Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management - Edited version Aug 2004 (First launch Mar 200!

Conflict "ransformation#
A Multi-$imensional "as%
&ugh Miall
htt'#(()) ) *+e rghof-hand+oo%*net

* ,ntroduction 2
2* "heories of Conflict "ransformation 2
,s "here a "heor- of Conflict "ransformation.
Contri+utions to "heories of Conflict "ransformation
From a "heor- of Conflict to a "heor- of Conflict-in-Conte/t
0* 1ractices of Conflict Resolution 2
Actors of Conflict "ransformation
Coordination and Multi-"rac% $i'lomac-
Assessing the ,m'act of 1ractice
4* Conclusion 2
3* Reference and Further Reading 4
&ugh Miall
Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
&ugh Miall
* ,ntroduction
5hat is the state-of-the-art in conflict transformation theor-. $oes a theor- of conflict
transformation alread- e/ist6 and if so6 )hat are its main foundations. Can 'ractitioners rel- on this
theor- to guide their 'ractice. Can anal-sts ma%e use of it to understand the d-namics of conflict
and to assess the effects of interventions.
"his 'a'er aims to identif- )hat is distinctive a+out conflict transformation theor- and
'ractice6 as )ell as to identif- its %e- dimensions* 5e need such a theor- of conflict transformation
if )e are to have an ade7uate +asis for the anal-sis of conflicts6 as )ell as for devising a''ro'riate
res'onses to them and evaluating the effects of these res'onses* "he 'a'er argues that such theories
need to +e continuall- ad8usted in res'onse to the changing nature of conflicts6 and that current
theories must +e ada'ted in order to ta%e 'ro'er account of the glo+alisation of conflicts and conflict
interventions*
"he first section of the article distinguishes conflict transformation theor- from theories
of conflict management and conflict resolution* ,t e/'lores some of the 'rinci'al conflict
transformation a''roaches in more detail6 and then as%s )hether the- add u' to a coherent +od- of
theor-* Follo)ing this6 it suggests a shift from theories of conflict to theories of conflict-in-context6
arguing that in the conte/t of glo+alisation our anal-ses of conflict must give 'ro'er consideration
to the social6 regional and international conte/t* 5e need to consider +oth the factors that 'romote
'eace+uilding and those that e/acer+ate conflict at these different levels over an e/tended time
'eriod from +efore the out+rea% of violent conflict to )ell after its resolution* 5ithin this +roader
setting6 this section thus attem'ts to e/tend 9altung:s and A;ar:s theories of conflict formation to
theories of conflict transformation* ,t also 'ro'oses a frame)or% of five t-'es of conflict
transformation6 )hich should +e useful as a +asis for 'lanning and assessing interventions in
conflicts*
"he second section of the article discusses current develo'ments in conflict
transformation 'ractice as the- have occurred in the four 'rinci'al %inds of 'ractice < that of
governmental and intergovernmental re'resentatives6 of develo'ment agencies6 of non-
governmental organisations (=9>s!6 and of local 'arties and grou's )ithin the conflict setting* "he
issues involved in coordinating initiatives +et)een these different grou's are also discussed*
"he final section of the 'a'er discusses conflict transformation as a 'otential seed for
change6 re7uiring change +oth in the 'eace+uilder as )ell as in the societ- in conflict*
2* "heories of Conflict "ransformation
2* ,s "here a "heor- of Conflict "ransformation.
At the ver- least6 the foundations of a theor- of conflict transformation have no) +een
laid* =evertheless it is also true that a )ide variet- of theoretical a''roaches are in use among
different schools of thought and 'ractice in the field* "hese theories reflect +oth differing 'aradigms
and different t-'es of intervenors (state and non-state6 internal and e/ternal!* $ifferent authors and
2
&ugh Miall
Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
'ractitioners use +asic conce'ts and terms in inconsistent )a-s* ,n 'articular6 it is not clear )hether
the term conflict transformation is intended to descri+e the field +roadl-6 and thus +e s-non-mous
)ith conflict management and conflict resolution6 or )hether conflict transformation instead is
characterised +- distinct elements that can +e differentiated from the other t)o a''roaches*
, )ill argue here for the latter# a distinctive theor- of conflict transformation is indeed
emerging* =evertheless , note also that this ne) theor- dra)s on man- of the familiar conce'ts
of conflict management and conflict resolution6 and that it also rests on the same tradition of
theorising a+out conflict* ,t is +est vie)ed not as a )holl- ne) a''roach6 +ut rather as a re-
conce'tualisation of the field in order to ma%e it more relevant to contem'orar- conflicts*
Certain crucial changes in the nature of conflict call for such a re-conce'tualisation* First
of all6 most contem'orar- violent conflicts are as-mmetric6 mar%ed +- ine7ualities of 'o)er and
status* ?econd (see contri+ution of $an ?mith in this volume!6 man- contem'orar- conflicts are
'rotracted6 crossing re'eatedl- into and out of violence and thus def-ing c-clical or +ell-sha'ed
models of conflict 'hases* "hirdl-6 'rotracted conflicts )ar' the societies6 economies and regions in
)hich the- are situated6 creating com'le/ emergencies fuelled on the one hand +- local struggles and
on the other +- glo+al factors such as the arms trade and su''ort for regimes or re+els +- outside
states* "he com'le/it- of these situations contrasts star%l- )ith the relative sim'licit- of the core
theories )e can find in conflict resolution6 es'eciall- those advocating )in-)in outcomes in t)o-
'art- contests*
,t is hel'ful to distinguish three se'arate schools )ithin this overall field (see contri+ution
of Reimann in this volume!6 )hile at the same time recogni;ing the significant areas of overla'
+et)een them* All three not onl- articulate var-ing a''roaches to conflict intervention6 +ut also
reflect different conce'tualisations of conflict*
Conflict management theorists see violent conflicts as an ineradica+le conse7uence of
differences of values and interests )ithin and +et)een communities* "he 'ro'ensit- to violence
arises from e/isting institutions and historical relationshi's6 as )ell as from the esta+lished
distri+ution of 'o)er* Resolving such conflicts is vie)ed as unrealistic# the +est that can +e done is
to manage and contain them6 and occasionall- to reach a historic com'romise in )hich violence
ma- +e laid aside and normal 'olitics resumed* Conflict management is the art of a''ro'riate
intervention to achieve 'olitical settlements6 'articularl- +- those 'o)erful actors having the 'o)er
and resources to +ring 'ressure on the conflicting 'arties in order to induce them to settle* ,t is also
the art of designing a''ro'riate institutions to guide the inevita+le conflict into a''ro'riate
channels* ,n the )ords of Bloomfield and Reill-#
Conflict management is the positive and constructive handling of difference and
divergence. Rather than advocating methods for removing conflict, [it] addresses the more
realistic question of managing conflict: how to deal with it in a constructive way, how to
ring opposing sides together in a cooperative process, how to design a practical,
achievale, cooperative system for the constructive management of difference
!"loomfield and Reilly
#$$%, #%&.
