MA1102R CALCULUS

Lesson 5
Wang Fei

matwf@nus.edu.sg

Department of Mathematics
Office: S14-02-09
Tel: 6516-2937

Chapter 1: Limits 2
Squeeze Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Chapter 2:Continuous Functions 4

Direct Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Discontinuity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
One-Sided Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Continuity on Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Root Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Trigonometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1
Chapter 1: Limits
Part II: Precise Definition of Limits 2 / 26

Proof of Squeeze Theorem

• Theorem. Let f, g, h be functions such that
◦ f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x near a (except at a), and
◦ lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L.
x→a x→a

Then lim g(x) exists and equals L.

x→a

Proof. Let ǫ > 0. There exists δ1 > 0 such that

0 < |x − a| < δ1 ⇒|f (x) − L| < ǫ
⇒ − ǫ < f (x) − L ≤ g(x) − L.
There exists δ2 > 0 such that
0 < |x − a| < δ2 ⇒ |h(x) − L| < ǫ
⇒ ǫ > h(x) − L ≥ g(x) − L.
Let δ = min{δ1 , δ2 }. Then
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ − ǫ < g(x) − L < ǫ
⇒|g(x) − L| < ǫ.

3 / 26

2
Chapter 2:
Continuous Functions 4 / 26

Recall: Direct Substitution Property

• Recall the “direct substitution property” for polynomials and rational functions:
Theorem. Let f be a polynomial or a rational function. If a is in the domain of f , then

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

• Do the following functions have the same property?

y

O x

◦ Algebraically:
• the value of f (x), as x tends to a, is close to f (a).
◦ Geometrically:
• the graph of f (x) has no interruption at a.
◦ A function which satisfies the condition is said to be continuous.

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3
Definition of Continuity
• A function is continuous at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

If f is not continuous at a, we say f is discontinuous at a.

• Remark. The definition consists of the 3 properties:
i) f is defined at a (i.e., a is in the domain of f ), and
ii) lim f (x) exists, and
x→a

iii) lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a
• We can rewrite it in ǫ, δ -definition:
◦ For any ǫ > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (a)| < ǫ.

◦ Note that when x = a, |f (x) − f (a)| = 0 < ǫ is automatically true. We may remove the
restriction x = a and use

0 <|x − a| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (a)| < ǫ.

6 / 26

Examples of Discontinuity
x2 − x − 2
• f (x) = .
x−2
(x − 2)(x + 1)
◦ For x 6= 2, f (x) = = x + 1.
x−2
y y

3 c
b 3 b

O 2 x O 2 x

Since lim f (x) exists, we can redefine f (2) = lim f (x) = 3 to remove the discontinuity at 2.
x→2 x→2
◦ Such discontinuity is a removable discontinuity.

7 / 26

4
Examples of Discontinuity

1/x2 , if x 6= 0,
• f (x) =
1, if x = 0.

O x

f is discontinuous at 0 since lim f (x) does not exist.

x→0
We see that lim f (x) = ∞.
x→0
◦ Such discontinuity is an infinite discontinuity.

8 / 26

Examples of Discontinuity
• Let f (x) = ⌊x⌋ be the floor function, where ⌊x⌋ is the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
◦ ⌊1.2⌋ = 1, ⌊3⌋ = 3, ⌊−3.14⌋ = −4.
y

O 1 2 3 4 x

At each n ∈ Z, lim f (x) = n − 1, lim f (x) = n.

x→n− x→n+
There is a “jump” from the left to the right.
◦ Such discontinuity is a jump discontinuity.

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5
One-Sided Continuity
• A function f is continuous from the right at a if
lim f (x) = f (a),
x→a+

and f is continuous from the left at a if

lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a−

Recall that (Tutorial 2, Question 4) 

limx→a+ f (x) = L
lim f (x) = L ⇔ .
x→a limx→a− f (x) = L

By letting L = f (a), we have the following conclusion:

• Proposition. f is continuous at a if and only if f is continuous from the left at a and continuous
from the right at a.

