Vector Spaces (Chapter-2)

Shruti Sharma

October 7, 2016

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Table of Contents

1 Vector Spaces
Examples of Vector Spaces

2 Subspaces
Examples

3 Basis and Dimension

Linear Dependence
Basis

4 Coordinates

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 Vector Spaces

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Introduction

Linear combination of the elements of set.

e.g. Natural to consider linear combinations of the rows of a matrix.
Linear combinations of functions.
Linear combinations of vectors in Euclidean space.
Loosely, linear algebra is the branch which treats common properties
of algebraic systems which consist of a set together with a reasonable
notion of a linear combination of elements in the set.

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Vector Spaces
Definition
A vector space (linear space) consists of a field F of scalars, a set V of
objects, called vectors and;
a rule (operation), called vector addition which associates with each
pair of vectors , in V a vector + in V s.t.
addition is commutative i.e. + = + .
addition is associative i.e. + ( + ) = ( + ) + .
there is a unique vector 0 in V s.t. + 0 = for all in V. Additive
identity
for each vector in V, there is a unique vector in V s.t.
+ () = 0. Additive inverse
a rule (operation), called scalar multiplication which associates with
each scalar c in F and a vector in V a vector c in V s.t.
1 = for all in V. Multiplicative identity
(c1 c2 ) = c1 (c2 ).
c( + ) = c + c.
(c1 + c2 ) = c1 + c2 .
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Example 1

Example (The n-tuple space F n )

Let F be any field, and let V be the set of all n-tuples = (x1 , ..., xn ) of
scalars xi in F. If = (y1 , ..., yn ) with yi in F, the sum of and is
defined by:
+ = (x1 + y1 , ..., xn + yn ) (1)
and product of scalar c and vector is defined by:

c = (cx1 , ..., cxn ) (2)

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Example 2

Example (The Space of m n matrices F mn )

Let F be any field and let m and n be positive integers. Let F mn be the
set of all m n matrices over the field F. Sum of two vectors A and B in
F mn is defined by:
(A + B)ij = Aij + Bij (3)
and the product of a scalar c and the matrix A is defined by:

(cA)ij = cAij (4)

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Example 3

Example (The Space of functions from a set to a field)

Let F be any field and let S be any non-empty set. Let V be the set of all
functions from the set S into F. The sum of two vectors f and g in V is the
vector f + g i.e. the function from S into F, defined by:

(f + g )(s) = f (s) + g (s) (5)

and the product of a scalar c and the function f is the function cf defined
by:
(cf )(s) = cf (s) (6)

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Example 4

Example (The space of polynomial functions over a field F)

Let F be a field and let V be the set of all functions f from F to F which
have a rule of the form:

f (x) = c0 + c1 x + ... + cn x n (7)

where c1 , ..., cn are fixed scalars in F (independent of x). A function of this

type is called polynomial function on F. The sum of two vectors f and g in
V is the vector f + g i.e. the function from F into F, defined by:

(f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) (8)

and the product of a scalar c and the function f is the function cf defined
by:
(cf )(x) = cf (x) (9)

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Note

Example 1 and Example 2 are special cases of Example 3.

n-tuple of elements of F as a function from set S of integers 1,...,n
into F.
m n matrix over the field F is a function from the set S of pairs of
integers (i,j) 1 i m, 1 j n into the field F.
Vector addition and scalar multiplication properties are to be verified
for every example.

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Linear Combination

Definition
A vector in V is said to be a linear combination of the vectors 1 , ..., n
in V provided there exist scalars c1 , ..., cn in F s.t.

= c1 1 + ... + cn n
Xn
= c i i
i=1

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 Subspaces

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Subspace

Definition
Let V be a vector space over the field F. A subspace of V is a subset W of
V which is itself a vector space over F with operations of vector addition
and scalar multiplication on V.

