NATIONAL CENTRE FOR VOCATIONAL

EDUCATION RESEARCH LTD.

A.C.N. 007 967 311

Competency -based Training :

Skill Formation for the workplace

or
Classroom Taylorism ?

A.C.S.A. Conference Paper

Adelaide July 1991

Presented by Michael Brown

Lecturer in Adult and Industrial Education
Faculty of Education, Deakin University

TD/TNC
--- 33.27
 Competency based Training :

Skill Formation for the workplace

or
Classroom Taylorism ?

Preface

In this paper I have attempted to relate and interweave a number of

distinct themes. The body of the paper begins with a description of
scientific management as developed by Frederick W. Taylor.
This is followed by an introduction to the notion of Skill Formation.
This second section briefly discusses the current political and
economic context and the relationship between workplace reform
and educational reform.
The third section reviews competency -based training generally, and
next by distinguishing between the curriculum development
procedure and the delivery method. The paper looks at the
Instructional systems model approach for developing curriculum and
describes the application of competency -based training by focusing
upon the exemplary model in operation at Richmond College of TAFE
: the National Centre for competency -based training. This
application of competency -based training has been developed for
delivery in a self paced mode.
The paper concludes with a summarised critique which leads me to
the finding that the Richmond TAFE model is an example of
Classroom Taylorism and represents a form of Educational
Engineering. Therefore this model of competency -based training is
out of alignment with the overall intentions of the stakeholders and
can be said to be working against the interests of the learners.

L
 Introduction
This paper offers an alternative interpretation of the application of
competency -based training, a model advocated by both
Commonwealth and State Governments. In November of last year a
special Ministers conference endorsed a National strategy framework
for the implementation of Competencey -based training, setting 1993
as the goal for achieving substantial progress . This is evident in
Victoria by the policy and implementation strategies of the State
Training Board (S.T.B.). Organisations such as the A.C.T.U. also sees
the model as the process for developing skill formation so necessary
in achieving their wider strategy of workplace reform partly
stemming from the award restructuring process. Likewise
employers refer to competency -based training as advantageous to
their interests. Therefore it can be said that competency -based
training is viewed by most of the stakeholders involved in training to
be an important process in the development of "a new workplace
culture."
Workplace reform includes attempts to increase productivity through
the reorganisation of the labour process. This is accommodated
legally through the restructuring of industrial awards. There is
increasing agreement that industry needs to move away from the
historical influences left over from scientific management and
Taylorism. Instead this increase in productivity and reorganisation is
based in part on a strategy of developing skill formation within the
workforce, career paths and lifelong opportunities for learning.
Ironically, competency -based training is seen as providing a means
for achieving these objectives. The central thesis of this paper,
however, is that this model of training is itself an example of
Classroom Taylorism and Educational Engineering.
The exemplar model of competency -based training in operation is
the Richmond College of TAFE and consequently designated by
DEET as the National Centre for competency -based training. This
college has established its reputation, with its unique pioneering and
development of what has become known simply as self- pacing or
self- paced, competency -based training. This paper sets out to lay
bare and explore the layered contradictions inherent in this
approach to training.
The arguments of the paper are structured into 4 sections :
i The Nature of Taylorism: according to Taylor and Braverman;
.

2. Skill Formation;
3. Description of Competency -based Training :
the curriculum development procedure
the delivery at Richmond college of TAFE
4. A Summarised Critique and Conclusion.

It is important for me to explain that in being critical of the

system of
Richmond model my intention is to move beyond this I do
training and assist in the construction of improved alternatives.
and certainly
not wish to criticise my fellow teachers, and colleagues,
of training, as they
not the students who participate in this mode My aim is to
may not have the power to change their predicament.
discuss shortfalls in this method and discuss the foundations for the
evolution of models for learning in the future, models for industrial
learning, after training.
Furthermore, it needs to be recognised as a responsible act when
professional teachers question and reflect upon their practices and
the context which surrounds that practice. Indeed, this reflection
should become embodied into the action of teaching.
Working in the classroom provides the front line practitioner with
continual feedback. The realisation that classroom practice can
always be improved creates a climate or a framework for thinking
which involves practitioners with the need for constant reflectionand
and revision. In turn this should provide the impetus for change
improvement.

