SOFT-TISSUE SURGERY 1094-9194/00 $15.00 + .

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SURGICAL STERILIZATION IN
SMALL MAMMALS
Spay and Castration

Jeffrey R. Jenkins, DVM, Dipl. ABVP

The intrinsic physiologic aii.d anatomic differences between small

exotic mammals and the species· that are more familiar to the veterinary
practitioner (i.e., dogs and cats) are substantial. For purposes of this
article, the discussion is limited to rabbits, mice and rats (murid rodents),
hamsters and gerbils (cricetid rodents), and guinea pigs and chinchillas
(hystricomorph rodents). In addition to their anatomic and physiologic
differences, there are differences in their behaviors, such as their reaction
to stress and pain. Preoperative and postoperative care, basic surgical
techniques, and materials used are discussed.

BEHAVIOR, ANATOMY, AND PHYSIOLOGY

The behavior of small mammal species has a strong influence on

their suitability as candidates for surgery. Rabbits and rodents are timid
and submissive prey species. Their desire to return to health diminishes
with fear or pain. Not uncommonly, these prey species can become
anorectic, even to the point of starvation, following a surgical procedure.
Some species are fractious and struggle violently if frightened. Improper
restraint, especially of rabbits, can lead to fractured limbs or vertebrae.
A frightened prey patient can be so permeated with catecholamines that
anesthesia can be seriously affected, and negatively so. Some species

From the Avian and Exotic Animal Hospital, San Diego, California

VETERINARY CLINICS OF NORTH AMERICA: EXOTIC ANIMAL PRACTICE

VOLUME 3 • NUMBER 3 • SEPTEMBER 2000 617

618 JEN KI NS

are fastidious about their grooming. This, combined with finely hon ed
incisors, can make short work of sutures and dressings .
Rabbit and h ys tricomorph rodents are herbi vores. They use a diges-
tive strategy of a hind gu t fermentation . Highly complex microflora are
responsible for diges tion of foods in the lower digestive tract. An intri-
cate relationship exists between this microflora and gut motility, which
can be affected by several factors, including diet, antibiotics, and stress.
All rabbit and rodent species have open-rooted and continually growing
incisors, and rabbits and hystricomorph rodents have open-rooted cheek
teeth as well. Damage to these ever-growing teeth can lead to malocclu-
sion. The oral cavities of rabbits and rodents are long, curved, and open
only a few centimeters, making intubation difficult or impossible for
many veterinary practitioners.

REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY

The reproductive tracts of small mammals vary from species to

species. The external anatomy of the genitals of rabbits and rodents is
similar. The urinary and genital openings are located ventral to the anus.
The scrotum and testes are located laterally, at the openings of the
inguinal canals.
The uterus of rabbits is bicornate; each uterine cornua possesses a
separate cervix and there is no uterine body. The uterus is coiled in the
caudal abdomen cranial and ventral to the urinary bladder. It is easily
exteriorized but is more fragile than that of many other mammalian
species. The mesometrium in a h ealthy rabbit is a principal fat-storage
site that makes identification and ligation of uterine vessels more diffi-
cult than species that do not store fat in this location. The urethra of
female rabbits empties into the caudal end of a d eep vaginal vestibule.
Expressing the urinary bladder with the animal in dorsal recumbency
often leads to retrofilling of the vaginal vault. It is important not to
confuse the vaginal vestibule with the bladder, and urine in the uterus
could be a source of contamination of the peritoneal cavity when one is
performing an ovariohysterectomy (Fig. 1). The testes of rabbits are
similar to those of cats but can move freely from the scrotum into the
abdomen through an open inguinal canal. Herniation of tissue and
strangulation of loops of bowel and intestine appear to be prevented by
a large mass of fat associated with the epididymis that rests in the
inguinal canal when the testicle is in the scrotum.
The reproductive tracts of the hystricomorph rodents (i.e., guinea
pigs and chinchillas) are similar to each other. The ovaries, which are
supported by a short m esornetriurn caudal to the kidneys, are difficult
or in many cases impossible to exteriorize. The oviducts lie in close
contact with the dorsal surface of the ovaries and join the uterine cornua.
 SURGICAL STERILIZATION IN SMALL MAMMALS 619

Figure 1. Rabbit uterus. This is the uterus of a 6-month-old primiparous doe. Note the
large vaginal vestibule and the distance between the uterine vessels and the vagina
and uterus.