Conflict resolution theorists6 in contrast6 re8ect this 'o)er 'olitical vie) of conflict6
arguing instead that in communal and identit- conflicts6 'eo'le cannot com'romise on their
fundamental needs* &o)ever6 the- argue that it is 'ossi+le to transcend conflicts if 'arties can +e
hel'ed to e/'lore6 anal-se6 7uestion and reframe their 'ositions and interests* Conflict resolution
therefore em'hasises intervention +- s%illed +ut 'o)erless third-'arties )or%ing unofficiall- )ith
the 'arties to foster ne) thin%ing and ne) relationshi's* "he- see% to e/'lore )hat the roots of the
conflict reall- are and to identif- creative solutions that the 'arties ma- have missed in their
commitment to entrenched 'ositions* Conflict resolution is a+out ho) 'arties can move from ;ero-
0
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
sum6 destructive 'atterns of conflict to 'ositive-sum constructive outcomes* "he aim is to develo'
@'rocesses of conflict resolution that a''ear to +e acce'ta+le to 'arties in dis'ute6 and effective in
resolving conflictA (A;ar and Burton B4C6 !*
Conflict transformation theorists argue that contem'orar- conflicts re7uire more than the
reframing of 'ositions and the identification of )in-)in outcomes* "he ver- structure of 'arties and
relationshi's ma- +e em+edded in a 'attern of conflictual relationshi's that e/tend +e-ond the
'articular site of conflict* Conflict transformation is therefore a 'rocess of engaging )ith and
transforming the relationshi's6 interests6 discourses and6 if necessar-6 the ver- constitution of
societ- that su''orts the continuation of violent conflict* Constructive conflict is seen as a vital
agent or catal-st for change* 1eo'le )ithin the conflict 'arties6 )ithin the societ- or region affected6
and outsiders )ith relevant human and material resources all have com'lementar- roles to 'la- in
the long-term 'rocess of 'eace+uilding* "his suggests a com'rehensive and )ide-ranging a''roach6
em'hasising su''ort for grou's )ithin the societ- in conflict rather than for the mediation of
outsiders* ,t also recogni;es that conflicts are transformed graduall-6 through a series of smaller or
larger changes as )ell as s'ecific ste's +- means of )hich a variet- of actors ma- 'la- im'ortant
roles* ,n the )ords of Dederach#
Conflict transformation must actively envision, include, respect, and promote the
human and cultural resources from within a given setting. 'his involves a new set of lenses
through which we do not primarily (see) the setting and the people in it as the (prolem) and
the outsider as the (answer). Rather, we understand the long-term goal of transformation as
validating and uilding on people and resources within the setting !*ederach #$$+&.
2*2 Contri+utions to "heories of Conflict "ransformation
4
"heorists of conflict transformation dra) on a variet- of conce'tual +uilding +loc%s6
some recent6 some older and some +orro)ed from other schools* "he idea of conflict formation
)as alread- 'resent in the )or% of the Euro'ean structural theorists )ho anal-sed conflict
formations (e*g* ?enghaas B20E Fri''endorf B20!* 1erha's the most influential )or% to date has
+een that of 9altung (+rought together in 9altung BBC6 20-2C!6 )hich offers a rich +re) of core
conce'ts*
Conflicts6 he suggests6 have +oth life-affirming and life-destro-ing as'ects* "he- form
from contradictions in the structure of societ-* "he- then +ecome manifest in attitudes and
+ehaviour* >nce formed6 conflicts undergo a variet- of transformational 'rocesses# articulation or
dis- articulation6 conscientisation or de-conscientisation6 com'le/ification or sim'lification6
'olarisation or de'olarisation6 escalation or de-escalation (BBC6 B0!* "he incom'ati+ilit- )hich
arises +et)een 'arties ma- +e eliminated +- transcending the contradiction6 +- com'romise6 +-
dee'ening or )idening the conflict structure6 and +- associating or dissociating the actors (BBC6
C!* 9altung6 Fri''endorf and others also em'hasise the relationshi' +et)een conflicts and larger
conflicts em+edded in the structure of )orld societ- and the )orld econom-*
Curle:s )or% (B2! +uilt on 9altung:s a''roach* &e traces ho) as-mmetric
relationshi's can +e transformed6 through a shift from un+alanced to +alanced relationshi's
achieved through a 'rocess of conscientisation6 confrontation6 negotiation and develo'ment*
Dederach too% u' Curle:s ideas6 as did Francis )ho develo's them in her contri+ution to this
hand+oo%* Contri+utions from theorists on non-violence have also +een im'ortant (?har' B20E
5ehr6 Burgess and Burgess BB4E Clar% 2000!* A non-violent cam'aign can transform conflict +-
detaching the 'ro's sustaining it such as grou's resisting land reform and harnessing them to
su''ort social alternatives (,nternational
Alert BBC6 226 0-00!*
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
A;ar:s )or% (BB0! on 'rotracted social conflicts has also had an im'ortant influence
on conflict transformation theor-6 +- offering an e/'lanation for the 'rotracted 7ualit- of
contem'orar- conflicts* &e suggests an a''roach that is more a''ro'riatel- suited to the
characteristics of contem'orar- conflicts in fragile states* &is )or% concentrates on the genesis
and maintenance of 'rotracted conflicts* B- develo'ing his theor-6 it can also +e used as a theor-
of conflict transformation*
Figure is dra)n from A;ar:s model of 'rotracted social conflict* ,t is e/tended here to
demonstrate that6 )ith some modification6 A;ar:s model can +e used to ca'ture +oth the formation
and the transformation (or deformation! of this t-'e of conflict*
Reading the diagram from left to right6 as in A;ar:s +oo%6 one can trace the formation of
a 'rotracted conflict* ,t arises from the historical conte/t6 and from the denial of +asic human needs
of access6 identit- and securit-6 as )ell as through the roles 'la-ed +- the state6 international
'olitical and economic lin%ages and the militar- in 'olitics* ,f the state and communal grou's
choose su''ression and violent re+ellion as their strategies6 a conflict ma- then +ecome destructive*
Reading from right +ac% to left6 destructive conflict then results in a more de'endent and
e/'loitative 'attern of develo'ment6 a distorted 'attern of governance and a militarised form of
'olitics* "his leads to the further denial of +asic needs* "he result is a 'rotracted c-cle of
institutional deformation and destructive conflict*
>n the other hand6 if there is sufficient ca'acit- in governance and societ-6 if 'olitics are
not too militarised6 and if the international environment is su''ortive6 states ma- instead choose
accommodation6 and communal grou's ma- choose 'olitical forms of confrontation* "his can lead
to a 'attern of constructive conflict that in turn 'romotes legitimate decision-ma%ing ca'acit-6
strengthens autonomous develo'ment and sustains civil rather than militar- 'olitics* All these are
conducive to the meeting of +asic needs* "he model goes +e-ond sim'le structural or +ehavioural
e/'lanations and suggests ho) 'atterns of conflict interact )ith the satisfaction of human needs6 the
ade7uac- of 'olitical and economic institutions and the choices made +- 'olitical actors* ,t also
suggests ho) different o'tions can lead to +enign or malignant s'irals of conflict*
Ga-r-nen argues for a conflict theor- +ased on the idea of transformation rather than
settlement6 stressing that it is im'ortant to understand ho) conflicts are transformed in d-namic
terms#
'he ul, of conflict theory regards the issues, actors and interests as given and on
that asis ma,es efforts to find a solution to mitigate or eliminate contradictions etween
them. -et the issues, actors and interests change over time as a consequence of the social,
economic and political dynamics of societies !.ayrynen #$$#, /&.
