Lions, Locusts, and the Lamb: Interpreting Key Images in the Book of Revelation

Lions, Locusts, and the Lamb

Interpreting Key Images in the Book of Revelation

Michael Kuykendall

Lions, Locusts, and the Lamb

Interpreting Key Images in the Book of Revelation

Copyright © 2019 Michael Kuykendall. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical publications or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher. Write: Permissions, Wipf and Stock Publishers, 199 W. 8th Ave., Suite 3, Eugene, OR 97401.

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Table of Contents

Title Page

Permissions

Preface

Abbreviations

Introduction

Chapter 1: Heavenly Beings and Demonic Beings

Chapter 2: Nature and Cosmic Imagery

Chapter 3: Good Places and Bad Places

Chapter 4: Good Things and Bad Things

Chapter 5: Good People and Bad People

Chapter 6: Body Parts and Animals

Chapter 7: Food and Clothing

Chapter 8: Institutions and Worship Accoutrements

Chapter 9: Numbers and Colors

Chapter 10: Elements of Time and Miscellaneous Images

Conclusion

Bibliography

For my Mom,

who led me to the Lord,

Hazel Carol Blose Kuykendall Woodard

Permissions

Scripture quotations marked CEB are taken from the Common English Bible®, copyright © 2010, 2011 by Common English Bible™. Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide.

Scripture quotations marked CEV are taken from the Contemporary English Version, copyright © 1995 by the American Bible Society. Used by permission.

Scripture quotations marked CSB are taken from the Christian Standard Bible®, copyright © 2017 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission.

Scriptures quotations marked ESV are taken from The Holy Bible, English Standard Version (ESV)®, copyright © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission.

Scripture quotations marked GNT are taken from the Good News Translation, 2nd edition, copyright © 1992 by American Bible Society. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked GW are taken from GOD’S WORD®, copyright © 1995 by God’s Word to the Nations. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked HCSB are taken from the Holman Christian Standard Bible (HCSB), copyright © 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003 by Holman Bible Publishers. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked NABR are taken from the New American Bible, revised edition, copyright © 2010, 1991, 1986, 1970 by the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, Washington, DC. Used by permission. All Rights Reserved.

Scripture quotations marked NASB are taken from the New American Standard Bible, copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by the Lockman Foundation. Used by permission.

Scripture quotations marked NCV are taken from the New Century Version (NCV), copyright © 1987, 1988, 1991, 2005 by Thomas Nelson, Inc. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked NET are taken from The NET Bible®, copyright © 1996–2016 by Biblical Studies Press, LLC. www.bible.org. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked NIV are taken from the Holy Bible, New International Version (NIV), copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 2011 by Biblica, Inc™. Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked NKJV are taken from the New King James Version®, copyright © 1982 by Thomas Nelson, Inc. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked NJB are taken from The New Jerusalem Bible, copyright © 1985 by Darton, Longman & Todd, Ltd., and Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc. Used by permission.

Scripture quotations marked NLT are taken from the Holy Bible, New Living Translation, copyright © 1996, 2004, 2007 by Tyndale House Foundation. Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked NRSV are taken from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked REB are taken from the Revised English Bible, copyright © 1989 by Cambridge University Press and Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

Preface

Many people have contributed to my understanding of the book of Revelation. I knew the book was special as a young person, especially when I heard adults at my church setting dates for the Lord’s return in the 1970s. My pastor tabbed Henry Kissinger as the antichrist, and could prove it mathematically. College and seminary training helped assuage me from being a date-setter. But I maintained my fascination with this mysterious book of the Bible. A major aha moment for me occurred when I realized that my dispensationalist upbringing was only one of several possible interpretive methods. My life of study on Revelation started in that moment. Eventually, my dissertation was on a comparison of apocalyptic literature with John’s Apocalypse.

In 1989 I began teaching for Gateway Seminary (formerly Golden Gate Seminary). I have taught Revelation as part of the New Testament introductory courses for almost thirty years. For the past twenty years, I have taught Revelation as a masters-level elective, online, and on three regional campuses. For the past ten years, I have taught Revelation to doctoral-level students in Gateway Seminary’s PhD program. Each opportunity helped sharpen my skills and motivate my interest in more detailed research. The numerous questions from students have shaped my thinking and teaching on the topic.

I have also benefitted from local churches that allowed me to lecture on Revelation. I always prepared the pastor in advance that I was not going to give a popular dispensationalist study. I am positive I have disillusioned my fair share of conservative church members. In fact, I recall the young woman who cornered me in 2008 as I sat on the first row, prayerfully preparing to speak to her church. She wanted confirmation (before I began my lecture) that Obama was the antichrist. Normally, I work slowly through such issues, but she forced my answer, which was, No, ma’am, Obama is not the antichrist. She was kind enough to stay for every lecture. I hope my teaching helped her in the long run. Her concerns, however, constantly remind me of the need for local church leaders to teach the book of Revelation, and to find and use the best resources when they do. This book is my own small effort to aid the church and academy.

A consistent thematic question in seminary classes and church settings has been, What do the symbols mean? This study is the culmination of thirty years of research and teaching on Revelation with that question in mind. I want to thank Gateway Seminary for their generous sabbatical policy, which gave me the time needed to complete this project. I am thankful for Gateway Seminary’s rich library system and helpful staff. I also want to thank my brother, Terry, for his encouragement and generosity throughout the research and writing of this project. I dedicate this book to my mother, Carol, who led me to the Lord. Finally, I am grateful to my patient wife, Terri, who for the past year did not see her husband until late at night.

Abbreviations

Dictionaries, Encyclopedias, and Lexicons

ABD The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by David Noel Freedman. 6 vols. New York: Doubleday, 1992.

BDAG Walter Bauer, Frederick W. Danker, W. F. Arndt, and F. W. Gingrich. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.