10 / 26

An Example: The Floor Function

• Recall the floor function: f (x) = ⌊x⌋.
y

O 1 2 3 4 x

◦ If a ∈
/ Z, f is continuous at a.
◦ If n ∈ Z,
• f is continuous from the right at n,
• f is discontinuous from the left at n.

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6
Continuity of a Function on an Interval
• Definition. A function is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the
interval.
◦ f is continuous on open interval (a, b)
⇔ f is continuous at every x ∈ (a, b).
◦ f is continuous
 on closed interval [a, b]
 f is continous at every x ∈ (a, b),
⇔ f is continuous from the right at a,

f is continuous from the left at b.
◦ f is continuous on [a, b) ⇔ · · · · · · · · ·
◦ f is continuous on (a, b] ⇔ · · · · · · · · ·

Example. The floor function f (x) = ⌊x⌋ is continuous on [n, n + 1) for each n ∈ Z.

Question. What kinds of functions are continuous?

12 / 26

Properties of Continuous Function

• Suppose f and g are continuous at a.
◦ Let c be a constant.
lim (cf (x)) = c · lim f (x) = cf (a).
x→a x→a

∴ cf is continuous at a.

lim (f + g)(x) = lim (f (x) + g(x))

x→a x→a
= lim f (x) + lim g(x)
x→a x→a
= f (a) + g(a) = (f + g)(a).

∴ f + g is continuous at a.
◦ Similarly, replacing “+” by “−” or “·”, we can show that f − g and f g are continuous at a as well.

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7
Properties of Continuous Function
• Suppose f and g are continuous at a, (g(a) 6= 0).

lim (f /g)(x) = lim (f (x)/g(x))

x→a x→a
limx→a f (x) f (a)
= = = (f /g)(a).
limx→a g(x) g(a)

• Theorem. Let f and g be functions continuous at a. Then

◦ cf is continuous at a, where c is a constant,
◦ f + g is continuous at a,
◦ f − g is continuous at a,
◦ f g is continuous at a,
◦ f /g is continuous at a, provided that g(a) 6= 0.

14 / 26

Examples of Continuous Function

• Let f (x) = c, a constant function. Then lim c = c.
x→a
◦ For ǫ > 0, choose δ = 1, then
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |c − c| = 0 < ǫ.
∴ Any constant function is continuous on R.
• Let f (x) = x. Then lim x = a.
x→a
◦ For ǫ > 0, choose δ = ǫ, then
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |x − a| < δ = ǫ.
∴ f (x) = x is continuous on R.
y
y

f (x) = c f (x) = x

O x

O x

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8
Examples of Continuous Function
• Let n be a positive integer. Then the power function
n copies
n z }| {
x = x ·x·····x

is continuous (on R), because each factor x is continuous.

• The monomial axn is thus continuous (on R), because it is the scalar multiplication of power
function.

• The polynomial P (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 is continuous (on R), because it is the sum of

monomials.
P (x)
• The rational function , where P (x), Q(x) are polynomials and Q(x) is not identically zero,
Q(x)
is continuous on its domain, because it is the quotient of polynomials.

16 / 26

Polynomials & Rational Functions are Continuous

• Theorem.
◦ A polynomial is continuous everywhere;
◦ A rational function is continuous on its domain.
P (x)
Precisely, if P (x) and Q(x) are polynomial, then is continuous whenever Q(x) 6= 0.
Q(x)

x+1
• Example. Find lim .
x→4 2x2 − 1
x+1
◦ f (x) = is a rational function.
2x2 − 1
◦ If x = 4, 2x2 − 1 6= 0, so x = 4 is in the domain of f .