&is a''roach is 'rimaril- anal-tical and theoretical6 +ut is also suggestive of the t-'es of
intervention that 'eace+uilders should +e considering (see Ga-r-nen BB!#
H actor transformations < internal changes in 'arties6 or the a''earance of ne) 'artiesE
H issue transformations < altering the agenda of conflict issuesE
H rule transformations < changes in the norms or rules governing a conflictE
H structural transformations < the entire structure of relationshi's and 'o)er distri+ution in the
conflict is transformed*
Ru'esinghe (BB36 BB4! argues for a com'rehensive6 eclectic a''roach to conflict transformation
that em+races multitrac% interventions* &e 'ro'oses +uilding 'eace constituencies at the grassroots
level and across the 'arties at the civil societ- level ()here it e/ists!6 and also creating 'eace
alliances )ith an- grou's a+le to +ring a+out change6 such as +usiness grou's6 the media and the
militar-* &e sees conflict transformation as a +road a''roach incor'orating conflict resolution
training and "rac% , interventions including di'lomatic interventions and 'eace%ee'ing*
3
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
Figure # "ransformation of 1rotracted ?ocial Conflicts (ada'ted from A;ar BB0!
conte/t
needs
ca'acit-
actors conflict
Conte/tual
+ac%ground e*g*
colonial legac-6
multiethnicit-6
formation
Acce'tance needs
recognition of
identit- I culture
met
unmet
Access needs
e*g* 'olitical I
economic
1attern of
international
economic (
'olitical lin%ages
su''ortive
e/'loitative
9overnance I the
state
ca'acit-
illegitimac-
inca'acit-
?tate actors
accommodate
su''ress
=ature of conflict
constructive
destructive
?ecurit- needs
=utrition6 housing6
'h-sical securit-
Role of militar-
civic 'olitics
militarised
'olitics
Communal 9rou's
confront
violent re+ellion
Dederach:s )or% (BB2! serves as one of the most com'rehensive statements to date of
conflict transformation thin%ing for 'ractitioners* &e sees 'eace+uilding as a long-term
transformation of a )ar s-stem into a 'eace s-stem6 ins'ired +- a 7uest for the values of 'eace
and 8ustice6 truth and merc-* "he %e- dimensions of this 'rocess are changes in the 'ersonal6
structural6 relational and cultural as'ects of conflict6 +rought a+out over different time-'eriods
(short-6 mid- and long-term! and affecting different s-stem levels at different times*
1eace+uilding is thus seen as a structure-'rocess* An a''ro'riate strateg- (such as
net)or%ing +et)een mid-level leaders )ith lin%s to 'arties across the conflict! is lin%ed to an
a''ro'riate time-frame (such as concentrating on mid-term ste's to +uild a 'eace constituenc-6
)hile at the same time em+racing a vision of the desired future and an a)areness of the current
crisis!* ,n thin%ing a+out structure6 Dederach contri+utes the idea of the '-ramid )ith elite leaders
and decision-ma%ers at the to'6 leaders of social organisations6 churches6 to' 8ournalists in the mid-
level and grassroots communit- leaders at the +ase* A com'rehensive 'eace 'rocess should
address com'lementar- changes at all these levels*
>ne strength of his model is that it )idens its vie) from the conflict and the conflict
'arties and indicates the sco'e for dra)ing 'eace+uilding resources from the )ider societ-* A
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
C
)ea%ness is the limited attention it gives to the autonomous 'rocesses of change that trans'ire
)ithin the 'olitical s-stem of the conflict-affected societ-*
An im'ortant issue6 raised +- Dederach and )idel- discussed +- the conflict resolution
school in the conte/t of conflict intervention6 is the issue of se7uencing* 5hat t-'e of action or
intervention is a''ro'riate6 +- )hom6 and at )hat time. 9lasl (B42! suggested nine stages of
escalation in conflicts* &e argues that different t-'es of intervention might +e a''ro'riate at
different times* Fishers and Feashl-:s (BB! contingenc- theor- +uilt on these foundations* "heir
idea is that the nature of intervention should +e matched to the stage of the conflict* At the earl-
stages of conflict6 the- suggest that facilitation ma- +e a''ro'riateE +ut )hen a conflict has reached
a high stage of 'olarisation 'o)er-+ased mediation (or even coercion! is re7uired* Dederach (BB2!
offers another version of a contingenc- model +ased on Curle:s (B2! 'rogression of conflict6
avoiding coercion*
Authors )ithin the conflict transformation tradition also dra) heavil- on ideas a+out
conflict d-namics common to all three schools* For e/am'le6 conflicts sometimes develo' strong
tendencies to)ards vicious or +enign s'irals* "he common 'attern is for conflict to +roaden (suc% in
ne) issues!6 )iden (suc% in ne) actors! and intensif- (suc% in ne) victims!* But it is also 'ossi+le
for conflict to +e transformed6 as 'arties shift 'ositions and ado't ne) goals6 ne) actors emerge and
ne) situations develo' allo)ing for ne) relationshi's and changed structures*
,t should +e evident from this +rief revie) of a''roaches to conflict transformation theor-
that some theories6 e/em'lified +- A;ar and Ga-r-nen6 are 'rimaril- anal-tical and inter'retative6
attem'ting to e/'lain the formation and transformation of contem'orar- conflicts* >thers6 such as
Curle and Dederach6 are 'rescri'tive6 offering 'eace+uilders a means to conce'tualise the 'ath from
conflict to)ards desired outcomes* 1erha's 9altung:s a''roach comes closest to a s-nthesis*
2
2*0 From a "heor- of Conflict to a "heor- of Conflict-in-Conte/t
As the 'ractice of 'eacema%ing has e/tended from 'revention to 'ost-conflict
'eace+uilding6 and as glo+alisation e/erts an increasing im'act on internal conflicts6 the sco'e of
conflict transformation theories must corres'ondingl- +e e/tended* >n the one hand6 the- need to
+e concerned )ith the factors e/acer+ating conflict and restraining conflict over a num+er of
different 'hases (see Bo/ !#
Bo/ # Factors E/acer+ating or Restraining Conflict at $ifferent 1hases
'hase
factors
're-violence crisis escalation 'rotracted
'ost-
settlement
e/acer+ating
underl-ing
causes
triggers escalators deformers triggers
restraining
dee'
'reventors
light
'reventors
de- escalators transformers 'eace+uilders
>n the other hand6 ho)ever6 these theories must also deal ade7uatel- )ith the inter'la-
of causes and 'reventors at all the different levels of the international s-stem* >ne can identif- five
different levels at )hich contem'orar- conflicts are caused# the glo+al6 regional6 societal6 conflict
'art- and individual(elite (Miall6 Rams+otham and 5oodhouse BBB!* Bo/ 2 'rovides s'ecific
e/am'les of causes and 'reventors of violent conflicts at these levels6 using e/am'les from R)anda*
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
Bo/ 2# Causes and 1reventors of Giolent Conflicts at $ifferent Devels
level e/am'les of causes e/am'les of 'reventors
glo+al 'ost-colonial legac- international minorit- rights
regional
