Inspection and Monitoring Technologies of Transmission Lines with Remote Sensing

Inspection and Monitoring Technologies of Transmission Lines with Remote Sensing

Yi Hu

Kai Liu

China Electric Power Research Institute, Beijing, China

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Preface

Chapter 1. Parameters and characteristics of transmission lines

Abstract

1.1 General Development and Main Structure of Transmission Lines

1.2 Electrical and Mechanical Characteristics

References

Chapter 2. Remote sensing and remote measurement technology of transmission lines

Abstract

2.1 Infrared Detection Technology

2.2 UV Detection Technology

2.3 Wide Area Line Monitoring Based on Satellite Remote Sensing

References

Chapter 3. Tour inspection technology of transmission lines

Abstract

3.1 Conventional Tour Inspection and its Classification

3.2 Main Contents of Tour Inspection of Lines

3.3 Helicopter Tour Inspection Technology

3.4 Robot Tour Inspection Technology

3.5 UAV Tour Inspection Technology

3.6 Intelligent Tour Inspection System of Transmission Lines

References

Chapter 4. Transmission lines detection technology

Abstract

4.1 Faulty Insulator Detection

4.2 Voltage Detection in Operation

4.3 Detection of Grounding Devices

4.4 Detection of Conductors and Ground Wires and Splicing Fittings

4.5 Conductor Sag Detection

4.6 Towers Tilt and Detection

4.7 Insulator Pollution Detection

4.8 Composite Insulators State Detection

References

Chapter 5. Devices and technology for monitoring transmission lines

Abstract

5.1 Overview of Online Monitoring for Transmission Lines

5.2 Icing Monitoring of Transmission Lines

5.3 Monitoring of Transmission Lines Pollution

5.4 Monitoring of Transmission Lines’ Windage Yaw

5.5 Monitoring of Transmission Lines Vibration

5.6 Monitoring of Transmission Line Galloping

5.7 Monitoring of Conductor Temperature and Sag

5.8 Monitoring of Transmission Lines Lightning Strike

5.9 Other Online Monitoring Devices and Their Application

References

Index

Copyright

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Preface

Transmission lines are important components of power grids, and the status of transmission line equipment directly affects the safe and reliable operation of power grids. In consideration of the requirements of long distance and large capacity power transmission, alternating current and direct current ultra-high voltage transmission lines have been put into commercial application and operation successively. The distribution areas of high voltage transmission lines are wide, and the meteorology and geology, etc., along transmission lines are complex, which significantly affects the safe and stable operation of transmission lines. In order to guarantee the reliable operation of lines, the research and application of line inspection and monitoring technology with remote sensing is very necessary.

In recent years, with the in-depth research of power transmission lines inspection and monitoring technology by remote sensing, many new technologies, tools, and methods are applied in the operation and maintenance of transmission lines. For instance, satellite remote sensing technology can be used to monitor lines in wide areas; infrared and UV detection technology can be used to conduct noncontact nondestructive detection on targets; inspection technology with helicopter and inspection technology with UAV have the advantages of wide inspection range and high efficiency; online monitoring technology can monitor operating conditions of transmission lines continuously or periodically. The application of these new technologies and methods provides an effective means for accurately and fully knowing the operation condition of transmission lines, and finding line faults and hidden dangers in a timely fashion, and it plays an important part in guaranteeing the safe and reliable operation of transmission lines, and so the prospects for this application are very good indeed.

This book is compiled to meet the requirements of the personnel who are responsible for the operational and technological management of power transmission lines, and is based on reference to the relevant materials and relevant research results. The book is divided into five chapters. The structure, main parameters, and electrical and mechanical characteristics of transmission lines are introduced in Chapter 1, Parameters and characteristics of transmission lines, and the characteristics and principles of infrared and UV detection technology and remote satellite sensing technology, and their application in line monitoring are introduced in Chapter 2, Remote sensing and remote measurement technology of transmission lines. The characteristics and application of helicopters, UAVs, and robot inspection technologies are the main contents of Chapter 3, Tour inspection technology of transmission lines; detailed information about line detection and detection methods and devices are covered in Chapter 4, Transmission lines detection technology. The main content of Chapter 5, Devices and technology for monitoring transmission lines, is the online monitoring technology of transmission lines, including online monitoring devices and their application on lines with icing, pollution, and windage yaw, etc.

The book has been compiled principally by Hu Yi and Liu Kai; and Liu Ting, Liu Yan, Xiao Bin, Peng Yong, Han Fang, etc. participated in the compilation. In addition, those who participated in the research of inspection technology with remote sensing include Wang Linong, Hu Jianxun, Xu Ying, etc. In the process of compiling the book, the strong support of Liu Kaipei, Lin Fuchang, and others has been invaluable, and we give our sincere thanks to them!

Because of the nature of the text as regards editing, it is hard to avoid any errors, and readers’ corrections are expected, and their forbearance requested!