Figure 2. Guinea pig uterus. This is the uterus of a 4-year-old nulliparous guinea pig. Note
the ovarian cysts (at the tips of the hemostatic forceps) and the uterine mass in the right
cornu, which was diagnosed as a uterine papilloma.
620 JENKINS

The uterine cornua are joined externally to form a uterine body but are
divided internally with a well-developed intercornual ligament. Termi-
nally, they join at the cervix with a single os. Hystricomorphs have a
vaginal closure membrane that is open only at estrus and parturition
(Fig. 2). 1 In males, the testes are supported by the mesorchium in a
poorly formed scrotum and move freely through a large open inguinal
canal. A large fat pad is present in these species as well; however, it is
more closely associated with the testes and is most often removed at
orchiectomy. Female guinea pigs reach sexual maturity at 28 to 35 days
and can be bred prior to weaning at 33 days. Male guinea pigs are
slower to mature, reaching maturity at 56 to 70 days; however, they can
show sexual behavior prior to this age. Male and female chinchilla reach
sexual maturity at 8 to 10 months. The clitoris of the female chinchilla
is cone shaped and can lead to confusion in determining sex .
Female murid rodents (e.g., mice and rats) and the cricetid rodents
(e.g., hamsters and gerbils) have a reproductive anatomy more like that
of cats or dogs. The ovaries are supported by a short mesovarium caudal
to the kidneys. The oviducts connect to the well-developed uterine
cornua that join to form a very short uterine body. The uterine body
ends in a cervix with a single os (Fig. 3). The testicles of the male are
found in a well-developed scrotum but move freely through an open
inguinal canal. In the gerbil and hamster, the inguinal canals are larger
than the size of the testes and proportionally larger than that of the
rabbit. The inguinal canal of the mouse and rat is smaller; however, it
still must be closed at orchiectomy. Rats, hamsters (both the more com-

Figure 3. Rat uterus. This is the uterus of a 2-year-old nulliparous domestic rat that was
presented for vaginal bleeding. Note the uterine mass (at the tip of the hemostatic forceps)
in the left cornu, which was diagnosed as a uterine adenocarcinoma.
 SU RCICAL STERI LI Z AT IO N IN SM A LL M A MMALS 621

mon Syrian hamster [M esocricetu s auratus], and Russian dwarf hamsters

[Phodopu s sungorus]), and gerbils reach sexual maturity at 40 to 60 d ays.

EVALUATION OF THE SMALL MAMMAL AS A

SURGICAL PATIENT

A thorough history should be taken, including husbandry, diet,

and appetite. Physical examination, including state of hydration and
evaluation for the presence of subclinical infection, should b e completed
prior to surgery. Minimizing preex isting problems improves a patient's
prognosis for successful recovery from surgery. An attempt should be
made, through discussion with the owner, observation of the animal,
and a clinical data base, to assess th e level of stress that the animal is
experiencing. In som e cases, it can be advantageous to postpone surgery
until the animal has had an opportunity to adapt to its new hospital
situation.

PRESURGICAL TREATMENT

All of the species discussed in this article have the habit of eating
multiple meals throughout the day. Food and water should be withheld
for a period of no more than 1 to 2 hours prior to surgery. A large volume
of ingesta can cause variations in anesthesia dose effects;2 however, small
mammals with a negative energy level because of fasting have been
shown to have a greater chance of complications during surgery. Small
mammals with an infection, including rabbits with a history of problems
from Pasteurella upper respiratory infections ("snuffles"), and rats and
mice with a history of Mycoplasma respiratory disease, should be started
on a suitable preoperative antibiotic. Fluoroquinolones, trimethoprim-
sulfamethoxasole combinations, sulfa drugs, and aminoglycosides gener-
ally do not affect the normal cecocolic microflora. The synthetic tetracy-
clines and new macrolides have proved to be highly effective against
Mycoplasma sp. in rats and mice. Care must be exercised if using beta
lactam antibiotics, macrolide antibiotics, or other antibiotics that target
gram-positive or anaerobic bacteria in species prone to antibiotic-in-
duced diarrhea.
Parenteral fluids may not be indicated in these routine procedures.
In cases requiring supportive fluids or in which vascular access is judged
appropriate, a 20- to 24-gauge indwelling catheter can be placed in the
cephalic vein of rabbits. This site works well if the catheter is to be
used through surgery and the immediate recovery period. Rabbits are
intolerant of this type of device, however, and have to be collared or the
catheter and IV line covered with split-loom tubing, or the IV line must
be heavily bandaged to keep the rabbit from chewing on it. With smaller
species, an intraosseous catheter can be placed within the femur within
the trochanteric fossa .
622 JE N KJ NS