conflict s'illover
in great la%es
conflict 'revention
+- >?CE
state(societ-
state ca'ture
+- ethnic grou's
cross-ethnic 'art- voting
conflict 'art-
&utu hostilit-
to)ards "utsi
'ragmatic a''roach
of minorit-
elite(international
&utu leaders
launch genocide
'resident acce'ts
>?CE advice
Conflict theories6 if vie)ed too narro)l-6 )ill +e seen to concentrate overl- on the
conflict 'art- level6 focusing on 'arties6 issues6 goals and so on to the e/clusion of the conte/t
)ithin )hich the conflict is situated as )ell as of the factors )hich characteri;e the self-fuelling of
conflicts6 e*g* mar%ets and cultures of violence* ,t is 'ossi+le6 ho)ever6 to add more re'resentation
of the +ac%ground6 for e/am'le +uilding on 9altung:s sim'le triangular formulation of conflict*
>n to
Jcontradiction:6 )e can +uild Jconte/t:E on to Jattitudes:6 Jmemor-: and on to J+ehaviour:6
Jrelations: (see Figure 2 !* "his recogni;es that the meaning of a conflict de'ends largel- on the
conte/t out of )hich it arises* "he attitudes the 'arties have to)ards one another are sha'ed +-
'revious relationshi's* "he +ehaviour the- ado't is not 'urel- reactive +ut is +ased on their
memor- of )hat has ha''ened in the 'ast6 and e/'ectations of )hat ma- ha''en in the future*
"he context of conflict includes the societ- in conflict and the )ider international and
regional level* 5ithin the societ-6 crucial +ac%ground as'ects are culture6 governance
arrangements6 institutions6 social roles6 norms6 the rules and codes in 'lace in a societ-6 and its 'ath
of develo'ment* For e/am'le6 in conflicts involving ethnicit-6 minorities or challenges to state
structures6 it is the ver- structure of the state that is at issue* As glo+alisation 'roceeds6 local
conflicts are inevita+l- influenced +- )ider economic and 'olitical forces* "hese have tended to
strengthen trade investment and technological net)or%s in some areas of the )orld6 +ut also to
marginalise other areas such as Africa and the former ?oviet Knion* "he result is a )ea%ening of
states and economies in these areas and6 in some cases6 the creation of a real crisis of the state*
,nternal conflicts are increasingl- associated )ith fragile states and mal-ada'tive reactions to the
im'act of glo+alisation*
Relationships involve the )hole fa+ric of interaction )ithin the societ- in )hich the
conflict ta%es 'lace as )ell as +e-ond to other societies* As Dederach (BB2! argues6 these relational
as'ects of conflict are crucial* 1oor relationshi's +et)een grou's are all too often a trigger for
conflict6 and remain a critical hindrance to 'eace+uilding efforts after the violence is over*
0emories are 'art of each 'art-:s sociall- constructed understanding of the situation6
sha'ed +- culture and learning6 and discourse and +elief* "he )a- grou's remem+er and construct
their 'ast is often central to the mo+ili;ation for conflict6 and thus a crucial matter to address in
reconciliation and cultural traditions )or%*
Conte/t6 relationshi's and memories are all 'art of the tissue connecting the
contradictions6
attitudes and +ehaviours in the conflict formations6 )ithin the )ider +ac%ground in s'ace and time*
4
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
Figure 2# E/'anding the Conflict "riangle#
"ransformers and "riggers of Conflict at $ifferent ?-stem Devels
glo+al level
regional level
state(societ- level
transformers
develo'ment
institutions
conte/t
C
governance
culture
triggers e*g*
arms sales
dias'oras
overs'ill of
regional
conflicts
A B
e*g*
"rac% ,6
"rac% ,,6
memories relationshi's
"rac% ,,,
initiatives
communities
B
"his tem'late ena+les a +etter understanding of the t-'es of transformation that ta%e
'lace* Building on Ga-r-nen:s a''roach6 Bo/ 0 illustrates five t-'es of transformation6 or
transformers*
Context transformations refer to changes in the conte/t of conflict that ma- radicall- alter
each 'art-:s 'erce'tion of the conflict situation6 as )ell as their motives* "he im'act of the end of
the Cold 5ar on regional conflicts is a dramatic e/am'le* A some)hat less far-reaching instance
might +e the 'ro'osed change in the rules of the diamond trade to outla) Jconflict diamonds:6 that
could )ell have a significant im'act on the conflicts in ?ierra Deone and Angola* "he esta+lishment
of the 5orld $iamond Council ()) ) *)orlddiamondcouncil*com! is a 'romising start +ut it is6 as
-et6 too earl- to see if it )ill have a significant im'act*
1tructural transformations refer to changes in the +asic structure of the conflict6 that is to
the set of actors6 their issues6 incom'ati+le goals and relationshi's6 or to the societ -6 econom- or
state )ithin )hich the conflict is em+edded* As-mmetric conflicts cannot +e transformed6 for
instance6 )ithout changing the un+alanced and contested relationshi's that lie at their roots* 5hile
such changes )ill ta%e 'lace onl- graduall-6 internal and e/ternal actors can su''ort them along the
)a-* For e/am'le ?teve Bi%o:s JBlac% Consciousness: movement raised a)areness of the 'o)er of
the 'oor 'eo'le in the to)nshi's in ?outh Africa6 and the Anti-A'artheid Movement hel'ed to 'ress
the case for dis-investment +- foreign-o)ned +usinesses )ell +efore the end of the a'artheid
regime* Man- recent conflicts in 5est Africa have demonstrated the futilit- in attem'ting
conflict
transformation )ithout addressing the economic interests that fuel )ars*
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
Bo/ 0# "ransformers of Conflict
t-'e e/am'les
* conte/t transformations change in the international or regional environment
2* structure transformations
change from as-mmetric to s-mmetric relations
change in 'o)er structures
changes of mar%ets of violence
0* actor transformations
changes of leadershi'
changes of goals
intra-'art- change
change in 'art-:s
constituencies changing actors
4* issue transformations
transcendence of contested issues
constructive com'romise
changing issues
de-lin%ing or re-lin%ing issues
3* 'ersonal(elite transformations
changes of 'ers'ective
changes of heart
changes of )ill
gestures of
conciliation
2ctor transformations include decisions on the 'art of actors to change their goals or alter
their general a''roach to conflict* "his )ould include decisions to see% 'eace or to initiate a 'eace
'rocess* "he- also include changes of leadershi'6 often crucial to the securing of transformation in
conflicts* Also included are changes in the situation of the 'u+lic constituencies and su''orters of
the res'ective 'olitical leaders* "his o'ens a num+er of lines for s'ecific conflict transformation
)or%6 as those )ho )or% )ithin a 'art- to +ring a+out change in that 'art-:s 'osition often 'rove
to +e crucial actors in the 'eace 'rocess6 and ma- have more influence than e/ternal "rac% , and
"rac% ,, actors*
3ssue transformations concern the reformulations of 'ositions that 'arties ta%e on %e-