Chapter 1

Parameters and characteristics of transmission lines

Abstract

With the rapidly increasing demand for electricity in China, many power transmission lines have been constructed and put into commercial operation, especially the UHV AC and DC transmission lines. The inspection and maintenance of those lines are demanding tasks. The electrical and mechanical parameters and characteristics of transmission lines are important for their operational safety and reliability, as those working on them should know. The general development and main structure of transmission lines are introduced in Section 1.1. The electrical characteristics of transmission lines, including the AC power frequency discharge feature, the lightning and switching impulse voltage discharge feature for typical air gaps, the varying voltage discharge features of air gaps, corona features, and the noise and radio interference features for transmission lines are discussed and analyzed in the first part of Section 1.2. The mechanic parameters and characteristics of transmission lines are introduced in the latter part of Section 1.2.

Keywords

Transmission line; electrical parameter; mechanic characteristic; discharge; inspection

1.1 General Development and Main Structure of Transmission Lines

1.1.1 General Development of High Voltage Transmission Systems—Current Status

Modern large power plants are mostly built in resource concentrated places, while most electricity load centers are clustered in industrial zones and metropolises. As the distances between power plants and load centers are long, high voltage, high power capacity, and long distance transmission lines are economical ways of transmitting electrical energy. Therefore, transmission lines, as an important component of a power system, carry out the functions of transmission and distribution of electrical energy. To reduce electrical power loss in the process of electric power transmission, different voltage classes are adopted for transmission lines, based on transmission distance and capacity [1].

In 1882, the French physicist Deprez was the first to complete a long-distance direct current transmission test, which had practical significance that resonated in the history of the electric power industry. Through a 57 km telegraph wire (a steel wire 4.5 mm in diameter), at a voltage of 1500–2000 V, the electrical energy generated by the direct current generator (installed in Miesbach coal mine) was transmitted to the first electrically lit international electrotechnical exhibition, at the Glass Palace in Munich, and used to provide electricity for a set of foundation pump motors. After the 1880s, the application in engineering of alternating current transmission technology began. In 1891, the Frankfurt power line, the world’s first three-phase alternating current high voltage transmission line, running from Laufen to Munsen Riverside, with a total length of 175 km and voltage of 15.2 kV, was put into operation in Germany.

In 1908, the first 110 kV transmission line was built by the United States, and the first 230 kV transmission line was built and put into operation in 1923. After the 1950s, the world power industry developed rapidly, voltage class was continuously increased, and the scale of power grids was continuously enlarged. In 1952, the first 380 kV alternating current transmission line in the world was put into commercial operation in Sweden, followed in 1964 by the world’s first 500 kV alternating current transmission line; 735 kV, 750 kV, and 765 kV transmission lines were built in Canada, the Soviet Union, and the United States successively during the period of 1965–69. Later, some countries also conducted research on ultra-high alternating current transmission technology.

Meanwhile, project construction for direct current transmission systems was also rapidly developed. Following the success of the high voltage direct current transmission project of the island of Gotland, Sweden, put into industrial operation in 1954, the total number of high voltage direct current transmission projects put into operation worldwide until the end of 2008, was more than 76, and the total power capacity topped 70,000 MW. More than twenty 450–600 kV direct current transmission projects were included.

In 1954, the first 220 kV high voltage transmission line self-designed and constructed by China was built; in 1972, the first 330 kV extra high transmission line in China was built; in 1981, the first 500 kV extra high transmission line was put into operation, and China became the eighth country with a 500 kV extra high transmission line; an 1000 kV ultra-high alternating current transmission line was put into operation in 2009, making China the country with the highest voltage class of alternating current transmission, a status it retains today [1].

Though direct current transmission research and project construction were embarked on later, their development was rapid. In 1978, the Zhoushan HVDC transmission project with Chinese independent technology was put into commercial operation, and then the application and development of direct current transmission began in China. At the end of 2009, the Yunnan–Guangdong ±800 kV ultra-high voltage direct current transmission project with a rated capacity of 5000 MW was successfully initiated in single-stage production; the Xiangjiaba–Shanghai ±800 kV ultra-high voltage direct current transmission demonstration project with a rated capacity of 6400 MW was put into operation in 2010. China has become the country with the highest voltage class of direct current transmission.

1.1.2 Structure and Main Parameters of Transmission Lines

1.1.2.1 Composition of transmission lines

The elements of transmission lines mainly include conductors, lightning shield wires (or overhead ground wires, or basically, ground wires), fittings, insulators, towers, guy wires and foundations, etc., as shown in Figs. 1.1 and 1.2.

Figure 1.1 Composition of transmission lines.

Figure 1.2 Elements of transmission lines. 1 – Crossarm; 2 – suspender; 3 – lightning shield wire; 4 – insulator; 5 – conductor; 6 – guy wire; 7 – guyed disk; 8 – down lead; 9 – grounding device; 10 – chassis; 11 – foundation.

1.1.2.2 Each component and its role

1.1.2.2.1 Conductors

Conductors are the elements used to conduct current and transmit electricity.

Bare metal conductors, also called bare conductors, are adopted in general overhead transmission lines. Conductors are fixed in towers for the purpose of transmitting electric current. Since conductors bear tension force, and operate in atmosphere for many years, and are affected by wind, ice, rain, snow, and temperature change and corroded by chemical impurities in air, the materials of a conductor must have, in addition to excellent conductivity, significant mechanical strength, and anticorrosion capacity.

In case of transmission voltages of 220 kV and below, a single conductor is mostly used as a phase conductor for transmission lines. In the case of extra high transmission lines with large transmission capacity, in order to eliminate the corona to reduce electrical energy loss and disturbance to radios, televisions, etc., a phase bundle conductor is mostly adopted; i.e., there are two, three, four, or more conductors in each phase.

