Splendour of Buddhism in Burma: A Journey to the Golden Land

Copyright © 2020 Pascal Christel. All rights reserved.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced by any means, graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or by any information storage retrieval system without the written permission of the publisher except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

Toll Free 800 101 2657 (Singapore)

Toll Free 1 800 81 7340 (Malaysia)

www.partridgepublishing.com/singapore

Because of the dynamic nature of the Internet, any web addresses or links contained in this book may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid. The views expressed in this work are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher, and the publisher hereby disclaims any responsibility for them.

ISBN

978-1-5437-5818-4 (sc)

978-1-5437-5817-7 (e)

10/09/2020

Contents

Preface

Notes to the reader

Acknowledgements

Burma Chronology: Central and Upper Burma

Understanding Burma and its Buddhist Faith

Chapter 1 Introduction to Burma Complexity

Chapter 2 Buddhism in Burma

Chapter 3 The Nats

Chapter 4 Puppet Theatre

Buddhist Architecture

Chapter 5 Buddhist Architecture in Burma

Bagan

Chapter 6 Introduction to Bagan

Chapter 7 Shwezigon Pagoda

Chapter 8 Ananda Temple

Chapter 9 Sulamani Guphaya Temple

Chapter 10 Htilominlo Temple

Chapter 11 Gawdawpalin Temple

Chapter 12 Salay and the Yoke Sone Kyaung

Inle Lake: the Shan Country

Chapter 13 Introduction to Inle Lake and its Shrines

Chapter 14 Shwe Yan Pyay Monastery

Chapter 15 Nga Phe Kyaung

Chapter 16 The Shwe Indein Pagodas

The Kingdom of Ava (Inwa)

Chapter 17 Ava Island

Chapter 18 Bagaya Monastery

Chapter 19 Mahar Aung Mye Bon San Monastery

Mandalay and Sagaing Hills

Chapter 20 Mandalay City

Chapter 21 Khutodaw Pagoda

Chapter 22 Mahamuni Buddha Temple

Chapter 23 Shwenandaw Monastery

Chapter 24 Su Taung Pyai Pagoda

Chapter 25 U Min Thonze Pagoda at Sagaing Hills

Chapter 26 Soon U Pon Nya Shin Pagoda

Yangon

Chapter 27 Shwedagon Pagoda

Burmese Buddhist Art

Chapter 28 Introduction to the Traditional Art of Burma

Chapter 29 Buddhist Fundamentals in Burmese Art

Chapter 30 Old Burmese Wall Painting

Chapter 31 Burma Art Handicraft and Buddhism

Chapter 32 Woodcarving

Chapter 33 Bronze Casting

Chapter 34 Stone Carving

Chapter 35 Lacquerware

Major Buddhist sites in Burma

Bagan Monuments

Bibliography

Glossary

Preface

Traveling to Burma, the Golden Land, was a real shock. This was in May 2015, before the landslide election which brought Aung San Suu Kyi into power. I immediately fell in love with this country, with its art and architecture, and finding delicacy all around without aggression. I have been deeply impressed by the country, its people, and its culture. It is a genuine and pristine country which has not yet been polluted by tourism. Generally, little is known about Burma by foreigners. The country is secretive, not so widely opened to foreign visitors. The strong and deep roots of Theravada Buddhism practiced by ninety percent of Bamar may be protectionist. Buddhism is all over, sovereign in the behavior of people, their way of life, their kindness, and their beliefs, but also in the art and architecture. Burma is a treasure and a delight. One’s eyes are never at rest, and one must have the camera always ready for a shot.

On return from this journey it took weeks to review and classify the thousands of pictures taken by me, my wife (Beatrice), and our travel companions (Jean and Nelly). Being a scientist, I started to classify them by themes, by location, and by chronology. At first sight they were nice pictures, but I quickly realized, beyond aesthetics, these buildings, statues, murals, and wood carvings contained a strong and codified timeless symbolism with a meaning which needed to be understood and explained. Different fields were complementary and interrelated. The obvious and powerful link between them is the Theravada Buddhism faith—the cement of Burma society.

The skill of the architects and artists is fascinating. Since the 11th century CE admirable know-how has been transmitted from generation to generation, surviving wars, invasions, colonization, and earthquakes. Some art critics may deplore the lack of creativity, attributing it to censorship from the decade’s-old military regime. However, one fundamental in Bamar arts is that replicating Buddha imagery is a form of merit making for the benefit of self and others. Image copying is an integral part of Theravada practice in general, and it has been—and continues to be—prevalent in Burma. This explains the apparent lack of relationship between chronology and stylistic development. Nevertheless, it is useful to look outside traditional Western modes of art-historical analysis to understand the history of images and merit making.