issues at the heart of the conflict as )ell as the )a- in )hich 'arties redefine or reframe those
'ositions in order to reach com'romises or resolutions* A good e/am'le of an issue transformation
)as the decision +- the Knionist 1art- in =orthern ,reland to acce't a de-lin%ing of the
decommissioning issue from the 7uestion of the convocation of the =orthern ,reland Assem+l-*
Ma%ing J'rogress: on issues in conflict is often tortuousl- slo) and 'ainfull- su+8ect to reversals6
and of course )hat counts as 'rogress is itself contentious*
4ersonal changes of heart or mind within individual leaders or small groups )ith
decision-ma%ing 'o)er at critical moments ma- +e crucial* ?ome e/ternal intervenors tr- to reach
these leaders and +ring a+out this 'ersonal change directl- (Curle B42E Mitchell 2000!*
Conciliator- gestures +- leaders6 )hich e/'ress 'ersonal changes6 )ould 'la- an im'ortant role in
this conte/t*
"hese five t-'es of transformation can +e readil- related to the levels of conflict
causation or 'revention identified a+ove* Conte/t transformations usuall- occur )ithin the glo+al or
regional setting* ?tructural transformations usuall- ha''en at the state(societ- level* Actor and
issue transformations ta%e 'lace at the conflict 'art- and elite levels* 1ersonal transformations
demand com'etencies on the individual level*
"he transformation t-'es can also +e connected to the different 'arts of conflict
formation6
0
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
)hether this is seen in A;ar:s terms (see Figure ! or in 9altung:s (see Figure 2!* Conte/t6 structural
and issue transformations all affect the conte/t and contradictions at the heart of the conflict* Actor
and 'ersonal transformations 'articularl- affect attitudes and memor-6 +ehaviour and relationshi's*
"hese in turn6 of course6 are interrelated*
Finall-6 these different t-'es of transformation further relate to the 'hases of conflicts and
the timing of intervention* Conte/t and structural changes tend to ta%e 'lace over a longer time-
scale6 and affect the setting of the conflictE the other t-'es of transformations occur more ra'idl-
and se7uentiall-6 as 'art of the d-namics of the conflict* "he se7uencing of changes varies )ith
each 'eace 'rocess de'ending on the logic of the situation (see Bo/ 4 for the =orthern ,reland case!*
>nl- in the ver- sim'lest conflicts is conflict transformation li%el- to +e a ra'id or immediate
'rocess* More t-'icall-6 it is slo) and tortuous )ith turning 'oints usuall- follo)ed +- stic%ing
'oints* "his
ma%es the evaluation of individual measures e/tremel- difficult*
Bo/ 4# "ransformers of the =orthern ,reland Conflict
As one of the most intensivel- managed conflicts6 as )ell as one of the more
intracta+le conflicts of the t)entieth centur-6 =orthern ,reland offers man- lessons for
conflict transformation* 5e can find evidence of all five levels of transformation at different
'oints* "he context of the conflict )as altered +- long-term changes in the British and ,rish
societies6 the develo'ment of the EK and the end of the Cold 5ar* "he conflict structure
changed as the 'an-=ationalist coalition develo'ed sufficient alliances and confidence to
+alance the hitherto as-mmetric relationshi's +et)een the 'arties* 2ctor transformations
included changes of government in Britain6 the fundamental shift in thin%ing )ithin the ?inn
FLin leadershi'6 and division and change among the Knionists* 3ssue transformations
included the mutual agreements reached in the 9ood Frida- agreement to reconcile the
legitimac- of the t)o cultural traditions and esta+lish institutions )hich reinforce +oth the
,rish and British dimensions of governance* All this could not have ta%en 'lace )ithout
significant changes of mind at the individual and elite level* Even so6 conflict remains and
continues6 as each marching season reinvo%es the old atmos'here of division and fear*
=orthern ,reland offers a stri%ing e/am'le of the com'lementarit- of a''roaches on different
trac%s and of the interrelationshi' +et)een Jstructural: and Jcultural: a''roaches (Bloomfield
BB2!* For e/am'le6 the 'atient )or% of the Communit- Relations Council on the ground
+uilt sufficient credi+ilit- to ena+le the Council to facilitate 7uiet dialogue )ith -oung
'oliticians (Fit;duff
BBB!* 5e have not -et gained a clear understanding of the role that Jcivil societ-: 'la-ed in
this 'eace 'rocess and in the longer term 'rocess of healing the divisions +et)een the
communities* Cochrane and $unn (2002! 'rovides an in-de'th assessment*
"he d-namics of conflict and conflict transformation are also related to the social and
international ca'acit- for handling conflicts* ,n general6 this ca'acit- is li%el- to +e higher in
societies )ith a 'ast tradition of handling change 'eacefull-6 in )hich institutions are legitimate and
rules and norms are acce'ted* Corres'ondingl-6 it ma- +e threatened and undermined in times of
e/treme conflict and )ar* "he modified version of A;ar:s theor-6 'resented in Figure 6 suggests
the relationshi' +et)een conflict d-namics and conflict handling ca'acit- in divided societies*
Constructive conflict handling reinforces the societ-:s confidence in its civic institutions6
culture and ca'acit- to manage conflict 'eacefull-* Further it not onl- transforms relationshi's in
conflict6 it also strengthens the societ-:s s-stem of governance and ca'acit- for conflict handling

Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
and 'eaceful change*
$estructive conflict6 on the other hand6 results in an intensification of damage to the
'artici'ants in conflicts and the +-standers* ,t further destro-s their coo'erative ca'acities6 including
the s-stem of governance6 the economic order and the social relationshi's of the societ-6 in some
cases even the state* ,n 'rotracted conflicts6 all the institutions of societ- +ecome thoroughl-
deformed*
"hese rather +road theoretical considerations suggest a frame)or% through )hich )e can
anal-se and evaluate conflict transformation 'ractices6 and consider the ga's and )ea%nesses in the
international ca'acit- for handling conflict*
0* 1ractices of Conflict Resolution
0* Actors of Conflict "ransformation
Conflict transformation usuall- involves a +road range of actors6 )ho ma%e use of a )ide
re'ertoire of 'ractices* "hese can6 ho)ever6 +e categorised into four main grou's of actors6 )ho
sha'e the develo'ment of contem'orar- 'ractice#
H states and inter-governmental organisationsE
H develo'ment and humanitarian organisationsE
H international =9>s concerned )ith conflict 'revention and transformationE
H 'arties to the conflict and other relevant grou's )ithin the affected societies*
, )ill +riefl- discuss some of the characteristic 'ractices of each grou'6 +efore
considering the issues that arise )hen the- come together*
"rac% , 'ractitioners6 states and international organisations6 are among the most