In general overhead transmission lines, the cores are stranded wires wound with as many as several tens of conductors with a core of a single metal wire. Currently, steel-cored aluminum stranded wires with the core made of steel wires with high mechanical strength are mostly used in transmission lines, and there are hard aluminum stranded wires with fairly high conductivity nearby, as shown in Figs. 1.3 and 1.4. The conductivity of a steel-cored aluminum stranded conductor is slightly lower than that of a copper conductor. Owing to their high mechanical strength, high tensile strength, little tendency to sag, and low cost, steel-cored aluminum stranded conductors are especially suitable for transmission lines.

Figure 1.3 Schematic drawing of section of steel-cored aluminum stranded conductor.

Figure 1.4 Domestic ACSR-720/50 type steel-cored aluminum stranded conductor. (A) Physical diagram, (B) structure diagram.

Based on the varying aluminum and steel sections, steel-cored aluminum stranded conductors are classified in three categories, normal, reinforced, and light. In transmission lines, normal steel-cored aluminum stranded wires are mostly applied.

Light steel-cored aluminum stranded conductors are mostly used in extra high transmission lines; reinforced steel-cored aluminum stranded conductors are widely applied in large crossing areas and heavy ice areas, etc. Generally, selection of conductor type shall be determined after technical and economical evaluation.

1.1.2.2.2 Lightning shield wires (overhead ground wires)

In transmission lines, other than at the conductor used for transmitting electric power, overhead ground wires are set up to prevent transmission lines from lightning; they will shunt, couple, and shield phase wires if any towers are struck by lightning. Additionally, there are optical fiber composite overhead ground wires fitted with optical fibers for communication, as shown in Fig. 1.5.

Figure 1.5 Optical fiber composite overhead ground wire. (A) Structure diagram, (B) physical diagram.

Lightning shield wires are hung at the tops of towers. When lightning strikes around power lines with lightning shielding wires set above the phase wires, and the shielding wires are first struck by lightning, the current is then conducted into the ground through the grounding body, thus the probability of phase wires being struck by lightning is reduced, line insulation breakdown, a likely result of lightning overvoltage, is avoided, and finally lightning protection is achieved. There are the effects of lightning shield wires:

1. Lightning shield wires can protect wires from direct lightning strikes.

2. When lightning strikes the top of a tower, the lightning current can be shunted by lightning shield wires, so that the lightning current flowing into the tower is reduced, as is the potential at the top of the tower.

3. Lightning shield wires can connect conductors, and reduce the voltage on the tower head insulation (insulator strings and air gaps) in the case that the tower’s top is struck by lightning.

4. Lightning shield wires can shield conductors, and reduce the induced overvoltage on conductors.

1.1.2.2.3 Fittings

Usually, all metal parts used in transmission lines are called fittings. Fittings are mainly applied to support, fix, and connect wires and insulators and the like in overhead lines, protect conductors and insulators, and prevent the vibration of conductors, etc. as well.

There are many kinds of fittings. According to the performance and application of fittings, they can be classified as conductor clamps, link fittings, splicing fittings, protective fittings, guy wire fittings, etc.

1. Conductor clamps. These include suspension conductor clamps and tension conductor clamps.

a. Suspension conductor clamps. Suspension conductor clamps are applied to fix conductors on the suspension insulator strings of suspension towers, or to suspend lightning shield wires on suspension towers, and to support transposed wires in transposed supports and fix jumpers on nonsuspension towers, as shown in Fig. 1.6. Wire clamps of this type bear the load in the vertical and line direction of the conductor (or lightning shield wires). Suspension wire clamps with secure grip force on the conductor (or lightning shield wires) are required.

Fixed mode of conductor: put conductor (or lightning shield wires) into wire clamp body groove, fix with pressing plate and U bolt, and tightly press conductor.

b. Tension clamps. Strain conductor clamps are applied to fix the conductor on the strain insulator strings on tension towers, and fix lightning shield wires on tension towers. Based on different service and installation conditions, tension clamps are classified as bolt-type tension clamps and compressed-type tension clamps, as shown in Fig. 1.7.

2. Link fittings. Link fittings are mainly used to connect insulator strings with towers and conductor clamps. Suspension insulators can be linked into a string, and connect to or hang one string or multiple strings of insulator strings on the cross arms of towers.

Figure 1.6 Suspension conductor clamps. (A) Structure diagram, (B) type diagram.

Figure 1.7 Tension clamp. (A) Bolt-type tension clamp and the installation pattern, (B) compressed-type tension clamp.

Link fittings can be sorted into ball eyes, socket-clevis eyes, right angle clevises, U-shackles, etc., as shown in Fig. 1.8.

Figure 1.8 Common link fittings. (A) Ball eye, (B) socket-clevis eye, (C) right angle clevis, (D) U-shackle.

The fitting type is selected by service condition and connection mode. For example, ball eye and socket-clevis eye for the connection of ball and socket insulators; right angle clevis for groove-shaped insulators; for the connection of insulator strings and cross arms on towers, fittings should be selected and matched according to connection mode.