DBTEL A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature. Edited by David Lyle Jeffrey. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992.

DDD Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Edited by Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, and Pieter W. van der Horst. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999.

DDL Edwin M. Yamauchi and Marvin R. Wilson. Dictionary of Daily Life in Biblical and Post-Biblical Antiquity. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2017.

DPT Dictionary of Premillennial Theology. Edited by Mal Couch. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1996.

EDNT Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament. Edited by Horst Balz and Gerhard Schneider. 3 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990–1993.

ISBE The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Edited by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. 4 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979–1986.

L&N Johannes P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains. 2 vols. 2nd ed. New York: UBS, 1989.

LBD The Lexham Bible Dictionary. Edited by John D. Barry. Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2012. https://www.logos.com/product/36564/lexham-bible-dictionary.

NDT New Dictionary of Theology: Historical and Systematic. Edited by Martin Davie, Tim Grass, Stephen R. Holmes, John McDowell, and T. A. Noble. 2nd ed. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2016.

NIDB New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by Katharine D. Sakenfeld. 5 vols. Nashville: Abingdon, 2006–2009.

NIDNTT New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology. Edited by Colin Brown. 4 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1975–1978.

NIDNTTE New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology and Exegesis. Edited by Moisés Silva. 5 vols. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014.

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Edited by Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich. Translated by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. 10 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964–76.

UBS5 The Greek New Testament. Edited by Kurt Aland et al. 5th rev. ed. New York: United Bible Society, 2014.

ZEB The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible. Edited by Merrill C. Tenney and Moisés Silva. 5 vols. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009.

Bible Translations

CEB Common English Bible

CEV Contemporary English Version

CSB Christian Standard Bible

ESV English Standard Version

GNT Good News Translation

GW God’s Word for the Nations

HCSB Holman Christian Standard Bible

KJV King James Version

NABR New American Bible, Revised Edition

NASB New American Standard Bible

NCV New Century Version

NET New English Translation

NIV New International Version

NKJV New King James Version

NJB New Jerusalem Bible

NLT New Living Translation

NRSV New Revised Standard Version

REB Revised English Bible

Journals, Major Reference Works, and Commentaries

AB Anchor Bible

ACCS Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture

ACNT Augsburg Commentary on the New Testament

AJPS Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies

ANTC Abingdon New Testament Commentaries

AUSS Andrews University Seminary Studies

AYBC Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries

BBC Blackwell Bible Commentaries

BBR Bulletin for Biblical Research

BECNT Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament

BZNW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fur die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft

Bib Biblica

BNTC Black’s New Testament Commentaries

BSac Bibliotheca Sacra

BST Bible Speaks Today

BT The Bible Translator

BTB Biblical Theology Bulletin

BTC Brazos Theological Commentary

CBC Cambridge Bible Commentary

CBR Currents in Biblical Research

CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

CC Continental Commentaries

CCT Chalice Commentaries for Today

ConcC Concordia Commentary

CTJ Calvin Theological Journal

CTQ Concordia Theological Quarterly

CurTM Currents in Theology and Mission

Dir Direction

EBC Expositor’s Bible Commentary

EvQ Evangelical Quarterly

GTJ Grace Theological Journal

HeyJ Heythrop Journal

HNTC Harper’s New Testament Commentaries

HolNTC Holman New Testament Commentary

HTR Harvard Theological Review

HTS Harvard Theological Studies

HvTSt Hervormde teologiese studies

IBC Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching

ICC International Critical Commentary

IJTP International Journal of Transpersonal Studies

Int Interpretation

IVPNTC InterVarsity Press New Testament Commentaries

JATS Journal of the Adventist Theological Society

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

JCTR Journal for Christian Theological Research

JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society

JPT Journal of Pentecostal Theology

JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament

List Listening: Journal of Religion and Culture

L&S Letter & Spirit

LNTS Library of New Testament Studies

MNTC Moffatt New Testament Commentary

NAC New American Commentary

NBBC New Beacon Bible Commentary

NCB New Century Bible

NCCS New Covenant Commentary Series

Neot Neotestamentica

NIB New Interpreter’s Bible

NIBCNT New International Biblical Commentary

NICNT New International Commentary on the New Testament

NIGTC New International Greek New Testament Commentary

NIVAC New International Version Application Commentary

NovT Novum Testamentum

NTC New Testament Commentary

NTL New Testament Library

NTS New Testament Studies

OHE Oxford Handbook on Eschatology

PC Proclamation Commentaries

PCNT Paideia Commentary on the New Testament

PCS Pentecostal Commentary Series

QR Quarterly Review

ResQ Restoration Quarterly

RTR Reformed Theological Review

SBJT Southern Baptist Journal of Theology

ScrB Scripture Bulletin

SHBC Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary

SJT Scottish Journal of Theology

SNTSU Studien zum Neuen Testament und Seiner Umwelt

SP Sacra pagina

StBibLit Studies in Biblical Literature (Lang)

STDJ Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah

TFCBC Twenty-First Century Biblical Commentary

THNTC Two Horizons New Testament Commentaries

TJ Trinity Journal

TMSJ The Master’s Seminary Journal

TNTC Tyndale New Testament Commentaries

TR Textus Receptus

TPINTC TPI New Testament Commentaries

TTCS Teach the Text Commentary Series

TynBul Tyndale Bulletin

VE Vox Evangelica

VeE Verbum et Ecclesia

WBC Word Biblical Commentary

WEC Wycliffe Exegetical Commentary

WTJ Westminster Theological Journal

WW Word and World

ZIBBC Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary

Introduction

Revelation is a book saturated with symbols. Its story is told through images. If readers are to grasp the meaning of the book, then they must be prepared to interpret its images. The present study offers readers a handy, interpretive guide into John’s symbolic world. The following introduction lays the groundwork for studying the images. It is divided into three sections. First, background matters are addressed. John’s chosen genres, methodological options, millennial choices, and safe steps for interpreting Revelation’s numerous images are presented. Second, the structure of Revelation is discussed. The external and internal choices and evidences are considered. The results found, along with adopting a progressive recapitulation approach, produce an outline of Revelation that is composed of twelve visions. Finally, a master list of the categories of symbols and their individual entries is offered for easy reference.