When writing this book, I faced a dilemma regarding chapter order. In Burma, everything is intricate, and complex. Chronology does not influence much, and Buddhism is timeless. Tradition predominates. Regional variations are subtle and not always discernible by foreigners. Accordingly, I decided to split the book into three sections. First, the Bamar context within Theravada Buddhism, which is the root of everything there (without understanding Theravadism, one cannot appreciate the traditions of Burmese society). Second, the unique Burmese religious architecture, third and last, the splendid Buddhist art of Burma.

Burma is a country of earthquakes. In the past earthquakes have been responsible for the disappearance of many buildings and even of full cities such as Inwa, one of the 17th-18th century CE capitals of Burma. The photographs in this book were taken in May 2015, one year before the August 2016 earthquake which greatly damaged Bagan, the jewel of Buddhist architecture.

Published information regarding the arts and culture of Burma is not so widely spread. To date, there is no readily available comprehensive survey. Those studies that have been published are mostly out of print, expensive, or aimed at expert readers. This book does not pretend to be exhaustive: that is not its purpose. This is not a scholar book. This is a book for the general public. This is the outcome of a journey done before the August 2016 earthquake. It has been one of the most rewarding journeys I have ever undertaken. This book is written by a Burma lover who would like to transmit his admiration and his affection for this country, its art, and its culture; to encourage people to visit and enjoy Burma; and discover the kindness of its people. This is a book on the basics of Buddhist art in Burma. It is aimed at helping the traveler to better understand what he sees over there.

Burma chronology, a map, a detailed glossary and an index have been provided to help the reader in understanding this complex country and culture. Words written in italic refer to the glossary where more explanantion can be found.

Notes to the reader

During the British period (1886-1947) the country was named Burma, the standard English-language name for the country. In 1989 the Burmese government formally reinstated the name Myanmar instead of Burma. The decision to revert to the former name has never been widely popular within the country. It is mostly challenged by the Bamars, also called Bamar. Burma is the term used in this book both for the country’s name and to describe the country’s people, a composite of different ethnicities, including Bamar, Mon, Rakhine, Karen, and Shan.

Burmese proper names are often confusing because of the number of ways of transliterating them into English. For example, the Kubyauk-gyi temple can be found written as Gubyauk-gyi, and the Htilominlo temple can be written as Hti-lo-min-lo. Burma names and words in this book are transcribed in the roman alphabet. There are several ways to spell names according to their origin. I have opted for the most common spelling recognized by English readers in the twentieth century and have added between parentheses, whenever possible, the English meaning and the other alternate spellings—whether official, Pali, Sanskrit, or local language. For example, Khutodaw Pagoda, literally meaning Royal Merit and formally named "Mahalawka Marazein" (see Chapter 21).

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my deepest thanks to all those who have helped me in the publication of this book: firstly, my wife, Beatrice, for supporting me in this project, for her patience, and for providing me with her own pictures. Nelly and Jean Labastie, our charming travel companions, have also shared with me some of their travel photographs. Paristinzar Tinzar was our travel guide, allowing us to discover the Golden Land and communicate her love for her country.

My good friend Charlene Pelletier has edited my text with patience and accuracy. I thank her pertinent comments.

Besides these people close to me I would like to thank the scholars who let me use some of the illustrations they had previously published: Mr Richard M Cooler from the Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University; Mrs Claudine Bautze-Picron and Joachim K. Bautze from the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7528 ‘Mondes Iranien et Indien’; Mr Somkiart Lopetcharat, Senior Architect of Principal Architecture, The Council of Thai Architects, and Lecturer of The Museum of Buddhist Art; Mr Ande Diethard, publisher at White Lotus Co. Ltd., Thailand; and Mr Phillip Harbor.

I would particularly like to thank Mr Georges Rivalin who manages the online and high-quality Asian antiques gallery for the arts of the Himalayas and Southeast Asia in Bangkok (www.azibaza.com) for letting me use illustrations from his website. I am also grateful for his help in approaching Mr. Somkiart Lopetcharat.

Photograph credits

Joachim K. Bautze: 30.1 A & B, 30.2, 31.4.

Richard M Cooler: 5.4, 5.5, 29.2 A&B, 29.27.

Ande Diethard: 33.1 to 33.8 A&B.

Phillip Harbor: 29.46, 29.49.