The mechanical strength of link fittings generally does not depend on the wire mechanical load, but the mechanical strength of insulators. Each type of insulator is fitted with a set of fittings with same mechanical strength as that of the insulator. The diameters of bolts, pins, screw holes, and pin holes for connecting matching fittings are also required.

3. Splicing fittings. Splicing fittings are applied to connect the conductor and lightning shield wire terminals, and jumpers on the tension towers, and to repair the conductor, etc.

Splicing fittings mainly include splicing sleeves, repair sleeves, parallel groove wire clamps, and prestranded wires for conductors with various press modes (press wire clamp, hydraulic pressing, explosive pressing, etc.).

The main connection modes for conductors are the cramp joint and hydraulic mode, as shown in Fig. 1.9.

4. Protective fittings. Protective fittings mainly include spacers, grading rings, shielding rings, counterweights, and vibration dampers, etc.

a. Spacing rods. Spacing rods are used on bundle wires to prevent collision among conductors, and restrain breeze vibration and span shock, as shown in Fig. 1.10.

b. Grading rings. Grading rings are rings for equalizing the electric field distribution around insulators.

c. Shielding rings. Shielding rings are rings for reducing corona intensity on fittings.

d. Counterweights. Counterweights can exercise restraint on excessive swing strength in suspension insulator strings or jumper insulator strings, and up-pull of the conductors and lightning shield wires on suspension towers.

e. Vibration dampers. Vibration dampers can be used to decrease vibration amplitude, and reduce the vibration of conductors, as shown in Fig. 1.11.

5. Guy wire fittings. Guy wire fittings, mainly used in the fixing, adjustment, and connection of guy wires in guyed supports, can be classified as three types: tension stringing, adjustment, and connection. An adjustable UT-type wire clamp is shown in Fig. 1.12, and guy wires’ tightness can be adjusted with the wire clamp. Adjustable UT-type bolts can also be used to adjust the tightness of guy wires, and guy wires with wire clamps can be fixed with wedges. A combining method of typical guy wires is shown in Fig. 1.13.

Figure 1.9 Connection mode of conductors. (A) Cramp joint; (B) hydraulic mode; 1 – conductor; 2 – press wire clamp splicing sleeve; 3 – aluminum tube; 4 – steel tube; 5 – steel stranded wire (steel-cored).

Figure 1.10 Spacing rod with 500 kV quad-bundle wire.

Figure 1.11 Vibration hammer. 1 – Pressing plate; 2 – conductor; 3 – hammer head; 4 – steel stranded wire.

Figure 1.12 Adjustable UT-type wire clamp. 1 – Adjustable U-type bolt; 2 – wedge; 3 – wire clamp.

Figure 1.13 Combining method for common guy wires. 1 – Adjustable UT-type wire clamp; 2 – wedge-type wire clamp; 3 – guy wire; 4 – anchor rod.

1.1.2.2.4 Insulators

Insulators, as one of the main components for the external insulation of transmission lines, are used to support or hang conductors so that they work where there are towers, and ensure that lines have reliable electric insulation strength. The insulating parts of insulators consist of porcelain or glass and synthetic materials. Types and applications of insulators are as follows [2]:

1. Pin-type insulators (see Fig. 1.14). They are applied to suspension poles or small angle towers with low conductor tension, which have the advantages of convenient manufacture, low price, and disadvantages of lower levels of lightning resistance and high risk of flashover. Pin-type insulators are mainly applied in distribution lines.

2. Porcelain cross-arm insulators. This kind of insulator is mostly applied in the class lines with voltages of 110 kV or below, which can play the roles of cross arms and insulators, improve suspension point heights of conductors, and save money; they are designed to be washed by rain during operation, and their rotation can avoid the spread of accidents in case of broken lines.

3. Suspension type insulators (see Figs. 1.15–1.19). They are applied to the overhead transmission lines of the 35 kV and above voltage class. Insulators of this type are generally used by being assembled into insulator rings, and the number of each string of insulators corresponds to rated operating voltage. Suspension type insulators can be classified as porcelain insulators, glass insulators, and composite insulators. There are levels of 4, 7, 10, 16, 21, 30, 42, 52t, etc. in suspension type insulators, according to the electromechanical failure load.

Figure 1.14 Pin-type insulators. (A) Type diagram (B) structure diagram; 1 – porcelain body; 2 – cement; 3 – iron feet.

Figure 1.15 Single suspension type insulator. 1 – Steel cap; 2 – cement; 3 – porcelain body; 4 – iron feet.

Figure 1.16 Suspension type insulator with direct current.

Figure 1.17 Suspension insulator string (single string). (A) Connection with wire clamps, (B) connection with clevises.

Figure 1.18 Suspension insulator string (double string). (A) Connection with triangle clevises, (B) connection with ladder-shaped clevises.

Figure 1.19 Suspension insulator string (V-shaped).

1.1.2.2.5 Towers

Towers are used to support conductors, lightning shield wires and other accessories, keep conductors, lightning shield wires, and towers at safe distances apart, and from the ground, intervening objects and materials, or other buildings, etc.

Towers are generally classified into three types, wood poles, reinforced concrete poles, and iron towers. Wood poles are seldom used in China, owing to the lack of forest resources there.

Towers are of two kinds, structurally speaking, suspension towers and tension towers. Suspension towers include guyed towers with straight lines and self-supporting towers with straight lines; tension towers include tension towers, angle towers and terminal towers, as shown in Figs. 1.20–1.22.