Subset W of vector space V is a subspace if:

For each and in W, the vector + is again in W.
0 vector is in W.
For each in W, is also in W.
For each in W and for each scalar c, the vector c is also in W.

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Subspace

Theorem
A non-empty subset W of V is a subspace of V iff for each pair of vectors
, in W and each scalar c in F the vector c + is again in W.

Proof.
If W is subspace of V, then certainly c + is in W.
Conversely, suppose W is non-empty subset of V s.t. c + is in W
for all vectors , in W and all scalars c in F.
Let is in W, so (1) + = 0 is in W.
If is any vector in W and c is any scalar, so c + 0 = c is in W. In
particular, (1) = is in W.
Finally, if , in W, then (1) + = + is in W.
Thus, W is a subspace of V.

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Examples

Example (1 Trivial Subspaces)

If V is any vector space, V is a subspace of V; subset consisting of the zero
vector alone is a subspace of V.

Example (2)
The space of polynomial functions over the field F is a subspace of the
space of all functions from F to F.

Example (3)
An n n matrix A over the field F is symmetric if Aij = Aji for each i and
j. Symmetric matrices form a subspace of the space of all n n matrices
over field F.

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Examples

Example (4)
An n n matrix A over the field C is Hermitian (or self-adjoint) if
Aij = Aji for each i and j. Set of Hermitian matrices forms a vector space
over the field R with usual operations but does not form subspace of the
space of all n n matrices over field C.

Example (Solution Space of a system of homogeneous linear

equations)
Let A be an m n matrix over F. Then the set of all n 1 matrices X
over F s.t. AX=0 is a subspace of the space of all n 1 matrices over F.
(i.e. A(cX+Y)=0 when AX=0 and AY=0).

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Matrix linearity
Lemma
If A is an m n matrix over F and B, C are n p matrices over F then

A(dB + C ) = d(AB) + AC (10)

for each scalar d in F.

Proof.
X
[A(dB + C )]ij = Aik (dB + C )kj
k
X X X
= (dAik Bkj + Aik Ckj ) = d Aik Bkj + Aik Ckj
k k k
= d(AB)ij + (AC )ij = [d(AB) + AC ]ij

This also shows linearity of A matrix.

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Intersection of set of subspaces

Theorem
Let V be a vector space over the field F. The intersection of any collection
of subspaces of V is a subspace of V.

Proof.
Let {W } be a collection of subspaces of V and let W = W be their
intersection which is the set of all elements belonging to every W . Since,
each W is a subspace, each contains zero vector and is thus contained in
W.
Let , be vectors in W and let c be a scalar. So, both , belong
to each W .
Since, each W is a subspace, c + is in every W . So, c + is
in W and by prev. theorem (slide14), W is a subspace.

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Intersection of set of subspaces

Corollary
If S is any collection of vectors in V, then there is a smallest subspace of V
which contains S, i.e. a subspace which contains S and which is contained
in every other subspace containing S.

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Spanning Set

Definition
Let S be a set of vectors in a vector space V. The subspace spanned by S
is defined to be the intersection W of all subspaces of V which contain S.
When S is a finite set of vectors, S = {1 , 2 , ..., n }, then we call W the
subspace spanned by vectors 1 , 2 , ..., n .

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Spanning Set
Theorem
The subspace spanned by a non-empty subset S of a vector space is the
set of all linear combinations of vectors in S.

Proof.
Let W be the subspace spanned by S. Then each linear combination
= x1 1 + ... + xm m of vectors 1 , ..., m in S is clearly in W.
Thus, W contains the set L of all linear combinations of vectors in S.
The set L contains W and is non-empty. If , belong to L, then
= x1 1 + ... + xm m and
P = y1 1 + ... P+ yn n with i , i in S. For
each scalar c, c + = m i=1 (cx i )i + n
j=1 yj j . So, c +
belongs to L and hence L is a subspace of V.
So, L is a subspace of V which contains S and also that any subspace
which contains S contains L. It follows L is the intersection of all
subspaces containing S i.e. L is the subspace spanned by the set S.

