Contents
1 History .............................................................................................................
.........................................................................................
3
1.2 Synthetic rubber .......................................................................................
6
1.3 What exactly does the word rubber mean? .............................................
7
References ........................................................................................................ 8
1.1 Natural rubber
Suggested Further Reading ...............................................................................
2
Types of Rubber and Their Essential Properties
.............................................
11
...........................................................................................
11
Interpreting the properties ......................................................................
11
2.2.1 Upper temperature aging limits .heat aging resistance ................ 11
12
2.2.2 Chemical resistance and concentration ........................................
12
2.2.3 Chemical resistance and temperature ...........................................
2.1 Introduction
2.2
......................................
13
2.2.5
Grades within a type of rubber ....................................................
13
2.2.6
The rubber compound
2.2.4 Mechanical properties and temperature
.................................................................
13
..................................................................................
Specific elastomers ..................................................................................
14
2.3.1 Natural rubber N R ......................................................................
14
2.2.7
2.3
Conclusion
.....................................................
14
16
2.3.2
Styrene butadiene rubber SBR
2.3.3
Polychloroprene CR
2.3.4
Nitrile NBR
2.3.5
............................... 19
Butyl rubber IIR and halobutyl rubber CIIR and BIIR ................ 20
2.3.6
....................................................................
.................................................................................
17
18
Ethylene propylene rubber EPM and EPDM
An Introduction to Rubber Technology
Silicone rubber M Q M P Q M V Q and MPVQ ..............................
21
2.3.8 Hydrogenated nitrile HNBR (HSN) ............................................
22
2.3.9 Fluorocarbon rubber FKM (FPM) ...............................................
22
2.3.10 Aflas TFEm .................................................................................
2.3.11 Kalrez FFKM ...............................................................................
23
23
.........................................................................
Polybutadiene rubber BR .............................................................
Polyacrylate ACM .......................................................................
Polyepichlorohydrin ECO CO and GECO ...................................
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene CSM ...........................................
Polynorbornene ...........................................................................
2.4 Trade names ...........................................................................................
References ......................................................................................................
Suggested Further Reading .............................................................................
24
2.3.7
2.3.12 Other elastomers
3 The Basic Rubber Compound ........................................................................
24
24
24
24
25
27
29
31
3.1 Introduction
31
3.2
31
3.3
11
...........................................................................................
The basic compound formula .................................................................
Raw materials .........................................................................................
3.3.1 Raw gum elastomer .....................................................................
3.3.2 Sulfur ...........................................................................................
3.3.3 Zinc oxide and stearic acid ..........................................................
3.3.4 Accelerators .................................................................................
3.3.5 Other cross-linking systems .........................................................
Peroxides .....................................................................................
Electron beam curing ...................................................................
Miscellaneous ..............................................................................
3.3.6 Antioxidants age resistors and antidegradants .............................
3.3.7 Fillers ...........................................................................................
Carbon black ...............................................................................
Precipitated silica .........................................................................
24
32
32
33
33
33
35
35
36
36
36
37
37
38
Contents
.............................
Other fillers .................................................................................
3.3.8 Plasticizers ...................................................................................
3.3.9 Miscellaneous materials ...............................................................
Using recycled tires as a compounding ingredient ........................
3.4 Compound design ....................................................................................
3.4.1 Compound design for product application ..................................
3.4.2 Elastomer blends .........................................................................
3.4.3 Blending for cured hardness ........................................................
3.4.4 Processing ....................................................................................
References ......................................................................................................
More about silica. including tires (green tires)
39
40
40
41
41
42
42
42
43
44
45
Suggested Further Reading .............................................................................
47
Raw materials .........................................................................................
47
Compound design ...................................................................................
48
Rubber Equipment and Its Use .......................................................................
49
...........................................................................................
49
Mills ....................................................................................................... 50
4.2.1 Operation ....................................................................................
50
4.2.2 Mill processing ............................................................................ 51
Internal mixing machines ........................................................................
53
53
4.3.1 Operation ....................................................................................
55
4.3.2 Processing ....................................................................................
Extruders ................................................................................................
57
4.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................
58
58
4.4.2 Operation and processing ............................................................
58
4.4.3 Die swell ......................................................................................
59
4.4.4 Recent extruder design ................................................................
Calenders ................................................................................................
59
60
4.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................
4.1 Introduction
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
...
111
An Introduction to Rubber Technology
...........................................................
4.5.3 Feeding the calender ....................................................................
4.6 Curing equipment ...................................................................................
4.6.1 Molding .......................................................................................
The mold .....................................................................................
Mold design .................................................................................
Introducing compound to the mold .............................................
Compression
molding ..................................................................
4.6.2
Backrind ......................................................................................
Heat transfer ...............................................................................
4.6.3 Transfer molding .........................................................................
Design considerations ..................................................................
Advantages ..................................................................................
Disadvantages ..............................................................................
4.6.4 Injection molding .........................................................................
Advantages ..................................................................................
Disadvantages ..............................................................................
4.6.5 Autoclave curing ..........................................................................
4.7 Product dimensional specifications .........................................................
4.8 Storage of rubber parts ...........................................................................
References ......................................................................................................
Suggested Further Reading .............................................................................
Books ....................................................................................................
Articles ...................................................................................................
4.5.2 Material thickness control
61
62
62
62
63
64
65
68
71
71
73
73
73
74
74
75
75
76
76
77
77
77
78
.................................................................................
81
...........................................................................................