Figure 1.20 Guyed towers with straight lines, (A) Guyed V tower; (B) guyed portal tower.

Figure 1.21 Self-supporting towers with straight lines. (A) Cup type tower with single circuit, (B) cat head type tower with single circuit, (C) compact tower with single circuit, (D) drum type tower with double circuits on one tower.

Figure 1.22 Tension tower.

1.1.2.2.6 Guy wires and foundation

1. Guy wires. The effects of guy wires:

a. guy wires can improve the strength of towers, and bear the action force of external loads on the towers, in order to reduce the quantity of materials required for the tower, and the construction costs of lines;

b. guy wires can fix towers in the ground with anchor rods and guy wire anchors, so as to prevent tilt and collapse.

Galvanized steel stranded wires are generally used for guy wires. The upper ends of guy wires are connected by hold hoops to the towers, and the lower ends are connected by adjustable guy wire fittings, anchor rods, and guy wire anchors buried in the ground.

2. Foundation. Foundations are used to support towers, and fix them in the ground to ensure they do not suffer from up-pull, tilt, collapse, sink, etc. Type selection should be determined taking into account all factors of geological physical characteristics, construction conditions, and towers types. Generally, prefabricated foundation is used; in cohesive and sandy soil, filling pile foundation is appropriate; rock foundation is suitable for areas with certain conditions; a metallic foundation can be adopted in mountainous areas with difficult traffic. The foundations of towers should be designed according to the geological data along the lines and load conditions of towers. When the foundations are designed for lines crossing rivers, hydrologic and geological data shall also be included.

1.2 Electrical and Mechanical Characteristics

1.2.1 Electrical Characteristics

1.2.1.1 Power frequency discharging characteristics of typical air gap

Power frequency flashover characteristics of typical air gaps are shown in Fig. 1.23.

Figure 1.23 Relationships between long air gaps and 50% breakdown (or flashover) power frequency AC voltage for insulator strings or air gap distances.

From Fig. 1.23 it can be seen that, under general circumstances, the power frequency flashover strength of typical gaps in transmission lines is between the curves of rod–rod and rod–plate. Within the middle distance range, the relationship between breakdown voltage and air gap distance is close to a linear proportion; when the air gap distance is over 2.5 m, the relationship between breakdown voltage and air gap distance presents an obvious saturation trend, especially for the air gap of rod–plate [3].

The power-frequency breakdown voltages of air gaps are scattered in a small range. The coefficient of variation z can be less than 2%.

1.2.1.2 Lightning and switching impulse voltage discharge characteristics of typical gaps

1. Lightning impulse. Fig. 1.24 shows the relation between the 50% lightning impulse (+1.2/50 μs) breakdown voltage of air gap and the gap distance, and Fig. 1.25 shows the relation between the lightning impulse voltage of rod–rod and rod–plate air gaps and the gap distance. It can be seen from Figs. 1.24 and 1.25 that the linear relation between impulse breakdown voltage and gap distance remains good [3].

Figure 1.24 Relation between lightning impulse breakdown voltage and gap distance. 1, 4—Rod–plate gap, with polar plate grounded; 2, 3—Rod–rod gap, with rod pole grounded. Note: the voltage waveform is 1.2/50 μs lightning impulse.

Figure 1.25 Relation between the lightning impulse breakdown voltage of rod–rod and rod–plate air gaps and the gap distance. (A) Rod–plate gap, with the rod of positive polarity; (B) rod–plate gap, with the rod of negative polarity; (C) rod–rod gap, with the rod of positive polarity; (D) rod–rod gap, with the rod of negative polarity.

The experiment suggests that the 50% impulse breakdown voltage of conductor-plate air gap is very close to that of the rod–plate air gap, regardless of polarity. The 50% impulse breakdown voltage of the air gap between two parallel wires is higher than the value of rod–rod air gap.

Fig. 1.26 shows the result of the positive lightning impulse voltage discharge experiment conducted on the air gaps of simulated poles. For comparison, the figure also shows the curve of a positive lightning impulse discharging in the rod–plate gap. Three percent can be taken as the variation coefficient z of the lightning impulse breakdown voltage.

2. Switching impulse voltage discharge characteristics. The gap breakdown characteristics are presented in the following aspects at the presence of switching impulse voltage.

a. Polarity effect. For various uneven electric field structures, the 50% breakdown voltage of a positive-polarity switching impulse is lower than that of a negative-polarity switching impulse.

b. Effects of waveform. The curve of the relation between the wave front time and the 50% breakdown voltage (per-unit value) of a plate air gap under a positive-polarity switching surge is as shown in Fig. 1.27, which is shown as U-shaped. When the wave front time is in a specified region, the 50% breakdown voltage of the air gap has a minimum value called critical breakdown voltage, which is regarded as the reference for per-unit value. The corresponding wave front time is called the critical wave front time.

For other types of air gap, the relation between switching impulse breakdown voltage and wave front time is mostly presented as a U-shaped curve. The relation for the rod–plate air gap is most significant, and it is more remarkable for the positive polarity than for the negative polarity.