Background Matters

This book approaches Revelation from an evangelical viewpoint. It assumes the apostle John is responsible for its content. The best date of composition is around AD 95. John wrote a circular letter to seven churches in Asia Minor (1:4, 11). Each church experienced pressure and persecution from Rome and its imperial cult, from hostile Jews (2:9; 3:9), and from false teachers who enticed the churches to compromise their faith (2:6, 14–15; 20–24).

Therefore, the primary purpose of Revelation was to encourage Christians who faced pressure and persecution from the outside and to exhort Christians who faced heresy and accommodation from the inside. Revelation challenges readers to remain faithful, even to the point of martyrdom. This purpose applies to readers of every generation—not just the first or the last.¹ This section is divided into short discussions on Revelation’s genre, methodological and millennial options, and steps for interpreting John’s symbols.²

Three Genres of Revelation

Revelation reflects a mixed literary genre. John’s images are drawn from three distinct literary types, and they are intertwined. Scholars have called Revelation prophetic-apocalyptic.³ Perhaps a better designation is an epistolary-prophetic apocalypse. Such a label reveals the literary mixture as well as what appears to be the weightier of the three genres—apocalypse.

Epistle

Revelation reveals itself as a typical epistle written to seven churches in the province of Asia Minor (1:4). Each church receives its own message from the glorified Christ, and each church hears the messages of the other churches (2:1–3:22). The book concludes with an epistolary postscript (22:21). The implication is that Revelation is one letter intended for all seven churches.⁴ The genre of epistle reminds readers to accent the original audience and to follow the basic rule that a text cannot mean what it never could have meant to its author or readers.⁵ John’s images were certainly understood by his own audience. Thus, interpreters must try to reconstruct as accurately as possible the original historical circumstances. Moreover, epistles are occasional in nature—intended for a specific occasion occurring among the original author and audience.⁶

Prophecy

Prophecy is the second genre of Revelation (1:3). OT prophecy included prediction, but it mainly concerned itself with calling the prophet’s own generation to repentance and obedience. Gordon Fee and Douglas Stuart clarified that less than 2 percent of OT prophecy is messianic, less than 5 percent specifically describes the new covenant, and less than 1 percent concerns events yet to come.⁷ Thus, in such this-generational preaching, the prophet hints with less detail of a time in the future of one who was to come and make a new covenant (Jesus’ first coming), and in even less detail of an ultimate and eschatological end (Jesus’ second coming).

Interpreters must keep a near view-far view approach in mind. The prophet prophesied what would happen soon if repentance was missing. He was specific in the predictions of the near future. Yet he also prophesied more generally about a day when a Messiah would come, only with less specificity (after all, the Pharisees—the very people looking for the Messiah—rejected Jesus because he did not come in the way they expected). Likewise, when the prophet envisioned even farther into the future to the last days, his words were even more unspecific. Therefore, the NT prophet John should be read the same way. He is specific when speaking to the churches. But interpreters must think in broader strokes when John speaks of the end of days, or else risk falling into the same trap the Pharisees did—expecting the second coming of the Messiah in a certain, specific, detailed way.⁸ In addition, the symbols and images which the prophets used for their prophecies must be interpreted primarily with the original audience in mind. The NT prophet John draws from his OT counterparts for many of his symbols. He redelivers and reinterprets their prophecies for his own audience.

Apocalypse

The third genre of Revelation is apocalypse. The very first word of the book is apokalypsis—revelation (1:1). Apocalyptic literature was popular in John’s day. Its rules and guidelines for interpretation must be followed by modern readers. Apocalyptic literature such as Revelation is similar to parables in that the details are often simply a part of the overall scenery. We must not expect every brushstroke on the painting to carry meaning and demand exegesis. The big picture is the best picture. Notice the following traits in apocalyptic literature.

Visions. Apocalypses display a structure that revolves around multiple visions. For example, both 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch follow seven visions. Scholars note multiple visions within Revelation as well. This study asserts that John produced twelve visions.

Time and space dimensions. The spatial aspect discloses the supernatural world of beings such as angels and demons. The temporal aspect involves imminent eschatological judgment. This judgment often involves cosmic catastrophe and the final judgment of humanity.

Dualism. Two types of dualism are evident in apocalyptic literature. The first is cosmic dualism. Two worlds are emphasized—heaven and earth; God versus Satan; present suffering versus future salvation; and present age versus the age to come. Second, there is social dualism. Humanity is divided into good and evil, those being saved and those perishing. There are no fence-riders in apocalyptic literature. People are either believers or unbelievers.

Determinism and God’s justice. For the apocalypticist, the course of history is predetermined. Earth and humanity have run their course. The end of the age will be in the writer’s own lifetime or soon afterward. This determinism often led to ethical passivity. Yet apocalyptic literature also revealed a deep concern for defending the justice of God. God will vindicate his people.

Recapitulation. Apocalyptic literature often recycles or recaps its visions. When a new vision begins, the seer temporally goes back in time and marches forward toward the end again. There may be numerous ends in the book. Scholars note this literary technique in Isaiah, Ezekiel, Zechariah, and especially Daniel (chapters 2, 7, 8, 9, 10–12 offer five parallel visions on the same general period of the future). Many scholars note recapping in Revelation as well. The seals, trumpets, and bowls, for example, are not three separate plagues. They offer an intensifying repetition. This study argues that John recaps his visions.