influential of all the actors as their 'ractice im'inges most directl- and 'o)erfull- on the conflict
'arties6 and the 'ositive and negative conse7uences of their interventions are full- in the 'u+lic
e-e* "he BB0s +egan )ith a ho'eful 'hase in )hich the K= set out to im'lement the e/'anded
conce'tion of 'eacema%ing envisioned in Boutros Boutros-9hali:s 2genda for 4eace6 )ith nota+le
'eace+uilding o'erations in areas )ith recent 'eace settlements6 including Cam+odia6 =ami+ia6
Angola6 Mo;am+i7ue and El ?alvador*
A general model for K= 'eace+uilding has emerged from these cases* ,t calls for militar-
measures to secure the demo+ili;ation6 disarmament and cantonment of o''osing forcesE
constitutional measures to im'lement elections and esta+lish a transitional governmentE governance
measures to su''ort civilian government and infrastructure6 including the training and6 if necessar-6
su'ervision of local 'oliceE human rights measuresE return of refugeesE and restoration of the )ar-
damaged infrastructure* At first6 this model a''eared to have stri%ing successes6 and in some cases
such as =ami+ia and Mo;am+i7ue a 'eaceful transformation from )ar )as indeed achieved* ,n
others6 ho)ever6 such as Angola and Cam+odia6 violent conflict resumed* "he K= and the ma8or
states continue to learn from these o'erations and are e/tending their 'eace+uilding o'erations6 for
e/am'le in Bosnia and Fosovo* 5hile international interventions have in these cases seem to have
halted ethnic )ars6 the e/tent of transformation of the underl-ing conflict remains limited* Ethno-
nationalist leadershi's remain and settlements +ased on the realities of ethnic divisions in the )ar
have 'reserved these divisions in the 'eace*
"hese high-'rofile cases6 of course6 involved im'osed settlements6 achieved after
considera+le vacillation on the 'art of a divided international communit-* More im'ressive have
+een the cases in )hich conflicts )ere 'revented even +efore the- +ecame violent6 and )here
2
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
dee' or structural and light or o'erational conflict 'revention have )or%ed together* &ere6 real
changes in the conte/t of the conflict and in the structure of the societies have resulted in some
im'ressive transformations*
,n the case of Estonia6 for e/am'le6 a 'otential ethnic conflict )as averted in 'art through
the )ell-%no)n interventions of the >?CE &igh Commissioner on =ational Minorities6 su''orted
+- the EK and ?candinavian governments* ,n 'art6 the transformed economic conte/t served to
change the incentives for the Russian-s'ea%ing communit-* Moreover an additional %e- factor )as
the introduction of an electoral s-stem that created incentives for cross-ethnic voting6 thus resulting
in a transition from ethnic 'olitics to a 'olitics of economic and regional interest grou's* =on-
Estonian 'oliticians )ere included in the 'art- lists of Estonian 'arties6 and the Estonian Centre
1art- )on )ide su''ort from Russian-s'ea%ers as a vehicle for 'romoting their interests* "his is a
'articularl- stri%ing success for the conflict management and ethnic accommodation a''roaches6
made 'ossi+le +- the transformation of the Estonian conte/t after BB*
"he second t-'e of actors are develo'ment and humanitarian agencies* ,n the B40s and
BB0s6 these agencies )ere increasingl- dra)n into the costl- +usiness of re+uilding )ar-torn
societies6 and )ere res'onding to the acute damage to develo'ment6 )hich had resulted from armed
conflicts6 +- targeting develo'ment 'rogrammes s'ecificall- to)ards 'eace+uilding* ,n some cases6
their activities su''orted K= 'eace+uilding o'erations6 for e/am'le in Mo;am+i7ue )here donors
hel'ed to %ee' the elections on schedule and su''orted the transformation of RE=AM> into a
'olitical 'art-* ,n other cases6 develo'ment aid can +e channelled to directl- mitigate conflict6 as
)hen donors su''orted refugees in neglected 'arts of ?omalia )ith the intention of reducing
discontent in a 'oliticall- unsta+le area* 1rogrammes to su''ort the re-integration of child soldiers
or the reha+ilitation of agricultural land are further e/am'les of develo'ment tas%s that can readil-
have a 'eace+uilding com'onent* Ca'acit--+uilding and su''ort for indigenous conflict handling
ca'acit- are also crucial* A nota+le e/am'le of such )or% is >/fam:s conflict transformation )or%
in =orthern Fen-a (see Bo/ 3!*
$evelo'ment aid can6 of course6 have unintended as )ell as intended conse7uencesE in
some circumstances6 aid is ca'tured +- the 'arties to conflict and then sustains the fighting* Current
)or% on esta+lishing a frame)or% of indicators for assessing the im'act of develo'ment 'ro8ects on
conflicts goes some )a- to)ards meeting the need for a frame)or% for +etter evaluation (see
contri+utions of Mar% &offman and Mar- Anderson in this volume!* ?uch a frame)or% of
indicators should in turn +e lin%ed to a frame)or% for understanding the overall transformation of
the conflict6 such as the one offered a+ove*
Although develo'ment agencies are increasingl- im'ortant and influential in this field6
the- generall- see their role as 'rinci'all- to su''ort and encourage the )or% of others6 rather than
to ta%e 'rime res'onsi+ilit- for transforming 'articular conflicts (this role is still seen as a ne) and
untested function!* Most of the conflict transformation )or% has therefore +een left to =9>s*
Bo/ 3# Conflict "ransformation 5or% in =orthern Fen-a
,n =orthern Fen-a6 the gro)ing 'ressure on arid land and the introduction of a
Falashni%ov culture into traditional cattle-raiding has led to an increase in +oth the e/tent
and intensit- of conflicts +et)een nomadic 'astoral communities6 as )ell as +et)een
'astoralists and agriculturalists* =ot onl- historical rivals such as the "ur%ana and 1o%ot or
?omali and Borana6 +ut also communities )hich coe/isted 'eacefull- in the B40s are no)
engulfed in )ar* "he militarisation of these 'astoralist communities is severel- affecting the
securit- of Fen-a and the neigh+ouring territories6 and damaging the affected communities*
,n res'onse6
0
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
>/fam facilitated 'eace tal%s rel-ing on local elders in the Baragoi 1astoral 1ro8ect of BB2*
A crucial as'ect of >/fam:s ongoing )or% in the area is an effort to a''reciate the codes of
honour and conduct of these 'eo'les and their understanding of conflict6 through le/ical and
ethnogra'hic anal-sis (Fona BBB!* ,n this vein6 a local committee of )omen from the
affected communities set u' the 5a8ir 1eace and $evelo'ment Committee6 a net)or% of 22
governmental organisations and =9>s in north-eastern Fen-a* "his grou' conducts training
and ca'acit--+uilding6 and contri+uted to a cease-fire in BB0 and continuing efforts to
'revent and resolve local conflicts in the region*
(Euro'ean 1latform for Conflict 1revention BBBa6 32E BBB+6 240-42!