3. Saturation phenomenon of long air gaps. Like the regularity of power frequency breakdown voltage, there is a remarkable saturation in the long air gap discharge curve in the presence of switching impulse voltage. The switching impulse breakdown voltages of rod–rod and rod–plate air gaps are shown in Fig. 1.28.

4. Wide dispersion of variation coefficient. Compared to the conditions in the presence of lightning, the 50% breakdown voltage of the air gap is more widely dispersed in the presence of a switching impulse voltage. This is more significant for the centralized electrode (a rod electrode, for example) than for the elongation electrode (a conductor, for example), and for the long wave front time (over 1000 μs, for example) than for the short wave front time (100–300 μs, for example). Generally speaking, the variation coefficient z of the 50% breakdown voltage of the rod–plate air gap is about 8% in the presence of the switching impulse voltage and about 5% in the presence of the lightning impulse voltage.

Figure 1.26 Result of positive lightning impulse test on simulated tower window gaps. 1 – Rod–plate gap; 2 – actual simulated tower window gaps (4-bundle conductor); 3 – actual simulated tower window gaps (8-bundle conductor).

Figure 1.27 Relation between the 50% breakdown voltage (per-unit value) of the rod–plate air gap under positive switching impulse voltage and the wave front time.

Figure 1.28 Switching impulse breakdown voltage of rod–rod and rod–plate air gaps.

1.2.1.3 Discharge characteristics of overhead transmission line air gaps

The primary insulation dielectric of an overhead transmission line is air. The insulator string is used for insulation between the conductor and the tower. Therefore, the insulation for a high-voltage overhead transmission line can be grouped into two classes: one class is an air gap between the conductor and the tower and the other is the insulator string. The former is subdivided into four kinds of gaps:

1. Air gap between the conductor and the tower. Depending on the window structure of the tower and the conductor’s suspension position, this kind of gap is also classified as the intra-gap of the tower window or the extra-gap of the tower window. In addition, the insulator strings are suspended in different ways. For the I suspension string (I string for short), the conductor and insulator string will be aged in the presence of wind, so the air gap is changeable. For the V suspension string (V string for short), the air gap can be deemed to be constant.

2. Air gap between phase conductors.

3. Air gap between the span–middle conductor and the ground. At the maximum sag of the span–middle conductor, the minimum gap will be formed between the conductor and the ground.

4. Air gaps between conductors in the middle of the span and ground transportation or objects.

The test results from many laboratories on the discharge voltages of the conductor to the tower air gaps are integrated and shown that the relationship between the positive polarity impulse discharge voltage and conductor and the tower air gaps at different tower width is shown in the following formula [1]:

(1.1)

where U50 (1)—50% discharge voltage when the tower width ω=1 m, MV; U50 (ω)—50% discharge voltage when the tower width is ω, MV.

The formula has been verified in the range of 0.02 m≤ω≤5 m, and this range actually contains all the possibilities for the size of the tower component. The relation curves of the distance between the conductor and the tower gap, and the gap’s power frequency discharge voltage (growing rate) is shown in Fig. 1.29. The discharge voltage curves of the air gaps between the conductors and the towers when the distances of all the components (cross arm, upright, lower cross beam) of the tower are equal are shown in Fig. 1.30.

Figure 1.29 Relation curves of the distance between the conductor and the tower gap, and the gap’s power frequency discharge voltage (growing rate). 1—The number of bundle conductors n=2, the semidiameter of the bundle wire rp=0.2 m; 2 – n=8, rp=0.6 m; 3 – n=12, rp=1.5 m.

Figure 1.30 Discharge voltage curve for the conductor and the air gap of tower when the distance of all components (cross arm, upright and bottom crossheads) for the tower is equal (tower section is 1 m×1 m). 1—The 50% positive polarity switching impulse discharge voltage of the conductor to the cross arm gap; 2—the 50% positive polarity switching impulse discharge voltage of the conductor to the cross arm or upright gaps; 3—the 50% positive polarity switching impulse discharge voltage of the conductor to the cross arm and two uprights gaps; 4—the 50% positive polarity switching impulse discharge voltage of gaps where the conductor is located in the tower windows; 5—the 50% positive polarity lightning impulse discharge voltage of the conductor to the cross arm and upright gap; 6—the 50% negative polarity lightning impulse discharge voltage of the conductor to the cross arm and upright gap.

The curves shown in Fig. 1.29 prove that when the size of the air gap S>2.5 m, the discharge voltage has to do with the conductor structure.

1.2.1.4 Corona characteristics

The corona is one of the important phenomena in the operation of overhead transmission lines, not only causing loss of the energy transmitted by lines, but also producing phenomena of radio disturbance and audible noise.

The corona phenomenon, a special gas discharge form, is a result of the occurrence of a strong electric field in the space near charged bodies, and creates air dissociation. If a corona occurs in transmission and transformation equipment with alternating current, the electric field strength in the equipment electrode surface is over the critical corona field and the electrons and ions in the air surrounding the equipment move and emit light. When the electric field strength in the electrode surface is greater than the corona strength, corona discharge will be produced.