Tribulation. A consistent theme found in apocalypses is the intense period of suffering that precedes the end of time and/or advent of a new era. For some apocalypses the tribulation was already in the past. For others it was present. For some it was in the near future. Those who suffer might be God’s people or gentiles/unbelievers or both. The function of the tribulation also varied. Tribulation for believers was a test to produce steadfastness and faithfulness. For unbelievers tribulation was judgment and a final opportunity to repent. Revelation correlates closely to these ideas.

Symbolism. In order to express the inexpressible scenes revealed, John abandoned common narrative and opted for apocalyptic imagery. Such language is filled with fantastic, bizarre symbolism and often includes weird creatures, earthquakes, and supernatural upheavals. The symbolism also extends to numbers, colors, places, and institutions as well.⁹ This study examines close to three hundred of John’s symbols.

Differences in Revelation. Although Revelation exhibits the characteristics listed above, there are differences between apocalyptic literature and John’s Apocalypse. John does not use pseudonymity whereas other apocalypses do. John’s symbolism is rooted in Christianity. Unlike other apocalypses, John drew from five primary sources—his own genuine experience (1:9–10), the OT, Jewish pseudepigrapha, the NT, and ancient mythology (the contemporary combat myth found in chapter 12). Thus, Revelation is a unique contribution within its own genre.

¹⁰

Five Approaches to Interpreting John’s Images

There are five options available for interpreting Revelation’s images. Each option has numerous supporters.

Preterist

First, the preterist approach stresses the historical context of John’s original audience. Its emphasis rests in the first century. All or almost all of its prophecies have already occurred. Thus, the symbols refer to people and events of John’s immediate audience and situation. The catastrophic images most often refer to the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70.

Historicist

Second, the historicist approach attempts to trace history from John’s original audience to the second coming. Revelation serves as a chronological roadmap as each chapter advances temporally forward. Its symbols predict major events and persons who spanned church history from the first century to the end of time. Thus, parts of Revelation refer to past events and parts to future events. This view was popular among the Reformers. Today, Seventh Day Adventists are most often associated with it.

Futurist

Third, the futurist approach understands the majority of Revelation as events that will transpire in the last days. Revelation, therefore, mainly deals with prophecies yet to be fulfilled. The symbols refer to people and events which appear near the end of earth’s history. There are two futurist views—historic premillennialism and dispensational premillennialism. This view generally understands Revelation’s structure in sequential terms. In addition, John’s images refer to literal people and events in the near future.

Idealist

Fourth, the idealist approach emphasizes searching for the meaning of Revelation’s images over any specific references to time or events. The symbols picture timeless truths, such as the struggle between good and evil that exists in each generation from the first to the last. Idealists, therefore, do not search for literal correspondence to Revelation’s images. Every generation should apply John’s symbols for their own contexts.

Eclectic

Finally, the eclectic approach attempts to combine the strengths and limit the weaknesses of the aforementioned approaches. Few eclectics follow the historicist model. But most attempt to interact with the other approaches. Thus, like every other NT book, Revelation’s original audience must be heard first (preterist). The symbols must have meant something to John’s first readers. Yet Revelation’s symbolic world presents timeless truths which every generation is challenged to reapply (idealist). Ultimately, interpreters must recognize that future events such as the second coming, final judgment, and eternity await fulfillment (futurist).¹¹ Although eclectics attempt to interact more with all the views, they nevertheless end up emphasizing one view while incorporating the others less. This study draws from all of the approaches. It eventually lands, however, on the eclectic approach with an idealist emphasis. Readers who support the other options should still receive benefit, especially since they will often find their viewpoints listed in numerous entries.

Four Millennial Options

The five methods mentioned above help in understanding John’s reference to a thousand years in Rev 20. Modern evangelicals normally accept one of the following four viewpoints.

Amillennialism

First, amillennialism means no millennium since the Greek letter alpha (a) negates it. Actually, inaugurated or realized millennialism is a more accurate designation. Features include the understanding that the millennium covers the era between the first and second comings of Christ. The kingdom of God and Christ is happening now in an already-but-not-yet fashion. The kingdom consummates at the return of Christ. The church will go through the great tribulation. Thus, it rejects a rapture of the church and a future earthly millennial period. It also stresses that Revelation’s visions are primarily symbolic. Amillennialists are found among preterists, idealists, and eclectics the most.

Postmillennialism

Second, postmillennialism teaches that Christ will return after (post-) a one-thousand-year millennial kingdom concludes. Thus, the gradual success of the gospel message will eventually experience much of humanity converted and society transformed. Christ will then return. Chapter 20, therefore, refers to the golden age that is established over a long period of time. Postmillennialists are found among preterists and historicists the most.

Historic Premillennialism

Historic premillennialism is the third option. It asserts the second coming occurs before (pre-) the start of an earthly millennium. Historic premillennialists affirm that OT prophecies are fulfilled in spiritual Israel, that is, church. Nevertheless, the prophetic symbols in the Bible do refer to future, literal events. A great tribulation is coming but it may not be seven years. God will use Jews near the end in a mighty way, but Scripture is ambivalent on whether it will be as Jewish people or the Jewish nation. Historic premillennialists are usually post-tribulational. The church will pass through the great tribulation. This view draws primarily from futurists, but idealists and eclectics are often included.

