Defining Social Justice Michael Novak Copyright (c) 2000 First Things 108 (December 2000): 11-13.

Last year mar e! the one h"n!re!th anni#ersary o$ the birth o$ Frie!rich %aye & among 'hose many contrib"tions to the t'entieth cent"ry 'as a s"staine! an! animate! p"t(!o'n o$ most o$ the "sages o$ the term )socia* +"stice., - ha#e ne#er enco"ntere! a 'riter& re*igio"s or phi*osophica*& 'ho !irect*y ans'ers %aye .s criticisms. -n trying to "n!erstan! socia* +"stice in o"r o'n time& there is no better p*ace to start than 'ith the man 'ho& in his o'n inte**ect"a* *i$e& e/emp*i$ie! the #irt"e 'hose common mis"se he so !ep*ore!. The tro"b*e 'ith )socia* +"stice, begins 'ith the #ery meaning o$ the term. %aye points o"t that 'ho*e boo s an! treatises ha#e been 'ritten abo"t socia* +"stice 'itho"t e#er o$$ering a !e$inition o$ it. -t is a**o'e! to $*oat in the air as i$ e#eryone 'i** recogni0e an instance o$ it 'hen it appears. This #ag"eness seems in!ispensab*e. The min"te one begins to !e$ine socia* +"stice& one r"ns into embarrassing inte**ect"a* !i$$ic"*ties. -t becomes& most o$ten& a term o$ art 'hose operationa* meaning is& )1e nee! a *a' against that., -n other 'or!s& it becomes an instr"ment o$ i!eo*ogica* intimi!ation& $or the p"rpose o$ gaining the po'er o$ *ega* coercion. %aye points o"t another !e$ect o$ t'entieth(cent"ry theories o$ socia* +"stice. 2ost a"thors assert that they "se it to !esignate a #irt"e (a mora* #irt"e& by their acco"nt). 3"t most o$ the !escriptions they attach to it appertain to impersona* states o$ a$$airs4)high "nemp*oyment, or )ine5"a*ity o$ incomes, or )*ac o$ a *i#ing 'age, are cite! as instances o$ )socia* in+"stice., %aye goes to the heart o$ the matter: socia* +"stice is either a #irt"e or it is not. -$ it is& it can proper*y be ascribe! on*y to the re$*ecti#e an! !e*iberate acts o$ in!i#i!"a* persons. 2ost 'ho "se the term& ho'e#er& ascribe it not to in!i#i!"a*s b"t to socia* systems. They "se )socia* +"stice, to !enote a reg"*ati#e princip*e o$ or!er6 again& their $oc"s is not #irt"e b"t po'er. The term )socia* +"stice, 'as $irst "se! in 1870 by a 8ici*ian priest& L"igi Tapare**i !.90eg*io& an! gi#en prominence by 9ntonio :osmini(8erbati in La Costitutione Civile Secondo la Giustizia Sociale in 1878. ;ohn 8t"art 2i** ga#e this anthropomorphic approach to socia* 5"estions a*most canonica* stat"s $or mo!ern thin ers thirteen years *ater in Utilitarianism: 8ociety sho"*! treat a** e5"a**y 'e** 'ho ha#e deserved e5"a**y 'e** o$ it& that is& 'ho ha#e !eser#e! e5"a**y 'e** abso*"te*y. This is the highest abstract stan!ar! o$ socia* an! !istrib"ti#e +"stice6 to'ar!s 'hich all institutions& an! the e$$orts o$ a** #irt"o"s citi0ens& should be made in the utmost degree to converge. <=mphasis a!!e!.> 2i** imagines that societies can be #irt"o"s in the same 'ay that in!i#i!"a*s can be. ?erhaps in high*y persona*i0e! societies o$ the ancient type& s"ch a "sage might ma e sense4"n!er ings& tyrants& or triba* chie$s& $or e/amp*e& 'here one person ma!e a** the cr"cia* socia* !ecisions. C"rio"s*y& ho'e#er& the !eman! $or the term )socia* +"stice, !i! not arise "nti* mo!ern times& in 'hich more comp*e/ societies operate by impersona* r"*es app*ie! 'ith e5"a* $orce to a** "n!er )the r"*e o$ *a'., The birth o$ the concept o$ socia* +"stice coinci!e! 'ith t'o other shi$ts in h"man conscio"sness: the )!eath o$ @o!, an! the rise o$ the i!ea* o$ the comman! economy. 1hen @o! )!ie!&, peop*e began to tr"st a conceit o$ reason an! its in$*ate! ambition to !o 'hat e#en @o! ha! not !eigne! to !o: constr"ct a +"st socia* or!er. The !i#ini0ation o$ reason $o"n! its e/tension in the comman! economy6 reason (that is& science) 'o"*! comman! an! h"man in! 'o"*! co**ecti#e*y $o**o'. The !eath o$ @o!& the rise o$ science& an! the comman! economy yie*!e! )scienti$ic socia*ism., 1here reason 'o"*! r"*e& the inte**ect"a*s 'o"*! r"*e. (Ar so some tho"ght. 9ct"a**y& the *o#ers o$ po'er 'o"*! r"*e.) 1