One important factor affecting the corona discharge of conductors is the corona initiating field strength in a conductor’s surface. Based on many tests on smooth circular parallel wires with equal diameter, American engineer F. W. Peek established Peek’s law, which is used to calculate the critical corona electric strength in wire surface E0, namely [1]

(1.2)

where m—the conductor surface coefficient; r0—the conductor radius; δ—the relative air density.

m is the corona critical voltage ratio of the conductor and the same outside diameter and smooth circular tube. For the stranded conductor, m is still associated with the number of strands and strand diameter of the outer layer wire, and also associated with the conductor’s outside diameter and surface roughness. The stranded compact degree in the process of manufacture and the wear situation in the process of transportation and installation also have substantial influence. The m value of a steel-cored aluminum stranded conductor is 0.82–0.9, in accordance with the empirical data.

1.2.1.5 Characteristics of noise and radio interference

1. Noise. Audible noise is a kind of noise generated by corona discharge, from overhead transmission lines, that people can hear The noise problem is not prominent in lower voltage class transmission lines. With an increase in voltage class, transmission line noise becomes a kind of environmental problem, especially in the wet conductor condition. For transmission lines, noise becomes one of the major factors to be controlled in the line design process. Audible noise generated by corona discharge from transmission lines is of two kinds, broadband noise, and pure tone, (also called a-c hum) which is 100 Hz and integral multiples of 100 Hz. Broadband noise is a kind of fizzy crackling burst sound. Pure tone is a kind of choppy drone at a specific frequency. Broadband noise is caused by a rambling current pulse generated by corona discharge in the conductor surface. When broadband noise is located in the positive half wave of alternating voltage, then the streamer discharge stage of the positive polarity current pulse is at its most severe. A-c hum is caused by back-and-forth movement of the positive and negative ions around the conductor under a cycle wave. The movement of positive and negative ions reaching and leaving the conductor surface changes the direction of the surrounding airflow twice in every cycle wave, thus generating an 100 Hz or 200 Hz drone.

Fig. 1.31 shows the noise spectrum schematic diagram of high voltage alternating current transmission lines. Weather conditions powerfully influence the audible noise around transmission lines. Audible noise is lower when it is sunny, and increases when it is raining, foggy, and snowy. The relative values of the random noise and a-c hum are different in different meteorological conditions. The random noise is higher when it is raining, but the a-c hum is higher when it is freezing. One drop of water below the conductor, when it is raining, increases the strength of corona discharge. At such a time, audible noise can increase, becoming 15–20 dB (A) higher than it is on a sunny day. It follows that the audible noise level in rainy conditions is considered in deciding the limiting value of alternating current transmission lines.

2. Radio interference. Radio interference from transmission lines is generated by corona discharge from the conductor, insulator, or line fitting, etc., which mainly comes from the positive polarity corona current pulse. When lines are initially put into operation, any conductor surface defects arising from the process of manufacture and construction generate high level radio interference. The interference level can decrease gradually with the increase of operating time, and can reach a steady state after half a year or longer. Weather and seasonal conditions have a powerful influence on radio interference from transmission lines, and the interference level on a rainy day is about 17–24 dB higher than that on a sunny day. Particles of dust, insects, plants, etc., stuck to the conductor become the interference source. The types and quantity of adherent deposit sediments vary in the different seasons and corresponding interference levels also show a certain variation.

Figure 1.31 Noise spectrum for high voltage alternating current transmission lines.

Radio interference characteristics still include frequency spectrum characteristics and transverse decay characteristics. The International Special Committee on Radio Interference (CISPR) of the International Electrotechnical Commission has produced a radio interference standard frequency spectrum for transmission lines in accordance with test and statistical results around the world, as shown in Fig. 1.32, whose mathematical formula is

(1.3)

where E0—a certain interference reference value; f—frequency in MHz

Figure 1.32 Standard frequency spectrum curve.

The radio interference level from transmission lines decreases with the increase of the distance to the conductor, and the calculative formula for radio interference on conventional transmission lines (bundled number of conductors is no greater than four) recommended by CISPR is

(1.4)

where gmax—the maximum electric potential gradient in the conductor surface; r—the subconductor radius; x—the distance to the conductor

Fig. 1.33 is the radio interference transverse decay curve of a 1000 kV line of triangular configuration conductors [4].

Figure 1.33 The radio interference horizontal attenuation curve of a 1000 kV line of triangular configuration conductors.

1.2.2 Mechanical Characteristics

1.2.2.1 Tower load

1. Calculative meteorological condition of load. Overhead transmission lines operate in the natural environment throughout the year, and their mechanical loads change with meteorological conditions. These mechanical loads determine the stress on the tower, and tower foundations, and the safe distance of live parts from every aspect. Thus, it is very important to consider meteorological conditions thoroughly to ensure line construction, operational safety, and economy.

In general, the line load for normal operation, broken line, installation, and special situations shall be calculated for all kinds of towers, but the main meteorological conditions to be considered are maximum wind speed, ice thickness, maximum temperature, and minimum temperature. Calculative conditions for all kinds of towers are listed in Table 1.1 [5].

2. Tower load classification. According to the direction of load stress on the tower, tower load (see Fig. 1.34) can be classified as:

a. Horizontal load. This includes the horizontal wind pressure load of the tower, conductor and lightning shield wire, the angle load of the angle tower conductor and lightning shield wire.

b. Longitudinal load. This includes the longitudinal wind pressure load of the tower, the conductor and lightning shield wire, the tension along the line direction when lines are accidentally broken, the unsteady tension of conductor and lightning shield wire along the direction of the line, the unbalanced tension generated by the guy wire when it is used, and the conductor tension when it is installed, etc.

