kind of operation. The outages made necessary by faults annul, or reduce suddenly or very quickly the output capacity (static characteristic) being forced-outages occurrence and duration random variables, expressed by statistical parameters. The starting of unit operation requires the consideration of a special dynamic characteristic: the minimum start-up time as requested in particular for emergency commitments. For thermal units it may depend on the duration of the preceding rest period.

Particular aspects of static and dynamic characteristics as above defined are presented by the various (conventional and unconventional) means of storage generation (R.25) where the storage capacity is limited and artificially filled. The necessary detailed analysis will be the business of a special session of this symposium.

So far, the technical characteristics of generating units have been considered, but the associated economic characteristics affect no less the building-up and the operation of generating systems.

Merely the presence (in operation or at rest) of a generating unit of a given type involves a fixed cost related to the expense of construction, personnel, etc. Afterwards energy is produced with variable efficiency and then at variable cost not only in relation to the cost of fuel but also as a function of the power level; accordingly, the economic characteristics of production cost differentiate from each other the power values that in the technical static characteristic (range between maximum and minimum capacity) are neutral as far as unit loading is concerned.

As far as dynamic characteristics are concerned, the start-up cost of thermal units related to the fuel consumption (including the cost of the heat lost during the preceding shut-down) can be determined and taken into account. Much more difficult is the evaluation of the fatigue-cost associated with the different nature and frequency of output changes (in particular start-up and shut-down).

Also from the economic point of view, the means of storage means have particular characteristics (R.25) that will be considered in the special session.

A whole class of dynamic characteristics is only briefly mentioned here to remind us of its importance in the context of generating unit performance: it is the class of characteristics concerning the rotating motion of machines under the action of the torque resulting from imbalances between driving and loading powers. Speaking very generally, one group of relevant parameters (of which many can be expressed as time constants) relates to the inertia of the rotors, to the inertia of the driving fluid in the system feeding the turbine, and to the thermodynamic behaviour of steam. Another group of parameters (time constants and gain coefficients) relates to the performances of the unit governor system.

Characteristics of the Generating System

The generating system to be considered is the set of all installed machines; from this entire set different sub-sets can be committed to operation.

The system and sub-system characteristics, both static and dynamic, result from the corresponding characteristics of the generating units involved.

Accordingly, it is possible to identify, by a simple addition of the corresponding single unit values, the two figure of maximum and minimum capacity. The power values within these ranges can be obtained in an infinite number of ways by ascribing in any manner power values to each unit within its own range. When hydro units are included, the link between power output and duration has to be taken into account.

The various rates of output change of each operating sub-set of units can also be obtained by the addition of the corresponding rates of involved units with the values associated with the change amplitude considered and with the unit output levels. The various rates of output change of the whole available system result from those of all possible operating sub-sets.

Particular dynamic characteristics of the generating system are created in moving from one operating sub-set to another either by planned commitment of units and shut-down or by forced outages of units and cold (at rest) reserve intervention.

These characteristics may be referred to as set up and strip-out characteristics and expressed as rates: they, too, can be derived from the corresponding parameters of involved units.

The dynamic characteristics considered together define the system flexibility (R.42).

The differentiation of power output values within the capacity range among the different operating sub-sets and for each sub-set can be obtained only by referring to the production cost characteristics of committed units. The start-up costs affect the set-up characteristic. The fixed costs affect the whole installed system.

Coverage of the Load-curve and Optimization Problems

The performance of the generating system has to be considered in the context of covering the load-curve. On the generation side the sets of units available for operation vary according to the water availability of hydro units, to maintenance needs and to forced outages; on the demand side, the load varies according to the characteristics previously described.

In relation to planned and forced outages, the maximum installed capacity should have a reserve margin above the maximum load peak in the period considered. The sets of units actually operating can be different for the different load levels; the unit commitment and the load dispatching among the different units should be made taking into account the economic production characteristics; reserve intervention for occasions when forced outages occur should be assured by a capacity margin in the capacity of operating units (spinning reserve) and by spare capacity of units ready to start up (ready stand-by