4
 Part 1. Tavlorism
The techniques of "scientific management" are now interchangably
associated with time and motion studies and the name of its greatest
advocate Frederick W.Taylor: thus Tavlorism.
In 1911 Taylor published his major treatise on scientific
management. A champion of the capitalist mode of production, he
built upon the work of Adam Smith and Charles Babbage concerning
the detailed division of tasks.
He claimed that,
maximum prosperity can only exist as a result of
maximum productivity.
(1919 : 12)

Also high on his agenda for change in the workplace was the
elimination of what he described as 'soldiering'. i.e. workers
controlling their output, holding back from working as hard as
possible.
Control is a central tenet in understanding Tavlorism. Scientific
management was developed to contrast with what Taylor himself
describes as a style of 'initiative and incentive'.
"The most experienced managers therefore frankly
place before their workmen the problem of doing the
work in the best and most economical way. They
recognise the task before them as that of inducing
each workman to use his best endeavours, his hardest
work, all his traditional knowledge, his skill, his
.

ingenuity, and his good -will in a word, his

"initiative ", so as to yield the largest possible return to
his employer... the best initiative of every workman. .
obtaining the initiative of his workmen
the manager must give some special incentive to his
men... "
Taylor, (1919 : 32 &33)
He lists the incentives (motivation for workers) as hope of rapid
promotion, higher wages, shorter hours of labour and better working
conditions and surroundings.
What Taylor advocates as a 'science of work' involves management in
the burdensome task of (Taylor's emphasis)
collecting together all the traditional knowledge
which in the past has been possessed by the workmen
and then of classifying, tabulating, and reducing this
knowledge to rules, laws, and formulae which are
immensely helpful to the workmen in doing their
daily work.
Taylor, (1919 : 36)
In other words, knowledge about the process of work is to be
transfered from the possession of the worker actually doing the job
to the possession of the management to control and direct the work
process.
Taylor derived a process consisting of four principles which he
stated in a report to a US governmental committee (quoted in
Watkins (1987 : 17).

* * * The first of these principles may be called the

development of a science of work.

* * * The second is the scientific selection and then

progressive development of the workmen.

* * * The third is the bringing of the science and

the scientifically selected and trained workmen
together.

* * * The fourth consists of an almost equal division

of the actual work of "the establishment between the
workmen on the one hand, and the management on
the other hand.

The first principle talks about developing a science of work. This is

the basis of the time and motion studies in which engineers
searched for the best way of performing specific tasks. Taylorism is
very much the domain of work study experts and engineers telling
others how they should do their work.
Other gems contained in his book include the documentation of
some experiments with time and motion. The classic is his report
(on the exploitation) of Schmidt, a labourer who with Taylor's
assistance was able to increase his handling of pig iron from 12.5
tons a day to 47 tons (an increase in productivity of 276 %), and the
corresponding raise in daily pay rate from $ 1.15 to $1.85, (an
increase of 60 %).
Taylor cites other case studies, including Gilbreth's experiments
with bricklayers, and another with women workers involved in the
inspection of bicycle ball bearings.
Harry Braverman in his seminal work Labor and Monopoly Capital
(1974), provided a powerful critique of scientific management. For
Braverman, Taylor's four principles reduced to three :
The first principle we may call the dissociation of the
labour process from the skills of the workers. The
labour process is to be rendered independent of craft,
tradition, and the workers' knowledge.
Braverman (1974 : 113)
Braverman is referring not only to the breaking down of the labour
process into smaller simpler constituent tasks by to an organisation
of work which separates and dispossesses the worker of the process.
The second principle should be called the
principle of the separation of conception from
execution.
Braverman (1974 : 114)
Or as Taylor himself puts it,
It is clear that in most cases one type of man is
needed to plan ahead and an entirely different type to
execute the work.
Taylor (1919 : 38)
The third principle for Braverman, is the control of knowledge by
management, which he summarised as
the use of this monopoly over knowledge to control
each step of the labour process and its mode of
execution.
Braverman (1974 : 119)
Together, these lead to the replacement of skilled labour by
unskilled, the fragmentation of jobs into tasks, and the regulation of
production by a force external to the workers involved.