3. Vertical load. This includes the dead weight of the conductor, the lightning shield wire, fitting, insulator, and ice load; and tower, installation, and maintenance personnel and tool gravity, and the vertical component of the force generated by the guy wire when it is used.

4. Load coefficient. The length of time taken for the load varies because the emerging probabilities of all kinds of loads vary in the process of calculating tower strength. The requirement of corresponding safety and reliability for a tower also varies as we consider economy during the design process. The consequences of an accident to a tension tower are heavier than those for a suspension tower, so tension towers exposed to accident loads are required to have higher levels of reliability. The requirement for safety and reliability of towers under various load conditions is represented with load coefficient KH, and the load coefficients for all kinds of towers are shown in Table 1.2.

5. The calculation of tower span. The span is the horizontal distance between two neighboring towers, and is expressed as l. The standard span, horizontal span, and representative span of all kinds of towers shall be confirmed at first when the tower load is calculated, so that wind pressure, gravity, and tension of the conductor are calculated easily. The horizontal span and vertical span of the tower are shown in Fig. 1.35.

a. Standard span. The span that relates to the nominal height of the tower is called standard span. The standard span lb on the flat ground is [5].

(1.5)

where v—wind speed in m/s; g—the conductor relative load when meteorological conditions are calculated in N/(m mm²); H—tower nominal height in m; λ—the maximum sag of the conductor in m; h—the minimum allowable distance of conductor to the ground, which is also called the critical distance, m; Δh—reserved margin considering the measurement, location, construction, and other various errors, which is also called the location margin.

b. Horizontal span. Horizontal span refers to the arithmetic mean value of the sum of two sides spans for the tower, which is one of the main pieces of data for calculating wind pressure load for the conductor and lightning shield wire.

The calculative formula for the horizontal span is [5]

(1.6)

where l1, l2—spans in the two sides of the tower in m.

It is used to calculate the horizontal load that the conductor transmits to the tower.

(1.7)

where S—the product of the conductor diameter and horizontal span in m².

c. Vertical span. Vertical span refers to the horizontal distance among the lowest points of conductors in the two sides of the towers, which determines the vertical load for the tower, whose size has direct influence on the cross arm and suspender strength. 1.25–1.7 times the horizontal span is assumed as the vertical span in general, and about 1.5 times the horizontal span is often assumed as the vertical span, or the vertical span is designed in accordance with more than 50–100 m horizontal span.

d. Representative span. The tensions of conductors and lightning shield wires are associated with representative span. In the tension section, when the suspension tower generates uneven tension differences, suspension insulator strings generate deflection and tend to a balance, the corresponding span of conductor stress (representative stress) in the equation of state is the representative span. According to statistical analysis, the representative span is generally smaller than the standard span. The representative span lo=0.8lb shall be valued when the windage yaw angle for a suspension tower is calculated in general; the representative span lo=0.7lb shall be taken when the tension of tension tower conductors and lightning shield conductors is calculated.

6. The confirmation for the conductor load.

a. The calculation of the vertical load

(1.8)

where G—the vertical load for the conductor or lightning shield wire in N; g—the vertical relative load for the conductor or lightning shield wire (g1 or g0); A—the sectional area for the conductor or lightning shield wire in mm²; lv—the vertical span in m; G1—the total gravity for insulator strings in N.

The icing gravity for every slice insulator is taken as 20N when the designed ice thickness is 10 mm; the icing gravity for every slice insulator is taken as 10N when the designed ice thickness is 5 mm; the icing gravity of the fitting parts is calculated in accordance with a slice of insulator gravity.

A certain number of staff are needed to work on the tower either in the installation situation or in the broken line situation. Thus, the additional load (the worker and tool gravity) must still be considered when members of staff climb to the tower in calculating the installation situation load and the broken line situation load. In addition, the impact coefficient 1.1–1.2 must be considered when the conductor is lifted.

b. The calculation of the horizontal load.

i. The wind pressure load for the tower. When the wind direction is perpendicular to the line direction, the wind pressure load P0 for the tower shall be calculated in accordance with the following formula [5].

(1.9)

where P0—wind pressure on the pole (tower) structure when the wind direction is perpendicular to the line in N; C—shape coefficient of the wind load, the annulus section pole is taken as 0.6; the rectangular section pole is taken as 1.4, the angle steel iron tower is taken as 1.4 (1+η); the circular steel iron tower is taken as 1.2 (1+η), η is the reduced wind pressure load coefficient in the space truss lee side; F—the projected area in the side of the pole (tower) in the direction of wind pressure in m²; v—the designed wind speed in m/s. The wind pressure of the pole (tower) structure is calculated sectionally for the tall tower, and wind speed for every section can be calculated in accordance with multiplying the basic design wind speed by the height variation coefficient of the wind speed Kz, as shown in Table 1.3.

, fm is the conductor sag). In addition, gust vibration action and multiplying the wind pressure load of the pole (tower) structure by the wind vibration coefficient β shall be considered for tall towers more than 60 m high. The wind vibration coefficient of the iron tower is taken as 1.5, and the tower with guy wire is valued as 1.25.

ii. The wind pressure load of the conductor and lightning shield wire. The wind pressure load