From this *ine o$ reasoning it $o**o's that )socia* +"stice, 'o"*! ha#e its nat"ra* en! in a comman! economy in 'hich in!i#i!"a*s are to*! 'hat to !o& so that it 'o"*! a*'ays be possib*e to i!enti$y those in charge an! to ho*! them responsib*e. This notion pres"pposes that peop*e are g"i!e! by speci$ic e/terna* !irections rather than interna*i0e!& persona* r"*es o$ +"st con!"ct. -t $"rther imp*ies that no in!i#i!"a* sho"*! be he*! responsib*e $or his re*ati#e position. To assert that he is responsib*e 'o"*! be )b*aming the #ictim., -t is the $"nction o$ )socia* +"stice, to b*ame somebo!y e*se& to b*ame the system& to b*ame those 'ho (mythica**y) )contro*, it. 9s Les0e Bo*a o's i 'rote in his magisteria* history o$ comm"nism& the $"n!amenta* para!igm o$ Comm"nist i!eo*ogy is g"arantee! to ha#e 'i!e appea*: you suffer6 your suffering is caused by powerful others6 these oppressors must be destroyed. 1e nee! to ho*! someone acco"ntab*e& %aye notes& e#en 'hen 'e recogni0e that s"ch a protest is abs"r!. 1e are not 'rong& %aye conce!es& in percei#ing that the e$$ects o$ the in!i#i!"a* choices an! open processes o$ a $ree society are not !istrib"te! accor!ing to a recogni0ab*e princip*e o$ +"stice. The meritorio"s are sometimes tragica**y "n*"c y6 the e#i* prosper6 goo! i!eas !on.t pan o"t& an! sometimes those 'ho bac e! them& ho'e#er nob*e their #ision& *ose their shirts. 3"t a system that #a*"es both tria*( an!(error an! $ree choice is in no position to g"arantee o"tcomes in a!#ance. F"rthermore& no one in!i#i!"a* (an! certain*y no po*itb"ro or congressiona* committee or po*itica* party) can !esign r"*es that 'o"*! treat each person accor!ing to his merit or e#en his nee!. Co one has s"$$icient no'*e!ge o$ a** re*e#ant persona* !etai*s& an! as Bant 'rites& no genera* r"*e has a grip $ine eno"gh to grasp them. %aye ma!e a sharp !istinction& ho'e#er& bet'een those $ai*"res o$ +"stice that in#o*#e brea ing agree!("pon r"*es o$ $airness an! those that consist in res"*ts that no one !esigne!& $oresa'& or comman!e!. The $irst sort o$ $ai*"re earne! his se#ere mora* con!emnation. Co one sho"*! brea the r"*es6 $ree!om imposes high mora* responsibi*ities. The secon!& inso$ar as it springs $rom no 'i**$"* or !e*iberate act& seeme! to him not a mora* matter b"t an inescapab*e $eat"re o$ a** societies an! o$ nat"re itse*$. 1hen *abe*ing "n$ort"nate res"*ts as )socia* in+"stices, *ea!s to an attac "pon the $ree society& 'ith the aim o$ mo#ing it to'ar! a comman! society& %aye stren"o"s*y opposes the term. The historica* recor!s o$ the comman! economies o$ Ca0ism an! comm"nism +"sti$y his re#"*sion at that 'ay o$ thin ing. %aye recogni0e! that at the en! o$ the nineteenth cent"ry& 'hen the term )socia* +"stice, came to prominence& it 'as $irst "se! as an appea* to the r"*ing c*asses to atten! to the nee!s o$ the ne' masses o$ "proote! peasants 'ho ha! become "rban 'or ers. To this he ha! no ob+ection. 1hat he !i! ob+ect to 'as care*ess thin ing. Care*ess thin ers $orget that +"stice is by !e$inition socia*. 8"ch care*essness becomes positi#e*y !estr"cti#e 'hen the term )socia*, no *onger !escribes the product o$ the #irt"o"s actions o$ many in!i#i!"a*s& b"t rather the utopian goal to'ar! 'hich a** instit"tions an! a** in!i#i!"a*s are )ma!e in the "tmost !egree to con#erge, by coercion. -n that case& the )socia*, in )socia* +"stice, re$ers to something that emerges not organica**y an! spontaneo"s*y $rom the r"*e(abi!ing beha#ior o$ $ree in!i#i!"a*s& b"t rather $rom an abstract i!ea* impose! $rom abo#e. @i#en the strength o$ %aye .s arg"ment against the term& it may seem o!! to assert that he himse*$ 'as a practitioner o$ socia* +"stice4e#en i$ one a!!s& as one m"st& )socia* +"stice right*y "n!erstoo!., 8ti**& %aye p*ain*y sa' in his #ocation as a thin er a *i$e o$ ser#ice to his $e**o' men. %e*ping others to "n!erstan! the inte**ect"a* eys to a $ree an! creati#e society is to ren!er them a great bene$it. %aye .s inte**ect"a* 'or 'as not mere*y a matter o$ his o'n se*$(interest& narro'*y "n!erstoo!