POSTSURGICAL MONITORING

Blood Loss

The blood volume of small mammals is reported to be 57 mL/kg

bodyweight." 4 Most mammalian species experience a drop in arterial
pressure and cardiac output with moderate blood loss. Losses of 15% to
20% of the total blood volume cause massive release of catecholamines,
with a resulting tachycardia and intense arterial constriction and redistri-
bution of blood away from the viscera and skin. In a 4-kg rabbit, this
amounts to a loss of 34 mL to 45 mL of blood. Critical blood loss from
acute blood loss is likely between 20% and 30% of total blood volume,
or 45 mL to 68 mL in a 4-kg rabbit.

SURGICAL TECHNIQUES

Surgical Preparation

The combination of thin skin and dense fine fur makes it easy to
cut the skin of rabbits and chinchilla when clipping hair or shaving.
Keeping the skin spread flat in front of the clipper blade and cutting
with the blade held flat and close to the skin minimizes nicks and cuts.
A fine, No. 40 blade, and an unhurried approach aids in preventing the
fine hair from accumulating between the clipper blades and causing
them to jam or cut poorly. Rodents with coarser hair are more easily
clipped. Skin within the surgical field should be cleansed with disinfec-
tant scrub and warm water. Special care must be taken with these small
species so that they do not loose body heat during this procedure.

Adhesion Formation in Rabbits

Rabbits are used extensively as a model for intra-abdominal adhe-

sion formation. These studies are directed more specifically at adhesions
formed following surgery and readhesion as a limit to the use of surgical
treatment for pelvic factor infertility in women. Promising research has
been published on the use of calcium channel blocking agents to reduce
or prevent adhesion formation in small mammals. In one study, vera-
pamil (Calan, Searle Pharmaceuticals, Skokie, IL) at a dose of 200
µg/kg immediately postoperatively and continuing every 8 hours for a
total of nine doses was shown to decrease adhesion formation signifi-
cantly when compared with untreated controls. 6 The author's experience
mimics the results of the study when verapamil has been used in cases
in which the surgery resulted in damage or irritation to abdominal
organs. Other studies using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs 5 and
a variety of materials and methods to prevent adhesions are sure to
benefit the small mammal as well as humans.
 SURGICAL STERILIZATION IN SMA LL MAMMALS 623

Choice of Suture

In many respects, small mammals are more negatively affected by

suture than other mammals. The caseous, suppurative response that
small mammals make to foreign material and rabbits' proclivity to form
adhesions impose a greater importance on choice of suture material.
New absorbable polymers, absorbed by hydrolytic degradation, are
much less reactive and cause fewer and weaker adhesions. Monofila-
ment polyglyconate (Maxon, Davis and Geck, Manati, PR) or similar
monofilament synthetic absorbable suture is preferred . Stainless or tanta-
lum hemostatic clips (Hemoclips, Edward Weck & Co., Research Trian-
gle, NC) are excellent for vessels and small pedicle li gation with minimal
adhesion formation . Studies using lasers in small mammals have been
published 3 and hold promise for minimizing adhesion formation as laser
use increases in veterinary surgery.

Skin Closures

Many small mammals have a great fondness for removing sutures

and a similarly great dislike for Elizabethan collars. Rabbits and rodents
make short work of most suture material. Intradermal closures work
very well but are time-consuming to place. Cyanoacrylate tissue adhe-
sive (Vet-Bond, Medical-Surgical Division / 3M, St. Pa ul, MN) works
adequately but is occasionally removed by grooming in small rodent
patients. Skin staples (Weck Visistat, Weck Closure Systems, Research
Triangle Park, NC) have proved to be both reliable and well accepted
by the small mammals and their owners.