>f all the grou's of 'ractitioners discussed here6 it is 'ro+a+l- the =9>s )ho have 'aid
most attention to theories of conflict transformation* Follo)ing Dederach6 =9> 'ractitioners
advocate a sustained level of engagement over a longer time-'eriod* "he- see% an in-de'th
understanding of the roots of conflict6 )or%ing closel- )ith 'eo'le +oth )ithin and outside the
conflict 'arties* "he- see% to o'en a s'ace for dialogue6 sustain local or national conferences and
)or%sho's on 'aths to)ards 'eace6 identif- o''ortunities for develo'ment and engage in
'eace+uilding6 relationshi'-+uilding and institution-+uilding over the longer term*
"he methods and tools em'lo-ed +- "rac% ,, actors include su''orting and sustaining
local grou's and social movements6 +uilding 'eace constituencies6 strengthening ca'acit-6
em'o)ering %e- actors6 organisational develo'ment and net)or%ing and training* A nota+le
e/am'le of this %ind of )or% is the 'rogramme of the Dondon-+ased =9> Conciliation Resources
(CR! in Fi8i6 underta%en in coalition )ith local actors* CR su''orted the Citi;ens: Constitutional
Forum in Fi8i6 an organisation )hich made a significant contri+ution to the ne) constitutional
settlement in
BBC )ith the introduction of the alternative-vote s-stem and 'o)er-sharing (Conciliation
Resources
2000!* Knfortunatel-6 the cou' in Fi8i in Ma- 2000 and the return to a narro)l--+ased government
indicates onl- too clearl- the set+ac%s confronted +- this %ind of )or%*
>ne %e- re7uirement for this )or% is good conflict anal-sis (see Bo/ C!6 )hich is +est
develo'ed in con8unction )ith grou's in conflict* "rac%ing the changing d-namics of a conflict
over time is clearl- one of the areas in )hich 'ractice must dra) on a''ro'riatel- develo'ed
theor-*
Bo/ C# Conflict Anal-sis
"he original conflict ma''ing guide of 5ehr (B2B! is still of value* More recent
guides can +e found in Miall6 Rams+otham and 5oodhouse (BBB6 B2-0!6 Bloomfield and
Reill- (BB46 4-40! and Deonhardt (2000!* "he +asic techni7ue is to ta%e a sna'shot of the
conflict6 identif-ing %e- actors6 sta%eholders6 issues and relationshi's6 and then identif- the
actors6 third-'arties or 'otential 'eace alliances ca'a+le of +ringing a+out change* More
so'histicated conflict trac%ing relies on indicators of conflict )hich are also used for earl-
)arning 'ur'oses and im'act assessment (?chmid BB2E Mongmaan 2000E see contri+ution of
1affenhol; in this volume!*
Finall-6 and most im'ortantl-6 the local actors themselves have the greatest
res'onsi+ilit-6 and the greatest o''ortunit-6 for transforming their o)n conflicts* "here are cases of
Jem+edded third-'arties: )ho emerge out of conflict 'arties and 'la- a significant role in o'ening
channels of dialogue and o'ening 'olitical s'ace < such as Mohn &ume in =orthern ,relandE
cases of grou's
4
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
)ithin 'olitical 'arties )ho can +ring a+out an actor transformation such as the shift to)ards
'olitical forms of struggle in ?inn FLinE and civil societ- actors and local =9>s )ho often have an
enormous influence on +ridge-+uilding +et)een 'olitical 'arties and local communities e/em'lified
+- the Clonard monaster- in =orthern ,reland6 and the Corr-meela Communit- )or%ing on res'ect
for cultural traditions there+- addressing the 'ro+lems of historical memories and reconciliation*
"he im'act of this 'eace+uilding on the macro level of the conflict is hard to evaluateE +ut on a
small scale6 the 'ersonal and grou' transformations that it can achieve are %eenl- felt*
0*2 Coordination and Multi-"rac% $i'lomac-
A 'articular challenge for conflict transformation )or% is the 7uestion of ho) +est to
)or% effectivel- )ith interventions occurring at other trac%s* At times6 ver- effective colla+oration
ta%es 'lace6 for e/am'le in the case of Macedonia (see Bo/ 2!*
All too often6 ho)ever6 internal and e/ternal actors in the various trac%s are at cross-
'ur'oses* "his is not sur'rising6 given the clash +et)een 'aradigms* Actions on one trac% can
sometimes )rec% efforts on another* For e/am'le6 it ma- +e difficult for an organisation that strives
for non-violent resolution of conflicts to coo'erate )ith a government that relies on coercive
methods to 'ressure the local 'rotagonists to acce't a settlement* Conversel-6 foreign ministries are
not usuall- enthusiastic a+out the intrusion of =9>s into di'lomac-*
1ractitioners of conflict transformation activities at the non-state level must 'ursue their
aims )ith sensitivit- to +oth the culture of the conflict area and the goals and constraints of other
actors* "he- must al)a-s remem+er that the- ma- not +e a+le to influence other actors )hose
actions )ill in turn affect their o)n )or%* Moreover6 their tas% ma- +roaden )hen conflict
transformation involves changing the 'olicies of "rac% , +odies outside the conflict area* For
e/am'le6 it is increasingl- recogni;ed that +odies li%e the 5orld Ban% can have a significant im'act
on conflicts* Cam'aigns to influence their 'olicies have thus +ecome a regular 'art of the )ider tas%
of conflict transformation*
Bo/ 2# Coo'erative Multi-"rac% $i'lomac- in Macedonia
Macedonia offers a case in )hich the various initiatives of different trac%s a''ear to
have +een genuinel- com'lementar-* For e/am'le6 the >?CE &igh Commissioner on
=ational Minorities (e/ternal "rac% ,! together )ith the >'en ?ociet- ,nstitute in ?%o'8e
(internal "rac% ,,,! 'ro'osed several com'romise solutions on the universit- issue* "he
,nternational Conference on the Former Nugoslavia ("rac% ,! +ro%ered a com'romise
+et)een Macedonia and the ethnic ?er+s6 )hile Mr* &ol+roo%e and the K? government
("rac% ,! clinched the agreement +et)een 9reece and Macedonia )hich ended the +loc%ade*
"he =9> ?earch for Common 9round (e/ternal "rac% ,,,! develo'ed a long-term
'rogramme aiming to meet the common needs of +oth communities at the grassroots
level6 'articularl- +- 'romoting
Jinclusive 8ournalism:6 res'ect for the common cultural legac- and the monuments of +oth
communities6 and also +icommunal efforts to 'rotect the environment (Ac%ermann 2000!*
"ensions +et)een the t)o communities remain shar' and have +een further e/acer+ated +-
the effects of the )ar in Fosovo* ,ndeed the fighting in Ma-(Mune 2000 threatened to e/'and
into civil )ar* Knderl-ing disagreements over the acce'tance of the identit- and status of the
grou's have not +een resolved* =evertheless6 an inter-ethnic coalition is still intact in
1arliament ("rac% ! < this is 'ro+a+l- the most vital factor in restraining violent conflict*
Although at the time of )riting these tensions could still over)helm Macedonia6 internal and
e/ternal actors have so far )or%ed together effectivel- to create a significant ca'acit-6 at
least
at the to'-level6 for accommodating differences*
3
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
0*0 Assessing the ,m'act of 1ractice
5hat is the overall im'act of these %inds of 'ractice on conflict. ,t is still difficult to sa-*
"here are re'orts of significant achievements in +uilding 'eace constituencies for e/am'le in
Dederach:s )or% (BB2!* Com'ilations of recent )or% include some im'ressive stories of a''arent
successes (Euro'ean 1latform for Conflict 1revention BBBa6+!* >nl- recentl-6 ho)ever6 some
com'arative research studies have started to identif- %e- varia+les of im'act assessment more
s-stematicall- such as Reflecting on 4eace 4ractice !R44& and *essons *earned in Conflict
3nterventions +- the Euro'ean 1latform for Conflict 1revention and "ransformation* Bercovitch:s
research (BBC! suggests that conflict management a''roaches6 including the use of 'o)er
resources6 are the most effective at delivering settlements* >n the other hand6 these settlements
often fail to genuinel- transform the conflict6 and the long-term )or% necessar- to +uild
relationshi's and ca'acit- ma- +e more im'ortant than reaching fragile short-term 'olitical
settlements*
"he overall evidence of the ending of ethnic conflicts is 'articularl- so+ering* ,n a stud-
of 'eacefull- settled conflicts in Euro'e6 the Middle East and Africa since B43 (1fetsch and Roloff
2000! the authors found onl- 0 out of 2 cases of conflicts over ethnicit-6 religion or regional
autonom- that )ere resolved through 'eaceful negotiation (these include the Aland ,slands6