Somkiart Lopetcharat: 29.28 to 29.31, 31.34, 31.36.

Georges Rivalin: 3.4 A, 3.4 C to J, 29.33, 29.41, 29.48, 32.18, 32.20, 35.31 A&B.

Burma Chronology: Central and Upper Burma

To help you better understand the content of the book, I have provided below a simplified table listing the main periods of Burma history. The art periods do not strictly follow the political eras. Also, styles related to an art period have been used much longer than the historical period. For example, the Bagan art period relates to the eleventh to thirteenth centuries CE, while the Bagan style was used until the nineteenth century.

Sources: J. Leider, Buddhist Art in Myanmar; S. Lopetcharat, Myanmar Buddha.

UNDERSTANDING

BURMA AND ITS

BUDDHIST FAITH

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO

BURMA COMPLEXITY

B urma is a country of Southeast Asia. It shares land borders with Thailand, Laos, and China eastward and India and Bangladesh to the west. Its west coast borders the Bay of Bengal and the Adaman Sea (see map). Before British colonization, the country was named Burma. In 1989 the government reinstated the name Myanmar instead of Burma, which had been the standard English-language name for the country during the British period (1886–1947). The decision to revert to the former name has never been widely popular within the country mostly populated by the Bamars . Burma is the term I have chosen to use in this book. Despite the fact that Myanmar covers a mosaic of different ethnicities, including Bamar, Mon, Rakhine, Karen , and Shan , the name Burma remains the name most widely used in international literature.

Also, in 1989 many place names were changed, using a uniform system of transliteration. Rangoon became Yangon, Pagan became Bagan, Pegu is Bago, and the Irrawaddy River transformed into the Ayeryarwady River, less easy for foreigners. There are several ways to spell names according to their origin. I have opted for the most common spelling recognized by English readers.

Population

In 2015 the Burma population was above 60 million. The dominant ethnic group is the Bamar (or Bamars), originating from Mongolia, corresponding to 70 per cent of the population.

There are many minorities with specific clothing and customs (Photos 1.1 to 1.5). Among them, the seven major races are Shan, Karen, Rakhine, Wa, Mon, Kachin, and Naga. All still have their own dialect, traditions, culture, legends, folklore, tales, accents, and costumes. Some minorities do not consider themselves as part of Burma, resulting in armed conflicts with Tadmadaw, the government army. As a consequence, the territory of Burma is not fully at peace, and significant parts of the territory are not accessible to foreign visitors. No one really knows what is going on there.

The seven main minorities are distributed as follows:

- the Shan in the northeast (10 per cent). Their capital city is Taunggyi. They do not recognize the Bamar central power. They have a liberation army, which in fact is in the hands of drug traffickers.

- the Karen in the southeast, along the Thai border (7 per cent). They are also fighting the central power with guerrilla actions.

- the Rakhine in the southwest (4 per cent). These are Buddhists isolated from the mainland by the Arakan Mountains.

- the Wa (2 per cent). These people live in the Golden Triangle, an inaccessible independent territory since 1989.

- the Mon (2 per cent). They were dominant in the fourteenth to fifteenth centuries. Bago was the kingdom’s capital city.

- the well-integrated Kachin in the northeast (1 per cent), originating from Tibet. Being animists or Christians, they fought with the central power when Buddhism was declared the state religion in 1961. They live close to the Chinese border, north of the Shan, with whom they regularly fight.

- the Naga in the northwest mountains (less than 1 per cent). Some are Christians. Nagas still fight with Yangon.

Photo 1.1. Two Kachin women, c. 1890.

Photo 1.2. Kayan (or Palaung) woman, north of Shan territory, holding a cigar in her left

hand, c. 1890. It has been a long tradition in Burma for women to smoke cigars. In Burma,

women have always been very independent from men, even when married.

Photo 1.3. Kayan (Palaung) woman wearing neck rings, 2015.

Other minorities include Indians, Chinese, and Anglo-Bamar. The Rohingyas, Muslims originating from Bangladesh who settled in the Rakhine territory, are not considered by the Bamar as being a minority from Burma.

Bamar Culture

In Burma, maybe more than in any other Asian country, everything is believed to have a supernatural power: water, earth, fire, air, nature, human beings (dead or alive), numbers and, above all, time and space. All daily acts are conditioned by one’s date of birth.

As elsewhere in the region, and originating from the ancient Mon calendar, there are eight days in a week. Wednesday accounts for two days: Wednesday morning and Wednesday evening. Each day is associated with a planet, a number, and an animal (Photo 1.6).