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Sum of Subspaces

Definition (Sum of Subsets)

If S1 , ..., Sk are subsets of a vector space V, the set of all sums

1 + .... + k (11)

of all vectorsPi in Si is called the sum of the subsets S1 , ..., Sk and is

denoted by ki=1 Si .

Definition (Sum of Subspaces)

If W1 , ..., Wk are subspaces of a vector space V, then the sum
W = W1 + ... + Wk is subspace of V which contains each of the subspaces
Wi .

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 Basis and Dimension

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Linearly Dependence

Definition
Let V be a vector space over F. A subset S of V is said to be linearly
dependent if there exist distinct vectors 1 , ..., n in S and scalars c1 , ..., cn
in F, not all of which are 0, s.t.

c1 1 + ... + cn n = 0 (12)

A set which is not linearly dependent is called Linearly Independent.

Consequences of the definition:

Any set containing linearly dependent set is linearly dependent.
Any subset of linearly independent set is linearly independent.
Any set containing 0 vector is linearly dependent.
A set S of vectors is linearly independent iff for any distinct vectors
1 , ..., n of S, c1 1 + ... + cn n = 0 implies each ci = 0.
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Basis

Definition
Let V be a vector space. A basis for V is a linearly independent set of
vectors in V which spans the space V. The space V is finite dimensional if
it has a finite basis.

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Example

Example
Let P be an invertible n n matrix with entries in the field F. Then
P1 , ..., Pn , the columns of P, form a basis for the space of column matrices
F n1 . For, if X is a column matrix, then

PX = x1 P1 + ... + xn Pn (13)

Since, PX=0 has only the trivial solution X=0, it follows that {P1 , ..., Pn }
is a linearly independent set.
Let Y be any column matrix. If X = P 1 Y , then Y=PX, i.e.,

Y = x1 P1 + ... + xn Pn (14)

So, {P1 , ..., Pn } is a basis for F n1 .

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Example of Infinite Basis

Example
Let F be a subfield of the complex no and let V be the space of polynomial
functions over F. Let fk (x) = x k , k = 0, 1, 2, .... The infinite set
{f0 , f1 , f2 , ...} is a basis for V. This set spans V, because the function f is

f = c0 f0 + c1 f1 + ... + cn fn (15)

Claim: The set {f0 , f1 , f2 , ...} is independent implies that each finite subset
of it is independent. It is suffice to show that, for each n, the set
{f0 , ..., fn } is independent. Suppose c0 f0 + ... + cn fn = 0. It says that
c0 + c1 x + ... + cn x n = 0 for every x in F i.e. every x in F is a root of the
polynomial f (x) = c0 + c1 x + ... + cn x n . However, a polynomial of degree
n with complex coefficients cant have more than n distinct roots. So,
c0 = c1 = ... = cn = 0.

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Bases and Dimension

Theorem
Let V be a vector space which is spanned by a finite set of vectors
1 , ..., m . Then any independent set of vectors in V is finite and contains
no more than m elements.
Proof: Claim: Every subset S of V which contains more than m vectors is
linearly dependent.
Let S be such a set. In S there are distinct vectors 1 , ..., n where
n > m.
Since, 1 , ..., m span V, there exist scalars Aij in F s.t.
m
X
j = Aij i
i=1

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Bases and Dimension

For any n scalars x1 , ..., xn ,

n
X n
X m
X
x1 1 + ... + xn n = xj j = xj Aij i
j=1 j=1 i=1
Xn Xm Xm n
X
= Aij xj i = ( Aij xj )i
j=1 i=1 i=1 j=1

Since,
Pn n > m, there exist scalars x1 , ..., xn not all 0 s.t.
j=1 Aij xj = 0, for 1 i m. Hence, S is linearly dependent set.
Q.E.D.