& b"t 'as aime! at the goo! o$ the h"man city as a 'ho*e. -t 'as a 'or o$ +"stice in a socia* !imension4in other 'or!s& a 'or o$ #irt"e. To e/p*ain 'hat %aye !i!& then& 'e nee! a conception o$ socia* +"stice that %aye ne#er consi!ere!. 8ocia* +"stice right*y "n!erstoo! is a speci$ic habit o$ +"stice that is )socia*, in t'o senses. First& the s i**s it re5"ires are those o$ inspiring& 'or ing 'ith& an! organi0ing others to accomp*ish together a 2

'or o$ +"stice. These are the e*ementary s i**s o$ ci#i* society& thro"gh 'hich $ree citi0ens e/ercise se*$(go#ernment by !oing $or themse*#es (that is& 'itho"t t"rning to go#ernment) 'hat nee!s to be !one. Citi0ens 'ho ta e part common*y e/p*ain their e$$orts as attempts to )gi#e bac , $or a** that they ha#e recei#e! $rom the $ree society& or to meet the ob*igations o$ $ree citi0ens to thin an! act $or themse*#es. The $act that this acti#ity is carrie! o"t with others is one reason $or !esignating it as a speci$ic type o$ +"stice6 it re5"ires a broa!er range o$ socia* s i**s than !o acts o$ in!i#i!"a* +"stice. The secon! characteristic o$ )socia* +"stice right*y "n!erstoo!, is that it aims at the goo! o$ the city& not at the goo! o$ one agent on*y. Citi0ens may ban! together& as in pioneer !ays& to p"t "p a schoo* or b"i*! a bri!ge. They may get together in the mo!ern city to ho*! a ba e sa*e $or some charitab*e ca"se& to repair a p*aygro"n!& to c*ean "p the en#ironment& or $or a mi**ion other p"rposes that their socia* imaginations might *ea! them to. %ence the secon! sense in 'hich this habit o$ +"stice is )socia*,: its ob+ect& as 'e** as its $orm& primari*y in#o*#es the goo! o$ others. Ane happy characteristic o$ this !e$inition o$ the #irt"e o$ socia* +"stice is that it is i!eo*ogica**y ne"tra*. -t is as open to peop*e on the *e$t as on the right or in the center. -ts $ie*! o$ acti#ity may be *iterary& scienti$ic& re*igio"s& po*itica*& economic& c"*t"ra*& ath*etic& an! so on& across the 'ho*e spectr"m o$ h"man socia* acti#ities. The #irt"e o$ socia* +"stice a**o's $or peop*e o$ goo! 'i** to reach !i$$erent4 e#en opposing4practica* +"!gments abo"t the materia* content o$ the common goo! (en!s) an! ho' to get there (means). 8"ch !i$$erences are the st"$$ o$ po*itics. 1e m"st r"*e o"t any "se o$ )socia* +"stice, that !oes not attach to the habits (that is& #irt"es) o$ in!i#i!"a*s. 8ocia* +"stice is a #irt"e& an attrib"te o$ in!i#i!"a*s& or it is a $ra"!. 9n! i$ Toc5"e#i**e is right that )the princip*e o$ association is the $irst *a' o$ !emocracy&, then socia* +"stice is the $irst #irt"e o$ !emocracy& $or it is the habit o$ p"tting the princip*e o$ association into !ai*y practice. Ceg*ect o$ it& %aye 'rote& has mora* conse5"ences: -t is one o$ the greatest 'ea nesses o$ o"r time that 'e *ac the patience an! $aith to b"i*! "p #o*"ntary organi0ations $or p"rposes 'hich 'e #a*"e high*y& an! imme!iate*y as the go#ernment to bring abo"t by coercion (or 'ith means raise! by coercion) anything that appears as !esirab*e to *arge n"mbers. Det nothing can ha#e a more !ea!ening e$$ect on rea* participation by the citi0ens than i$ go#ernment& instea! o$ mere*y pro#i!ing the essentia* $rame'or o$ spontaneo"s gro'th& becomes mono*ithic an! ta es charge o$ the pro#ision $or a** nee!s& 'hich can be pro#i!e! $or on*y by the common e$$ort o$ many.
2ichae* Co#a ho*!s the @eorge Fre!eric ;e'ett Chair in :e*igion an! ?"b*ic ?o*icy at the 9merican =nterprise -nstit"te. This essay is a!apte! $rom a *ect"re !e*i#ere! at the Eni#ersity o$ Chicago.s Committee on 8ocia* Tho"ght.