Dispensational Premillennialism

The fourth option is dispensational premillennialism. Dispensationalists stress reading Revelation in a sequential fashion. Thus, chapter 20 clearly indicates a thousand-year earthly reign of Christ after Armageddon and the second coming which occurred in chapter 19. The end of the millennium leads to another end-time battle before the arrival of the new Jerusalem. Other features include interpreting the prophetic and apocalyptic genres of the Bible as literally as possible. The many symbols of Revelation must refer to actual things. Names, people, places, and numbers are understood literally. The church is not the new Israel or spiritual Israel. The church does not replace or fulfill God’s intentions concerning the Jews. God has separate end-time programs—one for the church and one for the nation of Israel. This distinction calls for a rapture of believers to occur before Christ’s second coming. Most dispensationalists are pre-tribulational, but some are mid-tribulational or prewrath. This viewpoint is primarily futurist, but many dispensationalists accept a historicist understanding of the churches in chapters 2–3.¹²

This study appreciates the optimism expressed by postmillennialists, and the meticulous dedication of the premillennialists. The amillennial view, however, is the best approach for understanding the symbols of John, and the way he structures his work into twelve visions.¹³

Seven Interpretive Steps

Readers must interpret the symbols according to John’s intent. It is a better approach to assume symbolic meaning first and foremost in John’s images. Readers must ask what is the meaning associated with this image? Here are seven helpful steps that provide a pathway for interpreting the symbols of Revelation.¹⁴

Look for Symbolic Imagery

First, interpreters must recognize that symbolic imagery permeates all of Revelation. Symbols are attached to names, people, beings, clothing, colors, numbers, time designations, heavenly bodies, nature, animals, places, institutions, and events.¹⁵ Readers must come to the text with symbolic readiness. A lion is not a lion; a head is not a head; a sickle is not a sickle; a mountain is not a mountain. These are symbols drawn from the animal kingdom, body parts, and cosmic imagery. This study places these images into identifiable categories.

Look for Intratextual Interpretations and Connections

Second, readers must look for the interpretations of symbols within the context of all of Revelation. There are several examples where John or an angel interprets a symbol (1:20; 4:5; 5:6, 8; 7:14; 11:4; 14:4; 17:9; 19:8).¹⁶ When John interprets a symbol it should become the fixed meaning of that symbol throughout the rest of Revelation. Moreover, intratextual allusions help in confirming the structure of John’s work. For example, if allusions to a final battle are found in several places in Revelation, an intratextual awareness suggests a conclusion to an individual vision. This study emphasizes these intratextual markers. Many interpreters and modern Bible translations do poorly on this step.

Look for Intertextual Allusions

Third, Bible students must determine if a symbol is drawn from an allusion to the OT. Although scholars disagree on an exact definition of an allusion (echo, allusion, or near quote) and on their total number (250–500 allusions), they do agree that John’s book is saturated with the OT. The entries in this book will include relevant and representative examples from the OT.¹⁷

Look for Extratextual Allusions

The term extratextual technically relates to something outside a literary text. It is applied in this study to refer to extra-canonical writings (outside the biblical text). Therefore, this fourth step compares Revelation’s images with other similar writings to discover whether the image is a common symbol with a relatively standard meaning. The writings considered include apocalyptic, pseudepigraphal, Qumran, and early Christian writings. Like OT allusions, representative but not exhaustive extratextual works will be noted in the entries.¹⁸

Look for Cultural-Historical Allusions

The fifth step is to look for possible connections between the symbol and the cultural-historical context of first-century Asia Minor. John wrote to people who shared common cultural assumptions. His images would be understood to the original audience. Modern interpreters must use the culture and history of John’s era to interpret his symbols accurately. For example, the image of a woman flying on the wings of an eagle toward the desert (12:14) was understandable to John’s audience. Today’s readers must use John’s cultural cues to interpret the image correctly.¹⁹

Look to Scholarly Experts

The sixth step is to consult scholarly treatments in commentaries and other specialized works. How have Revelation’s images been interpreted by the experts? This present study attempts to add another scholarly resource to the mix. Readers will discover what the basic views are on John’s images in several ways. This includes fifty full-fledged commentaries on Revelation, hundreds of articles and detailed studies on specific entries, and twenty English Bible versions.²⁰

Remain Humble in Conclusions

Finally, this step reminds all readers and interpreters of Revelation to remain open and honest and humble on their findings. This study lists the major views but makes its own appeal to accept the best or better views on individual images. Nevertheless, a goal of this book is to reflect the best scholarship available on the symbols of Revelation and to show respect toward opposing views.

With these background matters out of the way, the remainder of the introduction discusses how Revelation is structured. Understanding its structure significantly aids in how to interpret John’s images.

The Structure of Revelation

That Revelation comprises a single document is widely accepted.²¹ Those who find multiple sources and later redactors are in the minority.²² John’s visionary document is intricately woven and divided into numerous individual visions. This study asserts that John incorporated twelve visions within his work.

Structural Options

Options for structuring Revelation can be divided into external approaches and internal approaches.²³ The external approaches provide important insights. It is, however, the internal approaches that deliver key clues into John’s structure.

External Approaches

Numerous interpreters utilize external approaches to structure Revelation. For example, chiasm, dramatic play (Greek drama), liturgy (hymns, doxologies, feasts), and ekphrasis (work of art) have been proposed.²⁴ The best external prospect, however, is centered on intertextuality. In other words, John utilized previous biblical books in structuring his own composition. John immerses his work with OT language and imagery without direct citation. Some OT books are used extensively by John, especially Exodus, Isaiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and Zechariah. Not only does John allude to these books, he actually makes use of their structure. Another intertextual possibility is the prophetic lawsuit oracles. Alan Bandy finds a threefold pattern of judgment, oracles against nations, and promises of salvation/vindication in the prophets and in Revelation.²⁵

Internal Approaches

Many interpreters stress internal approaches for structuring Revelation. John provides key literary features that aid in recognizing the book’s structure. Because sevens dominate Revelation, many commentators select a septenary pattern. This is easily done for seven letters, seals, trumpets, and bowls, but what about the large portions without numbering indicators? Scholars typically find seven unnumbered sections in chapters 12–14 and 17–22.²⁶ G. B. Caird, however, speaks for many when he says, If we attempt to do what John himself has so explicitly refrained from doing and force these chapters into a sevenfold scheme, we soon find that this can be done only at the cost of extreme artificiality.²⁷ Some exegetes select the tripartite structure of 1:19 as their external guide. All three clauses, however, relate to the past, present, and future of the entire book. The verse reflects a common apocalyptic formula, similar to the one who is, and who was, and who is to come (1:4). Therefore, no temporal or structural distinctions should be forced upon 1:19, especially with so many other acceptable literary indicators available. Five internal features, however, merit closer attention.