7
The Division of Labour
Following Karl Marx, Braverman distinguishes between the division
of labour within society as a whole and that within its individual
components.
The social division of labour divides society among
occupations, each adequate to a branch of production;
the detailed division of labour destroys occupations
considered in this sense, and renders the worker
inadequate to carry through any complete production
process. In capitalism, the social division of labour is
enforced chaotically and anarchically by the market,
while the workshop division of labour is imposed by
planning and control.
Braverman (1974 : 72, 73)
Braverman makes three other points relevant to this context.
Firstly,
"the products of the social division of labour are sold
as commodities, while the results of the operation of
the detail worker are not exchanged within the
factory as within the market place, but are all owned
by the same capital. "
Braverman (1974 : 73)
Secondly, he considers the fragmentation of tasks and separation of
worker from skill as dehumanising :
While the social division of labour subdivides society,
the detailed division of labour subdivides humans, and
while the subdivision of society may enhance the
individual and the species, the subdivision of the
individual, when carried on without regard to human
capabilities and needs, is a crime against the person
and against humanity.
Braverman (ibid)
Finally,
The detailed division of labour means that the labour process is
fragmented and potentially distributed amongst as many workers as
ther are operations necessary in the production process. As a
consequence, different operations can be rewarded or paid
depending upon the degree of skill required. On the other hand, the
need for one or few workers to possess all or most skills, as in a
craft, is removed, as is the need to pay at that rate. Put succinctly,
the employer is able to purchase more exactly only that amount of
labour that is needed to perform the task. This is a strategy often
associated with Henry Ford : Fordism, mass production and the
production line.

3
 In Taylorism, the stopwatch and its modern
computer -based successors are the Bible.
Cooley,1987 : 36

Figure 1 The Taylorist stopwatch poised for action?

Braverman quotes from the volumes of studies associated with the

Aetna Life Insurance Co. (1963) regarding key punch operations,
Reach to key 1.6 TMUs
Contact key 0.0 TMUs
Depress key 1.7 TMUs
Release key 1.7 TMUs
Release contact with key 0.0 TMUs

Since a TMU is defined as one- hundredth-

thousandth (0.00001) of an hour, and there
are thus 28 TMUs ineach second, this means
that a key punch machine is to be operated at
the rate of 5.6 strokes per second when
purely numeric punching is being done.

1
 Part 2. Skill Formation
The concept of skill formation has emerged over recent years and
refers to the process by which skills are acquired. Skill formation
extending beyond merely training encompasses all work related
learning.
Training is considered to be specific to immediate job function and
is often instrumental in its approach. For educators this is
problematic and increasingly becoming the basis for criticism. Skill
formation as advocated by Prof. Bill Ford, Laurie Carmichael, John
Mathews and Laurie Field is particularly prominent with respect to
the restructuring of industrial awards. As a consequence
organisations like the Trade Union Training Authority (TUTA) are
providing information and publications. TUTA (1987)
While skill formation views training as only part of its domain, it very
much retains and emphasises the connection between learning and
the workplace. The concept of skill formation is seen to offer an
opportunity which may lead to the fostering of workplace change
through the use of a wider range of learning processes and suitable
aligned pedagogies. This in turn, may increase the active
participation of workforce personnel and so develop human agency
and the self determination of goals by those who actually do the
work.
The American literature on what is here called skill formation is very
much management driven; so too is the British, and to a lesser
extent, the European experience (Sweden and West Germany
provide exceptions). The Australian version has been developed by a
proactive section of the trade union movement, namely the ACTh ,
which in 1986 produced the Australia Reconstructed document.
Influential reports like "Industry Training in Australia : the need for
change" (1989) provide the rationale on how the skill formation
requirements of restructuring industry needs to move to be
competency- based. This report by the Employment and Skill
Formation Council states in the section describing the next steps for
training reform,
Competency -based training should apply to
both industry-wide training schemes such as
apprenticeships and traineeships and
enterprise -based training.
ESFC (1989 : 31)
However the notion of skill formation in its broader sense holds
potential for development and extension into a theory of industrial
education.