4+1 5
∴ lim f (x) = f (4) = 2
= .
x→4 2·4 −1 31

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9
Root Functions
√
• Theorem. The root function x1/n = x, n ∈ Z+ , is continuous in the domain.
n


1/n (−∞, ∞), if n is odd,
x is continuous on
[0, ∞), if n is even.

y y

O x

y = x1/9
1/1
1/3
1/5
1/7
O x
= xx1/10
yy = 1/2
1/4
1/6
1/8

√ √
3
◦ xm/n is defined as n
xm ; 82/3 = 8 2 = 4.
◦ What is xπ ? (We will see the definition in Chapter 6)

18 / 26

Root Functions
√
• Theorem. The root function x1/n = n
x, n ∈ Z+ , is continuous in the domain.
• Proof. Let a > 0.  √ n √
n
lim n
x = lim n x
x→a x→a
= lim x
x→a
= a.
√ √
∴ lim n
x= n
a.
x→a
• Note. This is a WRONG proof.
√
◦ We cannot apply the Product Law of Limits unless we have shown that lim n
x exists.
x→a
◦ We have to go back to the ǫ, δ -definition.

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10
Root Functions
√
• We now prove that “ x is continuous at a > 0”.
The general case is left as exercise (Challenge Prob 2).
◦ Let ǫ > 0. Our aim is to find a proper δ > 0 such that
√ √
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ | x − a| < ǫ.
√
Note that x is defined at non-negative numbers only.
y

( )
O a x
a−δ a+δ

First of all, in order to make sure that x ≥ 0 for all x satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ , we must
choose δ such that 0 ≤ a − δ , i.e., δ ≤ a.

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Root Functions
√
• We now prove that “ x is continuous at a > 0”.

◦ Suppose δ ≤ a. Then 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ x > 0.

√ √ |x − a| δ δ
| x − a| = √ √ <√ √ <√ .
x+ a x+ a a
√ √
In order to make sure that | x − a| < ǫ,
δ √
it suffices to take √ ≤ ǫ, i.e, δ ≤ ǫ a.
a
√
• Proof. Let ǫ > 0. Choose δ = min{a, ǫ a}.
If 0 < |x − a| < δ , then x > a − δ ≥ 0. Then

√ √ |x − a| δ δ
| x − a| = √ √ <√ √ < √ ≤ ǫ.
x+ a x+ a a

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11
Trigonometric Functions
• Other than rational functions and root functions, there is another class of continuous functions:
◦ Trigonometric Functions:
sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x.

y = tan x

y = sin x y = cos x

x
O

22 / 26

Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

• f (x) = sin x.
Let 0 < x < π/2.
A
1

x = AB
⌢
x B
O H 1 sin x = |AH|
⌢
AB > |AB| > |AH|
x > sin x.
◦ For any 0 < x < π/2, 0 < sin x < x.

lim 0 = 0, lim x = 0.
x→0+ x→0+

By Squeeze Theorem, lim sin x = 0.

x→0+
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12
Continuity of Trigonometric Functions
• f (x) = sin x.
◦ lim sin x = 0.
x→0+
◦ lim sin x = lim+ sin(−y) = − lim+ sin y = 0.
x→0− y→0 y→0

⇒ lim sin x = 0 = sin 0.

x→0

∴ sin x is continuous at 0.
• g(x) = cos x. Let −π/2 < x < π/2.

1 ≥ cos x ≥ cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x ≥ 1 − x2 .

)
lim 1 = 1
x→0
⇒ lim cos x = 1 = cos 0.
lim (1 − x2 ) = 1 x→0
x→0

∴ cos x is continuous at 0.

24 / 26

Appendix: Sum Formula of Trigonometry

• The sum formula for cos x:

cos(a + b) = cos a cos b − sin a sin b, a, b ∈ R.

y A′ (cos(a + b), sin(a + b))

A(cos a, sin a) |AB|2

= (cos a − cos b)2 + (sin a + sin b)2

= 2 − 2 · (cos a cos b − sin a sin b)

|A′ B ′ |2
a x = (cos(a + b) − 1)2 + sin2 (a + b)
O b B ′ (1, 0) = 2 − 2 · cos(a + b).

B(cos b, − sin b)

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13
Appendix: Sum Formula of Trigonometry
• The sum formula for sin x:

sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b.

hπ i
sin(a + b) = cos − (a + b)
h 2π i
= cos ( − a) − b
 π2  π 
= cos − a cos(−b) − sin − a sin(−b)
2 2
= sin a cos b + cos a sin b.
• The sum formula for tan x: (provided that both sides exist)

tan a + tan b
tan(a + b) = .
1 − tan a tan b

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