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Bases and Dimension

Corollary
If V is a finite dimensional vector space, then any two bases of V have the
same (finite) no. of elements.

Proof.
Since, V is finite dimensional, it has a finite basis 1 , ..., m . By prev.
theorem, every basis of V is finite and contains no more than m elements.
Thus, if {1 , ..., n } is a basis, n m. By the same argument, m n.
Hence m=n.

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Bases and Dimension

Corollary
Let V be a finite dimensional vector space and let n=dim(V). Then
Any subset of V which contains more than n vectors is linearly
dependent;
No subset of V which contains less than n vectors can span V.

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Bases and Dimension

Lemma
Let S be a linearly independent subset of a vector space V. Suppose is a
vector in V which is not in the space spanned by S. Then the set obtained
by adjoining to S is linearly independent.

Proof.
Suppose 1 , ..., m are distinct vectors in S and that

c1 1 + ... + cm m + b = 0

Then b = 0; for otherwise,

c1 cm
= ( )1 + ... + ( )m
b b
and this will say is in the space spanned by S which is contradiction.

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Bases and Dimension

Theorem
If W is a subspace of a finite dimensional vector space V, every linearly
independent subset of W is finite and is part of a (finite) basis for W.

Proof.
Suppose S0 is a linearly independent subset of W. If S is linearly
independent subset of W containing S0 then S is also linearly
independent subset of V. Since V is finite dim, S contains no more
than dim V elements.
Extending S0 to a basis for W:
If S0 spans W, then S0 is a basis for W.
If S0 does not span W, we find a vector 1 in W s.t. the set
S1 = S0 {1 } is independent. If S1 spans W then fine else continue
this way to reach a set which forms basis for W.

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Bases and Dimension

Corollary
If W is a proper subspace of a finite dimensional vector space V, then W is
finite dimensional and dim(W ) < dim(V ).

Proof.
Suppose W contains a vector 6= 0. Then there is a basis of W
containing which contains no more than dim(V ) elements. Hence
dim(W ) dim(V ).
Since, W is proper subspace, there is a vector in V which is not in
W. Adjoining to any basis of W, we can obtain a linearly
independent subset of V. So, dim(W ) < dim(V ).

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Bases and Dimension

Corollary
In a finite-dimensional vector space V, every non-empty linearly
independent set of vectors is part of a basis.

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Bases and Dimension
Corollary
Let A be an n n matrix over a field F, and suppose the row vectors of A
form a linearly independent set of vectors in F n . Then A is invertible.

Proof.
Let 1 , 2 , ..., n be the row vectors of A, and suppose W is the
subspace of F n spanned by 1 , 2 , ..., n .
Since, 1 , 2 , ..., n are linearly independent, the dim(W)=n. So,
W = F n . Hence, there exist scalars Bij in F s.t.
n
X
i = Bij j 1 i n
j=1

So, BA=I implying B is inverse of A.

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Bases and Dimension

Theorem
If W1 and W2 are finite dimensional subspaces of a vector space V, then
W1 + W2 is finite dimensional and

dim(W1 ) + dim(W2 ) = dim(W1 W2 ) + dim(W1 + W2 ) (16)

Proof:
W1 W2 has a finite basis {1 , ..., k } which is part of basis of
W1 : {1 , ..., k 1 , ..., m } and basis of W2 : {1 , ..., k 1 , ..., n }.
The subspace W1 + W2 is spanned by the vectors:
{1 , ..., k 1 , ..., m 1 , ..., n } and these vectors form an
independent set.

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Bases and Dimension

Suppose, X X X
x i i + yj j + zr r = 0
Then X X X
zr r = xi i +
yj j
P P
which shows that zr r belongs to W1 . But zr r also belongs to
W2 , it follows that X X
zr r = ci i
for certain scalars c1 , ..., ck .
However, by hypothesis,
P P{1 , ..., k 1 , ..., n } is independent, each
zr = 0. Thus, xi i + yj j = 0 and since
{1 , ..., k 1 , ..., m 1 , ..., n } is also an independent set, each
xi = 0 and each yj = 0.