Photo 1.6. Tuskless elephant, the symbol of Rahu, Wednesday evening

of the Bamar week (Shwedagon Pagoda, Yangon)

¹ White eagle with human body, Vishnu mount according to Hindu tradition.

² Called "Ya Hu" to distinguish it from Wednesday morning.

³ Imaginary planet.

For each important act in life, Bamars consult an astrologer or an alchemist. From one’s birthdate and palm reading, these practitioners predict the future and warn against acts which should be avoided. For example, someone born on a Monday may be advised not to marry someone born on a Friday. On the other hand, Wednesday and Saturday is an excellent combination. Bamar names are determined according to birthdate and are not in relation to the father’s name. They are chosen according to their meaning. However, anyone can change his or her name by opting for similar-sounding names corresponding to the day of birth.

Many Bamars wear tattoos (Photo 1.7). Tattooing was practised widely by the Bamar, Shan, and Karen until the twentieth century and was a distinguishing cultural marker (Photo 1.8). Tattoos function to protect the individual against evil events. Their drawings have strong symbolism. Many handbooks were available to guide the bearer in his or her choices (Photos 1.9 A and B). With British colonization, tattooing significantly decreased.

Photos 1.9 A and B. Pages of a tattooing parabaik (manual folded in accordion), nineteenth century

CE. Each symbolic drawing is explained with its related cosmology for the choice of the tattoo.

National Dress

The Bamar longyi, a sarong-like nether garment, plays a crucial role in the Burma national dress; it is worn by both men and women. It is a piece of cloth sewn into a cylindrical shape, slipped over the head by men and stepped into by women, and tucked in at the waist. The garment for men is called "pasoe and that for women is htamein. Men and women fasten their longyis at the waist in different ways (Photos 1.10 A and B). Men fold the garment into two panels and knot it neatly at waist level. The ladies’ wrap-around skirt is tucked in at the hip. The ladies’ garment has a five-inch black strip of cotton attached to the top part of the circular skirt. It is called ahtet hsin" and keeps the longyi firmly in place, especially those made of silk or satin fabric, which have a tendency to slip down. It is also a great insult to offer an htamein to a man, or to suggest he gets one, since this implies that he is a coward. It is also an extreme rudeness to hang up any nether garment belonging to a woman above the waist level.

Photos 1.10 A and B. A: Man wearing a pasoe. Notice he is an astrologer, who carries

the strange name Devine-number-palm. B: Woman with her htamein.

From Monarchy to Socialism

Burma history was marked by centuries of long interethnic struggles, mainly between Bamar, Mon, and Shan. However, historians thought that besides ethnic differences, the true reason for conflicts was a particular concept of royal authority based on the Buddhist notion of karma. This phenomenon was particularly clear during the Pagan era. A king was considered to be a man who had accumulated merits in past lives. This gave him pon (glory), charisma, and dynamism, which attracted other powerful men to become his followers. The support of the sangha (Buddhist clergy) was also vital in maintaining the monarchy.

World-renouncing monks possessed a different sort of glory than rulers did. The sangha gave the monarch spiritual legitimacy, while in return the king provided them with financial support and land and built monasteries and pagodas. Besides being defender and promoter of the faith, the king had a wider mission: he was responsible for the welfare of his subjects. This welfare-state concept of Burma monarchy had a formative influence on the development of socialism in modern Burma. Accordingly, political authority was based on religious and universal criteria rather than ethnicity. The end result of struggles between competing groups for royal power was depending on the karma of the winner. Ethnic lines were often confused; for example, one king of Burman origin adopted Mon titles and customs in the sixteenth century. Bamar, Mon, and Shan did not hesitate to fight on either side to depose kings as well.

Burma as Realm of the Irrational and Supernatural

The daily life of Burma people is strongly influenced by Buddhism and also by magic beliefs originating in shamanism, which was deeply grounded for centuries (Photo 1.11). It is difficult for Western visitors to fully understand the Burma situation and its people. This is not a simple issue of democracy versus military junta. The practice of Theravada Buddhism for almost 90 per cent of the population includes some fatalism in order to reach nirvana. For a long time, this has made Bamar people compliant with the military regime. However, the holders of true moral and influential authority are the monks. This is why soldiers as well as politicians pay particular attention to the sangha.

Photo 1.11. Traditional Bamar wedding costumes in 2015. The groom wears a gaung baung,

the traditional Burmese head hat made of cloth wrapped in a rattan frame.

Chapter 2

BUDDHISM IN BURMA

History

S iddhartha Gautama