tO
Laurie Field in his book "Skilling Australia" introduces skill formation
as,
... a holistic concept that includes,
'education', 'personal development',
'formal vocational training', 'on-the-job
learning' and experiential learning'. . . .
Field (1990 : 1)

Field uses the notion of a skills iceberg as a metaphor. As is well

known, the iceberg has most of its mass hidden below the surface of
the water and out of sight. He describes a model of skill formation
which stands in contrast to the narrow definitions of skills which
have been the traditional focus for training. Instead, Field depicts a
concept of skill formation through five sub categories of skills.
He describes these as :
L Task skills. This category is the one most focused upon
through industry training. These skills are routine and predictable.
They often involve following a sequence of steps, have a definite start
and finish, and produce a tangible outcome.
By contrast, the following four groupings of skills are shown in the
iceberg model as having most of their mass below the surface.
2. Task Management skills. This category involves skills
related to planning, such as considering actions so as to minimise
wastage, planning sequences of work, the application of standards,
and the anticipation and avoidance of problems.
3. Work environment skills. These skills include the ability
to work within parameters, to be effective within an organisation or
enterprise, to challenge and change unsafe aspects of work.
4. Workplace learning skills. encompass the ability to be
self- directed towards learning, to be adaptable to change, to transfer
know how on to others, and to encourage workplace learning.
5. Work relationship skills. include skills used in working
as a team, in the maintainance of good work relations, and the
discussion of workplace issues and problems.
Finally, he notes that all these are sub divisions of the iceberg and
occur with respect to a social and political context.
Field (1990 : 31)
These broader definitions open the way to a wider and more
equitable concept of skill.

I
 THE TERMINOLOGY OF SKILL FORMATION 31

Fig. 2.5 The skills iceberg model of an individual's skills

Task skills Social and political context

Perform tasks that is, History
competencies that: Wage vs salary
are routine and predictable Gender
involve a sequence of steps Social class
have a definite start and finish Trades /non - trades
produce a tangible outcome Pay rates
Ethnic background

Task management skills Work relationship skills

Plan an activity to Maintain good work relations
minimise wastage Work in a team
Do a number of tasks in Discuss workplace issues
the right orders and problems
Manage system failure
Apply standards
Anticipate and avoid
problems

Work- environment skills orkplace learning skills

Work effectively within Be self directed in learning
constraints Be adaptable to change
Work effectively in a Initiate change
particular organisation Train others
Change unhealthy, unsafe Encourage workplace learning
aspects of work

cL
The Correspondence between Workplace Reforms and Educational
Reforms.
Martin Carnoy and Henry Levin, in their book "Schooling and Work in
the Democratic State" (1985), have developed a taxonomy of
workplace reform together with a corresponding classification of
educational reforms. Their model sub divides a continuum
representing change into four components :
1. Microtechnical : easily instigated changes of a modest
nature, commonly a rule change or change in basic approach.
2. Macrotechnical : based on technical solutions, often
instigated by external consultants, organisational development being
an example.
3. Micropolitical : these include a change in the internal
decision making of the organisation often to increase the
participation of workers in matters that effect the nature and
organisation of work. Especially relevant is the organisation of
groups.
4. Macropolitical : these alterations are described as those that
significantly alter the decision making and governance of the whole
organisation.