=orthern E'irus6 the ?aar and ?outh "-rol!* 3 remain undecided6 4 )ere resolved +- the threat of
force or other forms of coercion6 and 4B +- violence* "he great ma8orit- of the 'eaceful cases )ere
re'u+lics of the former ?oviet Knion )hich 'eacefull- +ro%e a)a- in BB* ,ndeed6 des'ite the
violent conflicts in Chechn-a6 "a8i%istan6 =agorno-Fara+a%h and else)here6 the num+er of ethnic
conflicts )hich a''ear to have +een transformed )ithout violence in the former ?oviet Knion is
startling*
A useful line of )or% is to identif- these 'eaceful cases and ascertain the reasons )h-
violence has +een avoided6 and ho) ethnic and other internal conflicts have +een managed or
addressed* But conflict ending measured +- the end of violence is too final and crude an indicator
on )hich to +ase the 'lanning and assessment of conflict transformation initiatives* For this6 a
more finel--grained6 differentiated a''roach is needed and indicators such as those develo'ed in
)or% on 1eace and Conflict ,m'act Assessment (1C,A! s-stems offer one such a''roach (see
contri+ution of &offman in this volume!* ,f conflict transformation can +e +ro%en do)n into a
se7uence of changes in the conflict structure6 the 'arties: goals and into issues over time6 as
suggested in the first 'art of this 'a'er6 it ma- +ecome more feasi+le to relate interventions to
'articular transformations in the conflict*
"he im'act of endeavours for conflict transformation should not onl- +e seen as an issue
)hich affects the 'arties in conflict* ,t is also of direct relevance for all the individuals involved*
"he challenges6 difficulties6 hardshi's6 set+ac%s and tenacit- inherent in all conflict transformation
mean that )e must also Jtransform the transformers:* 5e must include this grou' as )e focus on
activities designed to enhance 'eace education6 to im'rove training 'rogrammes and to create
o''ortunities for self-reflection and s'iritualit- (see Bo/ 4!*
Bo/ 4# "ransforming the "ransformers < ?miling as a Method
>ne of the )orld:s most nota+le transformers of conflict uses a method that does not
usuall- a''ear in +oo%s a+out conflict and is com'letel- a+sent from conflict theories* ,t is6
ho)ever6 a method that )or%s* "he method is to smile* @Breathing in6 , calm m- mind and
+od-* Breathing out6 , smile* "his is the 'resent moment* "his is the onl- moment*A "hich
=hat &anh is a Gietnamese Buddhist mon%6 'oet and 'eace activist* &e is not the onl-
e/'onent of the smiling a''roach to conflict transformation* "he $alai Dama6 Adam Curle
and =elson
C
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
Mandela are all instinctive smilers* "hich =hat &anh not onl- smiles )onderfull-6 he also
offers a com'rehensive guide to the theor- and 'ractice of smiling6 rooted in traditional
)isdom and e/'erience (=hat &anh B42!* @,f )e are 'eaceful6 if )e are ha''- )e can smile
and +lossom li%e a flo)er and ever-one in our famil- in our entire societ- )ill +enefit from
our 'eace*A "he idea of smiling as an a''roach to conflict transformation is +ased on the
theor- of interde'endent co-origination* "he 'ractice of smiling is 'art of the 'ractice of
engaged mindfulness and reminds us that the conflict transformer must also ta%e res'onsi+ilit-
for transforming him- or herself in the 'rocess* "he theor- of interde'endent co-origination
states that ever-thing has an influence on ever-thing else* Ever-thing inter-is )ith ever-thing
else* A flo)er is 'artl- a flo)er6 +ut it also has the sun and the rain and the earth inside it*
"he flo)er is made u' of non-flo)er elements* ?imilarl-6 our self is made u' of non-self
elements* 5e can touch that of ourselves in the other and +e touched +- that of the other in
ourselves* According to Buddhist 's-cholog-6 )e have a mental consciousness and a
storehouse consciousness* ?eeds develo' in the storehouse consciousness and )hen the- come
to occu'- our mental consciousness6 )e )ater them and the- gro)* ,n conflict )e )ater the
seed of anger until the anger )ithin our storehouse consciousness gro)s ver- strong* ,t can
then govern our thoughts and +ehaviour* But this is not inevita+le* "he 'ractice of engaged
mindfulness can transform anger6 'ain6 and hate into com'assion6 8o- and love* Conflict
transformation6 li%e mindfulness6 tends and )aters seeds6 )ithout %no)ing e/actl- ho) the-
)ill gro)* Memor-6 relationshi's and conflicts are seeds in the collective storehouse
consciousness* "ransforming collective conflicts re7uires a dee' a)areness of ourselves and
our inter+eing )ith others*
2
Conclusion
"his 'a'er has argued that a distinctive school of conflict transformation theor- and
'ractice has develo'ed over the 'ast decade* "his ne) a''roach can +e differentiated from conflict
management and conflict resolution6 although all three schools rel- on a shared tradition of thin%ing
a+out conflict and intervention*
Conflict transformation is a com'rehensive a''roach6 addressing a range of dimensions
(micro- to macro- issues6 local to glo+al levels6 grassroots to elite actors6 short-term to long-term
timescales!* ,t aims to develo' ca'acit- and to su''ort structural change6 rather than to facilitate
outcomes or deliver settlements* ,t see%s to engage )ith conflict at the 're-violence and 'ost-
violence 'hases6 and )ith the causes and conse7uences of violent conflict6 )hich usuall- e/tend
+e-ond the site of fighting*
"his 'a'er has argued that the am+itious 'rescri'tive theories need to +e +etter integrated
)ith the incremental anal-tical a''roach* At the same time6 the anal-tical theories must +e e/tended
in time-scale and sco'e* "he 'a'er 'ro'osed e/'anding conflict theor- to include conflict-in-
conte/t6 and suggested a theoreticall- informed frame)or% for evaluation*
A num+er of 7uestions and ga's in the theor- remain* 5e still lac% sufficientl- 'recise
d-namic theories to ade7uatel- ca'ture the emergent 'ro'erties of conflict6 including the formation
of ne) actors and ne) issues* Most theories concentrate either on the causes and develo'ment of
conflict or on the creation and sustenance of a 'eace+uilding ca'acit-6 and fail to sufficientl-
integrate an understanding of ho) the 'reventors and causes of conflict interact* "here has +een a
some)hat uncritical )illingness to em+race multi-trac% di'lomac-6 )ithout an ade7uate
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
4*
conce'tualisation of ho) activit- in the various trac%s can fit together* 5e still have an incom'lete
understanding of the im'act of conflict transformation activities on conflict6 )hich ma%es them
difficult to evaluate*
As the tas% of conflict transformation +roadens6 it ma- seem even more daunting* An-
one 'ractitioner or theorist can tac%le onl- a 'art of this enormous field* All )e can to is6 to
underta%e a 'iece of )or% in good faith and do it )ell is all )e can do* 5e 'lant seeds6 and trust
that interde'endent co-origination )ill ta%e care of the rest*
3* Reference and Further Reading
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Kniversit- 1ress*
Anderson6 M* BBB* 5o 6o 7arm: 7ow 2id Can 1upport 4eace 8 or 9ar6 Boulder# D-nne
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A;ar6 E* BB0* 'he 0anagement of 4rotracted 1ocial Conflict6 Aldershot# $artmouth*
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Rienner and 5heatsheaf*
Baile-6 ?* BB0* 4eace is a 4rocess6 Oua%er &ome ?ervice and 5ood+roo%e College for the ?)arthmore
Decture Committee*
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D-nne Rienner*
Bloomfield6 $* BB2* 4eacema,ing strategies in 6orthern 3reland: "uilding Complementarity in Conflict
0anagement 'heory6 Basingsto%e# Macmillan* 4
Bloomfield6 $* and Ben Reill- BB4* @"he Changing =ature of Conflict and Conflict Management6A in 1eter
&arris and Ben Reill- (eds*!6 o'* cit*
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America*
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the
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Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
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Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%
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20
Conflict "ransformation# A Multi-$imensional "as%