First, many interpreters agree that the phrase in the Spirit (en pneumati) comprises a major structural marker for Revelation (1:10; 4:2; 17:3; 21:10). Several commentators divide John’s visions into four major segments based on this marker.²⁸ While a significant marker, there are certainly more than four visions in Revelation. Two of the four in the Spirit sections are especially long (4:1–16:21; 17:1–21:8). To place the visions of the seals, trumpets, bowls, and the three interludes under the umbrella of one visionary section lessens the impact for those visions to stand on their own. The outline followed in this study lists seven visions within the 4:1–16:21 section, and three visions within the 17:1–21:8 section.

Second, the discourse markers and I saw (kai eidon) and a closely linked phrase and behold or look (kai idou) are important. Kai eidon is found thirty-five times and most often functions to introduce a new vision or new scene or action within a vision (5:1; 6:1; 7:2; 8:2; 9:1; 10:1; 13:1, 11; 14:1, 6, 14; 15:1, 2, 5; 19:11; 20:1; 21:1). Kai idou occurs twenty-six times but is generally not translated in modern versions for stylistic reasons.²⁹ Yet when idou is combined with kai eidon, it deserves attention as a potential structural marker (4:1; 6:2, 5, 8; 7:9; 14:1, 14; 19:11).

Third, another vital marker is after these things (meta tauta). Long ago R. H. Charles recognized that these words were utilized by other apocalypses as a literary marker that separates or divides up vision episodes, including Daniel, 1 Enoch, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, Testament of Joseph, and Testament of Levi.³⁰ Meta tauta is a discourse marker, not a temporal marker.³¹ This is enhanced through its association with prominent narrative participants. Heavenly voices are mentioned in 4:1 and 19:1 and angels are mentioned in 7:2 and 18:1. The phrase occurs ten times in Revelation. Six times, however, the verbs I saw (eidon) or I heard (ēkousa) are attached (4:1; 7:1, 9; 15:5; 18:1; 19:1). These reflect strategic markers as well. Three commence a new vision (4:1; 7:1; 15:5) and three serve as major transitions within the vision (7:9; 18:1; 19:1).³²

A fourth internal indicator is John’s usage of interlocking or chain link construction.³³ This ancient model is unfamiliar to modern readers. Essentially, it is a preliminary hint of what is to come. The conclusion of one vision includes words or phrases that prepare for the introduction to the following vision, affording a stronger tie between the two sections. Bruce Longenecker states that these chain links help with marking text-unit closures and springboards into the text-unit that follows.³⁴ The recognition of the interlocking technique allows interpreters to structure Revelation with more exactness. The two major examples are 8:1–5 and 15:1–4. Although 8:2 introduces the trumpets and 15:1 introduces the bowls, the subsequent verses actually conclude the previous seals series (8:3–5) and trumpet series (15:2–4).³⁵

The final literary indicator is the intratextual repetitions. Intratextuality refers to the recurring words, phrases, and images found within Revelation that work together to create a complex network of textual cross-reference, which helps to create and expand the meaning of any one passage by giving it specific relationships to many other passages.³⁶ These lexical signifiers become the structural aids that bind the whole book. They also offer interpretive guidance. For example, in 1974 Charles H. Giblin listed numerous connections of terms and subject matter between the introductions and conclusions of 17:1–19:10 and 21:9–22:9, confirming the parallel structure for those two visions.³⁷ Many scholars have since agreed with his findings. When the content of these two intratextual connections is studied, we find a contrast between two cities—Babylon, the great prostitute and the new Jerusalem, the bride of Christ. The numerous repeated patterns give cross-referenced structural and temporal clues. Key words and phrases are consistently found near the end of an individual vision. Before analyzing these intratextual repetitions, the question of sequence versus recapitulation must be addressed.

Sequence or Recapitulation?

How interpreters structure the Apocalypse underscores the methodology they bring to the table. Futurists and historicists tend to emphasize chronological progression throughout Revelation. Preterists, idealists, and eclectic interpreters tend toward recapitulation. There are exceptions and nuances, but most scholars may be placed in one of the following two categories.

Sequence

Many interpreters understand Revelation’s structure in sequential, linear terms. The seals chronologically lead to the trumpets which lead to the bowls which lead to the eschaton at the conclusion of Revelation. A modified sequential approach labeled telescoping is another possibility. In this case, the seventh seal breaks to reveal the seven trumpets. Then the seventh trumpet sounds to reveal the seven bowls.³⁸ Supporters of this approach recognize that it is impossible to be strictly sequential. Thus, phrases such as John anticipates and John previews assist in handling chronology that seems out of order. For example, John Walvoord accepts 14:17–20 to describe the divine harvest at the final judgment, stating This passage speaks prophetically of that which will chronologically follow the return of Christ to the earth (i.e. 19:11–21).³⁹ The modified sequential approach recognizes that Revelation cannot be presented in strictly linear terms. Thus, it attempts to answer the problem by suggesting the visions preview or anticipate the end.