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Bases and Dimension

So, {1 , ..., k 1 , ..., m 1 , ..., n } is basis for W1 + W2 .

Now,

dim(W1 ) + dim(W2 ) = (k + m) + (k + n)
= k + (m + k + n)
= dim(W1 W2 ) + dim(W1 + W2 )

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 Coordinates

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Coordinates

Coordinates in n-dim V with basis B analogous to the natural

coordinates in the space F n with standard basis.
Coordinates of a vector in V relative to basis B.
Scalars which serve to express as a linear combination of the vectors in
the basis B.

Definition
If V is a finite dimensional vector space, an ordered basis for V is a finite
sequence of vectors which is linearly independent and spans V.

Thus, ordered basis is a set with a specified ordering.

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Coordinates

Suppose V is finite dimensional vector space over the field with

B = {1 , ..., n } as ordered basis for V.
Given in V, there is a unique n-tuple x1 , ..., xn of scalars s.t.
n
X
= x i i
i=1

Here, xi is the i th coordinate of relative to the ordered basis B.

Each ordered basis for V determines a one-one correspondence

7 (x1 , ..., xn )

between the set of all vectors in V and the set of all n-tuples in F n .

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Change of Basis
Suppose V is n-dim and two ordered basis for V are:

B = {1 , ..., n } and B 0 = {10 , ..., n0 }

There are unique scalars Pij s.t.

n
X
j0 = Pij i , 1 j n (17)
i=1

Let x10 , ..., xn0 be the coordinates of a given vector in the ordered
basis B 0 . Then
n
X
= x10 10 + ... + xn0 n0 = xj0 j0
j=1
n
X n
X n
X X n
xj0 Pij xj0 i


= Pij i =
j=1 i=1 i=1 j=1

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Change of Basis

So, here is expressed in terms of basis B.

Since, the coordinates x1 , ..., xn of in the ordered basis B are
uniquely determined, so
n
X
xi = Pij xj0 1 i n (18)
j=1

Let P be n n matrix whose i,j entry is the scalar Pij , and let X and
X 0 be the coordinate matrices of the vector in the ordered basis B
and B 0 resp. So, we can write:

X = PX 0 (19)

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Change of Basis

Since B and B 0 are linearly independent sets, X=0 iff X 0 =0. So, P is
invertible:
X 0 = P 1 X (20)
We can use the following notation as well:

[]B = P[]B0
[]B0 = P 1 []B

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Change of Basis

Theorem
Let V be an n-dim vector space over the field F, and let B and B 0 be two
ordered basis of V. Then there is a unique, necessarily invertible, n n
matrix P with entries in F s.t.

[]B = P[]B0
[]B0 = P 1 []B

for every vector in V. The columns of P are given by:

Pj = [j0 ]B j = 1, ..., n

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Change of Basis

Theorem
Suppose P is an n n invertible matrix over F. Let V be an n-dim vector
space over F, and let B be an ordered basis of V. Then there is a unique
ordered basis B 0 of V s.t.

[]B = P[]B0 (21)

1
[]B0 = P []B (22)

for every vector in V.

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Change of Basis

Proof.
Let B consist of vectors 1 , ..., n . If B 0 = { 0 0
1 , ..., n } is an ordered
n
basis of V for which eq.21 is valid, so j0 = i=1 Pij i
P

Claim: vectors j0 form a basis. Let Q = P 1 . Then,

X X n
X n
XX
Qjk j0 = Qjk Pij i = Pij Qjk i
j j i=1 j i=1
n
X X

= Pij Qjk i = k
i=1 j

Thus, subspace spanned by the set B 0 = {10 , ..., n0 } contains B and

hence equals V. So, B 0 is a basis and thus both eq are valid.

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