Ovariohysterectomy of Rabbits and Rodents

Prior to surgery, the bladder is emptied by gentle palpation. The

abdomen is clipped, prepared for abdominal surgery, and draped for
aseptic surgery. The patient is restrained in dorsal recumbency. Thermal
support using a radiant heat source as well as a circulating warm water
blanket is recommended. A 2- to 3-cm midline incision is made, centered
over the cranial pole of the bladder about one half the distance between
the umbilicus and the cranial rim of the pubis. The linea alba is lifted
from the abdominal contents as a stab incision is mad e into the abdomen.
Great care is made to control entry into the abdomen. The thin-walled
cecum and the bladder of rabbits and hystricomorph rodents are often
times pressed firmly against the ventral abdomen. The uterus of rabbits
typically can be visualized because it lies dorsal to the cranial pole of
the bladder and can be lifted through the incision, using forceps. A
spay hook is not necessary or recommended when spaying rabbits
and rodents.
In rabbits, the uterus can be followed to the oviduct and infundibu-
624 JE NKINS

lum, which are coiled and in a large loop several times longer than that
of dogs and cats. Take care not to leave a portion of the oviduct. The
author has treated rabbits with cystic ovaductal masses found in spayed
rabbits. The blood vessels to the ovary are manifold but meager com-
pared with those of many mammals. These vessels should be identified
carefully and double ligated with transfixing sutures of synthetic absorb-
able suture. Hemorrhage is seldom a problem. The uterus can be ligated
just cranial to the cervix. Take care not to contaminate the abdomen with
urine or the contents of the vagina. The uterine vessels are located
several millimeters lateral to the uterus within the fat of the mesome-
trium and can be of significant size in mature does. These should be
double ligated separately, transfixing the ligature to the vaginal serosa,
and then the vagina is carefully ligated and removed at the cranial
portion of the vaginal vault, using a one or two transfixation ligature(s).
The author does not recommend removing the uterus cranial to the cer-
vix.
Rats, mice, hamsters, and gerbils require a relatively longer celeo-
tomy incision to allow observation and ligation of their ovarian vessels.
The short mesometrium does not permit lifting the ovaries through the
abdominal incision. As with rabbits, the mesometrium of hystricomorph
rodents can contain an abundance of fat, so that one must be careful to
locate and ligate ovarian and uterine vessels. Hemostatic clips work well
at this location; they both shorten surgical time and reduce the chance
of hemorrhage. Closure of the abdomen is routine. A small-diameter
synthetic suture is used to close the abdominal wall and subcutaneous
layers. The skin is closed with staples, an intradermal pattern, or tissue
cement.

OTHER SURGICAL PROCEDURES

Ovariectomy of Rodents

Ovariectomy (without hysterectomy) is a common procedure per-

formed on rodents in experimental medicine. Access to the ovaries is
gained by means individual dorsal incisions. The procedure typically is
performed on large numbers of animals, with only minutes required for
bilateral ovariectomy of each subject. The animal is anesthetized and
positioned in dorsal recumbency. Hair is clipped from the animal's back,
from the pelvis to the caudal thorax, and the area prepared for surgery.
Incisions are made in the skin caudal to the kidney and continued into
the retroperitoneal space. In the laboratory rodent industry, this incision
is made with scissors. Light pressure placed on the abdomen causes the
ovary and oviduct to enter the incision. The ovary is exteriorized, ligated
with a synthetic suture at its base, and resected. The ligated stump is
returned to the abdomen. The abdominal wall is closed with a synthetic
absorbable suture; the skin with suture, staple, or metal wound clip.
 SURGICAL STER IUZ ATION IN SMALL MAMMALS 625

Orchiectomy (Castration)