Recapitulation

Other interpreters follow some form of recapitulation. In the third century, Victorinus noted that the trumpets and bowls were parallel accounts of the same events. Later, the seven seals were added, extending the principle of recapitulation. Modern scholars went beyond the septenaries, finding repeated features in the presentation of the beast and the eschatological earthquake.⁴⁰ Adela Yarbro Collins, for example, affirms repetition that starts with persecutions, moves to the punishment of the nations, and ultimately to the triumph of God or the Lamb or the faithful.⁴¹

John therefore repeats his visions. Nevertheless, there is sequence within the individual visions. William Hendriksen proposed that Revelation’s sections are parallel: each spans the entire new dispensation, from the first to the second coming of Christ.⁴² However, interpreters must be cautious not to fall into the trap of parallelism (e.g. first seal equals first trumpet equals first bowl). Instead, spiraling, ascending, expanding, and developing progress is made so that later visions describe more fully earlier echoes.⁴³ Subsequent visions expand and develop the same subject matter but from different, fuller, and deeper perspectives. Therefore, sequence plus recapitulation takes place. A better term is progressive recapitulation. Several commentators on Revelation utilize various aspects of recapitulation.⁴⁴ This study follows the progressive recapitulation approach.

Images Clustered at the Conclusion of Visions

When the key literary indicators are noted and progressive recapitulation is followed, readers begin to find certain words, phrases, and concepts at the conclusion of individual visions. These intratextual clues serve not only as structural indicators but as chronological markers. Each one of the following five motifs occurs not only at the end of a vision but at the conclusion of history. A sixth motif is also found at the conclusion of visions. It does not hold temporal significance, but does assist in delineating the structure of Revelation.

The Last Battle

Revelation presents several images to what is called only once Armageddon (16:16). In fact, there are seven allusive portrayals of this end-time battle. Armageddon is echoed in the sixth seal (6:15), given more development in the sixth trumpet (9:13–21), the third interlude (14:19–20); the sixth bowl (16:12–16); the fall of Babylon (17:12–14); the rider on the white horse (19:17–21); and the millennial reign (20:7–10). Each depiction is located near the end of its respective vision. Key words found at end of several visions confirm that Armageddon is in mind. These words include battle, kings of the earth (east, world), generals, horses, nations, small and great, the rest, and inhabitants of the earth. In addition, demons is found three times at the end of three visions and demonic spirits is found twice at the end of two visions. This suggests an increase in demonic activity leading up to the end.

The Great Earthquake and Cosmic Storm

Cosmic imagery occurs throughout Revelation—earthquakes, falling heavenly bodies, and the dissolution of the world. Specifically, John utilizes two apocalyptic formulas—the earthquake and the cosmic storm—to signify the appearance of God and end-time judgment. First, the end-time cosmic storm (lightning, thunder, rumblings, hail) is related four times in Revelation (4:5; 8:5; 11:19; 16:18–21). Second, the earthquake (seismos) is found exactly seven times (6:12; 8:5; 11:13 [twice]; 11:19; 16:18 [twice]). All repeat the one final great earthquake at the end of earth history (Heb 12:26–27). Four times the adjective great is added to emphasize full earth coverage. Significantly, the great earthquake and accompanying end-time cosmic storm are located at the conclusion of several individual visions. This establishes that John reserves this usage of cosmic imagery not only as a structural clue, but as a picture of the end of history.

The Second Coming

When Jesus comes, he comes to judge the wicked and to vindicate the righteous. For believers, the second coming is a time of celebration and vindication. Allusions and descriptions of his return are found in all twelve visions as well as the prologue and epilogue. It is a major theme of Revelation. John mentions erchomai (coming) thirty-six times, and twenty-one of those refer to the coming of Christ at the conclusion of history. Coming stresses the imminence of his appearance (2:16; 3:11; 16:15; 22:7, 12, 20), but the second coming is most often in mind (6:16; 11:15–19; 14:1–5, 14–16; 16:15; 17:14; 19:6–8, 11–16; 20:9, 11). Each instance appears near the end of an individual vision. Another second coming image is the harvest, firstfruits, and the instrument of the harvest—the sickle. Although placed under nature and clothing accoutrements in this study, these words are used for the end-time harvest of believers (and unbelievers). The harvest is found four times, sickle is found seven times (with sharp attached four times), and firstfruits occurs once, and all their references are in 14:14–20. Another image that appears often is the posture of standing. The victorious stand on judgment day (7:9; 11:11; 14:1; 15:2).

The Final Judgment

By contrast, when Jesus comes, he comes not only to vindicate the righteous but to judge the wicked. This image then emphasizes the second coming from the perspective of unbelievers. All of the intratextual allusions to the great day of wrath, fall of Babylon, and eternal punishment anticipate the consummative judgment of the great white throne which is more fully developed in chapter 20. Several key images are linked to the final judgment. They are found most often at the conclusion of an individual vision. Among these are great day, wrath (orgē and thymos), cup, wine, grapes, great winepress, fire, smoke, sulfur, and lake of fire.

Furthermore, the careers of the beast and false prophet fill up chapter 13, and imply their oppression covers the interadvental age. However, all other references are found at the end of visions in the context of final judgment. Alongside the beast and false prophet is the image of the beast and the mark of the beast. These also appear at end of individual visions. Babylon the Great is found six times at the end of three visions. The great city is found nine times at or near the end of three visions. God’s posture of sitting depicts his authority to judge, and is found most often in connection with final judgment. Finally, just as believers stand in victory at the return of Christ, the wicked stand to face their judgment (6:17; 18:10, 15, 17; 20:12).

New Heaven and New Earth

Allusions associated with eternal bliss, heavenly rewards, new heaven and new earth, and the intimate, eternal presence, worship, and fellowship with God and the Lamb are not confined to chapters 21–22. They are scattered throughout Revelation. Rewards for overcomers permeate the seven letters. These images show up again in chapters 21–22. End-time rewards, fulfilled promises, heavenly worship, and eternal bliss are major components of several throne room scenes. The initial and longest throne room scene is chapters 4–5. The remaining seven heavenly throne room scenes are located at or near the conclusion of six visions (7:9–17; 8:1–5; 11:15–19; 14:1–5; 15:2–4 [two throne room scenes supports marking the final section of the third interlude as 14:1–15:4]; 19:1–10; 21:1–8). A consistent feature of heavenly throne room scenes is the hymns. The exact number of hymns and doxologies is debated but the hymns typically appear toward the end of individual visions. The four living creatures and twenty-four elders show up most often at the end of visions. Harps, incense, and altar are parts of heavenly worship. Other entries that are found at the end of individual visions include great multitude, bride, fine linen, and river of the water of life.