5.2 Raw material ..........................................................................................
5.3 Properties of the uncured compound ......................................................
5.3.1 Mooney viscometer .....................................................................
81
5 The Rubber Laboratory
5.1 Introduction
iv
61
81
82
82
Contents
Mooney scorch ............................................................................
5.3.2 Oscillating disc curemeter ............................................................
83
84
Testing procedure ........................................................................
What the symbols really mean .....................................................
5.3.3 Rotorless curemeter .....................................................................
84
87
5.3.4
Other instruments ........................................................................
89
..........................................................
Introduction ................................................................................
Hardness .....................................................................................
Use of a pocket durometer ...........................................................
Tensile properties .........................................................................
Tensile testing ..............................................................................
90
5.4 Properties of the cured compound
5.4.1
5.4.2
5.4.3
Significance of tensile testing
.......................................................
90
90
91
92
93
94
5.4.4 Tear
94
5.4.5
.............................................................................................
Compression set ..........................................................................
Compression set as a predictor of seal performance .....................
Shear modulus .............................................................................
95
.................................................................
97
5.4.6
5.4.7 Other laboratory tests
88
95
96
References ......................................................................................................
97
Suggested Further Reading ...........................................................................
102
Chemistry .....................................................................................................
103
6.1 Building a rubber molecule ...................................................................
103
6.1.1 Other building blocks ................................................................
104
..............................
Vulcanization ........................................................................................
6.2.1 Sulfur vulcanization ...................................................................
The sulfur cross-link ..................................................................
105
107
................................................
108
6.2.2 Peroxides ...................................................................................
108
................................................................................
109
6.1.2 Shop floor significance of molecular weight
6.2
Sulfur cross-links and properties
6.3 The cured product
106
107
An Introduction to Rubber Technology
6.3.1 Swelling in liquids
.....................................................................
Polarity ......................................................................................
109
110
H o w the chemist uses polarity ...................................................
6.3.2 Permeability to liquids ...............................................................
111
111
..............................
6.3.4 Effects of low temperature .crystallization ...............................
6.3.5 Stretching .strain induced crystallization ..................................
6.3.6 Aging .........................................................................................
References ....................................................................................................
Suggested Further Reading ...........................................................................
112
6.3.3 Effects of low temperature .glass transition
7 Engineering ..................................................................................................
112
113
113
114
114
115
......................................................................................... 115
115
Rubber and steel ...................................................................................
Stress. strain and modulus ....................................................................
116
118
7.3.1 Tensile modulus and Youngs modulus ......................................
7.3.2 Youngs modulus equals three times the shear modulus? ........... 120
7.1 Introduction
7.2
7.3
.................. 1 2 1
122
Shape factor ...............................................................................
7.4 Compression modulus. Youngs modulus and shape factor
7.4.1
...............................................................
Tensile stresshtrain and hysteresis ........................................................
124
7.6 Viscoelasticity .......................................................................................
127
7.6.1 The spring and the dashpot
127
7.6.2
.......................................................
Consequences of the viscous component ...................................
Creep .........................................................................................
Stress relaxation ........................................................................
Viscoelasticity and modulus .......................................................
128
7.6.4 Viscoelasticity in cyclic deformation ..........................................
130
7.6.5 Dynamic viscoelasticity .some warnings ...................................
132
7.7 Rubber turns to glass ............................................................................
133
7.4.2
7.5
7.6.3
vi
Construction bearings
123
129
129
129
Contents
...........................................................................
Transmissibility .........................................................................
7.8 Rubber and vibration
7.8.1
133
134
7.8.2 Translating the transmissibility curve
........................................
135
7.9 Rubber gets stiffer as the temperature rises!
.........................................
136
7.10Life time prediction
..............................................................................
137
7.11Finite element analysis ..........................................................................
137
7.11.1 Rubber presents challenges to FEA ............................................
140
....................................................................................................
Suggested Further Reading ...........................................................................
141
................................................................................
.........................................................................................
147
References
8 Castable Polyurethanes
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Chemistry .............................................................................................
144
147
148
................................... 149
150
8.2.2 Linking chemistry t o properties .................................................
Polyols ....................................................................................... 150
Diisocyanates .............................................................................
150
Curatives ................................................................................... 150
Miscellaneous ............................................................................
150
151
8.2.3 Stoichiometry during cure .........................................................
151
8.2.4 Cure temperature .......................................................................
151
8.2.5 The cured product. properties versus temperature .....................
Making the product .processing ..........................................................
152
8.3.1 Handbatching ............................................................................
152
8.3.2 Machine mixing .........................................................................
152
153
8.3.3 Variations of the basic molding process .....................................
154
Millable urethanes ................................................................................
8.2.1 The curing chemicals .chain extenders
8.3
8.4
References ....................................................................................................
154
Suggested Further Reading ...........................................................................
155
vii
An Introduction to Rubber Technology
..................................................................................................
155
Other general literature ........................................................................
155
Engineering ...........................................................................................
156
156
Proccessing ...........................................................................................
Chemistry ............................................................................................. 1 5 7
Organizations & Other Information Sources ...............................................
157
Books
Appendix
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................
Miscellaneous Information ...........................................................................
159
Books ...........................................................................................................
161
.......................................................................
Rubber Engineering ..............................................................................
162
Some Rubber Journals & Magazines
Products and Processing
163
164
Abbreviations and Acronyms .......................................................................
165
Chart for Converting SI Units to Imperial Units ...........................................
168
.................................................................................................................
169
Index
...
160
............................................................................
Some Web Sites Related to Rubber ..............................................................
Miscellaneous Books
Vlll
159
163