Rabbit Orchiectomy
Sexually active male rabbits (bucks) have obnoxious urine marking
behaviors that generally lead to their neutering. Furthermore, they can
become territorial and possessive about their environment and owners,
leading to aggressive behavior. Surgery is recommended prior to the
onset of these behaviors.
The rabbit is anesthetized and positioned in dorsal recumbency. The
hair is carefully clipped from the scrotum and surrounding area to a
distance that prevents contamination of the resulting surgical wound
while it heals. The surgical area is prepared and draped in a standard
fashion. With a No. 15 scalpel blade, a 1.0- to 1.5-cm incision is made
through the skin and vaginal tunic ventrally, on both sides of the scro-
tum. The testis is removed from the tunic, and the ligament of the
testicle is carefully torn from the tunic, using a dry gauze sponge. The
testis is then retracted caudally to expose a section of the vas deferens
and the vascular structures of the spermatic cord, which are tied in an
overhand knot using a small Mayo needle holder or mosquito forceps
(Fig. 4). Alternatively, the duct and blood vessels can be ligated with
3-0 or smaller synthetic absorbable suture. The duct and vessels are
transected distally to the knot or ligature, and the stump is returned to
the inguinal canal so that it may be recovered if hemorrhage occurs. The
tunic is returned to the scrotum, and the process is repeated on the other
side. Incisions are left to heal by secondary intention. The rabbit should
be observed for several hours for the presence of hemorrhage. Complica-
tions have resulted most often from excessive activity or sexual activity,
prompting the author to recommend hospitalization of these patients
overnight for "cage rest."

Orchiectomy of Rodents
This procedure is similar to that of the rabbit, except that the
inguinal canals must be closed after removal of the testis. The rodent is
anesthetized and restrained in dorsal recumbency. The hair (if present)
is carefully clipped from the scrotum, and the surrounding area is
prepared and draped for aseptic surgery. With a No. 15 scalpel blade, a
1.0- to 1.5-cm incision is made through the skin and vaginal tunic
ventrally on both sides of the scrotum. The testis is removed from the
tunic, and the testis removed as described for the rabbit. The testicular
fat pad of rodents is more closely associated with the testis and is
removed as well. Because of the large inguinal opening, the tunic and
skin are then closed with a series of two to three simple interrupted
sutures of 4-0 or smaller synthetic absorbable suture. The animal should
be observed for several hours for the presence of hemorrhage.
626 JE.\!Kl :\S

Figure 4. Overhand knot technique used for orchiectomy. Using a No. 15 scalpel blade, a
1.0 cm to 1.5 cm incision is made through the skin and vaginal tunic on the ventral side of
both sides of the scrotum (A). The testis is removed from the tunic, and the ligament of the
testicle is carefully torn from the tunic using a dry gauze sponge. The testis is then retracted
caudally to expose a section of the vas deferens and the vascular structures of the
spermatic cord. A small Mayo needle holder is placed so that the spermatic cord wraps
360° in a clockwise direction, spiraling from the tip of the instrument toward the handle (8).
The instrument is turned, and the cord grasped between the testicle and the instrument
(C). The testicle is severed from the cord at the tip of the instrument, and the cord is slid
off of the instrument to form the overhand knot (0).
 SL RC ICA L STER ILI ZATION IN SMALi. MA\1MALS 627

References

1. Breazile JE, Brown EM: Anatomy. fo Wagner JE, Manning PJ (eds): The Biology of the
Guinea Pig. New York, Academic Press, 1976, pp 53- 62
2. Harkness JE, Wagner JE, et al: The Biology and Medicine o f Rabbits and Rod ents, ed 3.
Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger, 1989, p 62
3. Kuramoto S, Ryan PJ, et al: First sutureless closure of a coloto my: Short-te rm results of
experimental laser anastomosis of the colon. Dis Colon Rectum 34:1079, 1991
4. Kozma C, Macklin W, Cummins LM, e t al: The anatomy, p hysiology, and the biochemi s-
try of the rabbit. /11 The Biology Of l aboratory Rabbit. Weisboroth SH, Flatt RE, Kraus
Al , et al (eds). O rlando, Academ ic Press, 1974
5. Rodgers K, Girgis W, et al: Tntra peri toneal tolmetin prevents postsurgical adhesion
formation in rabbits. Int J Fertil 35:40, 1990
6. Steinleitner A, La mbert I-I, et al: Reduction of prima ry ad hesion formation under
calci um ch annel blockade in the small ma mm al. J Su rg Res 48:42, 1990

Address repri11t requests to

Jeffrey R. Jen kins, DVM, Dipl. ABVP
Avian and Exotic Animal Hospital
2317 H otel Circle South, Sui te C
San Diego, CA 92108-3310

e-ma il: DrExotic@[Link]