Therefore, the above five motifs not only assist in structuring Revelation, but in interpreting it—there is one earthquake, one end-time storm, one end-time battle, one return of Christ, and one end-time judgment.

Other Words and Images Found Near the End

Other words and images consolidate toward the end of a vision and become suggestive of literary indicators. First of all, several titles of deity show up near the end of individual visions. Since the throne room scenes appear near the end of visions, the titles of deity follow suit. These could be placed above under second coming or final judgment. The titles include God of heaven, Lord God Almighty, one who is and was and is to/has come, one who sits on the throne, the vocative form of God (ho theos), Lamb, and King of kings and Lord of lords. Other words assigned for the end of visions for emphasis include the loud voice, throne, face, prophets, and servants. Finally, John places the seven beatitudes (blessed) near the end of visions.

These examples do not display the same temporal importance as the previous examples. Nevertheless, their presence becomes another intratextual clue that John is nearing the end of a vision. John therefore reserves key words, phrases, and images for the end of his individual visions. These clusters assist not only in structuring the vision, but interpreting it. John recaps his visions so that the end of a vision pictures the end of history.

An Outline of Revelation

Aided by the above external and internal clues, and a progressive recapitulation methodology, an outline for Revelation is now attempted. It is based on John producing twelve visions. Most of the visions begin with John’s audience and progress to eternity. Chapters 1–3 stress John’s immediate audience. By extension, every generation and each believer should heed the challenges of what the Spirit says to the churches. The mighty throne room vision of chapters 4–5 pictures the result of what God did in creation and what the Son accomplished via the cross. His death opens the scroll and reveals its contents. The seals, trumpets, and bowls reveal the ups and downs of history from three different angles. Specifically, the first five of each series reflect this—earthly, natural, resultative judgments on humanity and nature—from John’s day through the Middle Ages and Reformation up to the present day and especially toward the end. The final two seals, trumpets, and bowls, however, usher us to the brink of the eschaton.⁴⁵ They include allusions, images, and phrases that reveal the final battle, parousia, cosmic imagery (earthquake), end-time judgment, and eternal bliss.

Similarly, the three interludes reveal the same progressive recapping—7:1–8; 10:1–11:6; and 12:1–13:18 present the ongoing battle between the devil and believers throughout the centuries. It is a spiritual war and believers are called to witness until they die. But at the conclusion of each interlude, the end-time images reappear, signaling the eschaton. Thus, 7:9–17; 11:7–13; and 14:1–15:4 are end-time pictures.⁴⁶ The fall of Babylon is prefaced by a survey of history in 17:1–11 but 17:12–14 depicts end-time images. Babylon’s fall is described (18:1–24), leading to a portrayal of end-time bliss (19:1–10).⁴⁷ The rider on the white horse begins abruptly with the parousia and leads to final judgment. The millennial vision, however, depicts history in 20:1–6, leading to the eschatological battle (20:7–10), final judgment (20:11–15), and new heaven and new earth (21:1–8).⁴⁸ The new Jerusalem vision completes John’s visions, stressing eternal bliss (21:9–22:9).

Here then is an outline on Revelation based on John’s twelve visions. As readers study the symbolic entries in this book, they will need to refer to this often.

Prologue (1:1–8)

Vision One: Inaugural Vision and Seven Letters (1:9–3:22)

Vision Two: Throne Room (4:1–5:14)

Vision Three: Seven Seals (6:1–17; 8:1–5)

Vision Four: First Interlude (7:1–17)

Vision Five: Seven Trumpets (8:6–9:21; 11:15–19)

Vision Six: Second Interlude (10:1–11:14)

Vision Seven: Third Interlude (12:1–15:4)

Vision Eight: Seven Bowls (15:5–16:21)

Vision Nine: Fall of Babylon (17:1–19:10)

Vision Ten: Rider on the White Horse (19:11–21)

Vision Eleven: Thousand Years (20:1–21:8)

Vision Twelve: New Jerusalem (21:9–22:9)

Epilogue (22:10–21)

Master List of Entries

The rest of this study places John’s images into identifiable categories. Under each category, numerous entries are listed alphabetically. Several entries overlap categories. A thousand two hundred and sixty days is an element of time but also a symbolic number. The Lamb is an animal yet refers to a heavenly being as well as a title of deity. The sixth seal begins with the sun turning black as sackcloth (6:12), an image that includes colors, clothing, and cosmic imagery. Where does the the rider on the white horse settle? It symbolizes a demonic being (6:2) and a heavenly being (19:11), but also refers to animals and colors. A final example is A woman clothed with the sun, with the moon under her feet and a crown of twelve stars on her head (12:1). This image can be placed under people, numbers, cosmic imagery, or body parts. Therefore, decisions must be made on where to place certain entries.

The titles of the entries follow the NIV 2011. The reason is that since it is the bestselling modern version, most readers will have access to it.⁴⁹ Each entry begins with an italicized topic sentence(s) which gives the essential essence of the symbol. The rest of the entry broadly follows the seven steps for interpretation. Here then is the master list of entries for handy reference.

Conclusion

Readers now have the necessary background for launching a study of the symbols of Revelation. This introduction will need to be accessed regularly, primarily for the master list. The twelve-vision outline, however, must always be kept in mind when studying an image. Where the image is found within a vision is often just as important as its meaning. This study does not exhaust John’s images found