1. 2. 3. 4.
<-I I I I->
microtechnical macropolitical

(3
 Classifications of Work Reforms
1. Microtechnical
A. Job Design
1. job enrichment
2. job rotation
3. better equipment
4. technical redesign of task
B. Changes in the physical work environment

2. Macrotechnical
A. Organisational development
1. new staff configuration
2. regular meetings among staff
3. open door personnel policies ; grievances
4. revitalisation via seminars and learning
B Profit sharing and incentives schemes
C. Redesign of organisation
D. Flexible work schedules

3. Micropolitical
A Job enrichment and autonomous work groups
B. Forms of Participative management
4. Macropolitical
A Employee ownership
B. Worker representation on corporate board
C. Worker self management
D. Nationalisation of Industry
Carnoy and Levin, (1985 : page 183)
These authors follow up these workplace reforms in the following
chapter with the same classifications for strategies and
characteristics for educational reform.

14
 Classification of Educational Reforms
1. Microtechnical
A New subjects
B. Changes in instructional materials
C. Teacher retraining
D. Multi cultural and bilingual programs
E. Educational technology (specific application)

2. Macrotechnical
A Differentiated staffing
B. Team teaching
G Open Classrooms
D. Flexible modular scheduling
E. Mastery Learning
F. Educational technology (generalised use)
G. Desegregation and integrated education
H. Changes in financing education
I. Minimum curriculum or graduation standards
J. Career education
K. Recurrent education
L "Back to basics"

iS`
 3. Micropolitical
A Changes in internal governance of school
B. Greater student responsibilities (peer tutoring)

4. Macropolitical
A Community control
B. Educational vouchers and tuition tax credits
C Deschooling policies
D. Factory-run schools
E. Shifts in governance structure and representation
Carnoy and Levin, (1985 : 218)
There are numerous similarities between the frameworks from
Carnoy and Levin and the agenda within the Australia Reconstructed
document. A sense of the nexus becomes apparent for the ACTU
support for skill formation on the one hand and why they might be
initially drawn towards and view the Richmond model of
competency -based training fulfilling this role on the other. Many of
these similarities become more evident in the video on award
restructuring produced by NSW TAFE ( "Life after Debt ", 1990). In
my opinion, however, such a connection is flawed.
Reform and aligned pedagogy
Carnoy and Leviri, (1985), in their discussion of the team approach to
work organisation, liken group decisions by those actually doing the
work with the educational decision making processes of
collaborating students. This need to develop and encourage group
decision making in the classroom (or non formal setting) is said to
parallel workers making decisions on the selection, training,
performance and maintenance of their team in the workplace.
Carnoy & Levin argue for a greater emphasis on group projects and
assignments. Further, they recommend that students experiment
with the role of peer tutors. Except for these three points, which
are totally inconsistent with the actualities of the Richmond model,
their descriptions hold credence.
The remaining points of alignment between the
workplace /educational reforms of Levin & Carnoy and the Richmond
model of training fall mainly within the macrotechnical category and
as such are very small, low level reforms. These include the call for
mastery learning and minimum competencies, flexible modular
schedules, changes in financing education and the increase in
applying educational technologies.

(,
 Part 3. Competency -based training
The tradition of time -based contracts for apprenticeship is derived
from craftwork. An apprentice who automatically becomes a
tradesperson on the expiration of a given period does not ensure that
any actual standard of ability has been attained. Time served in itself
has not guaranteed competency. This is in part due to past abuse by
employers who have employed apprentices as a means of cheap
labour. Apprentices in these cases, have ended up performing a
narrow selection of operations thereby severely limiting their
learning experience and consequently the qualitative standard of
them as future tradespersons.
In examining competency -based training it will be necessary to
distinguish between firstly, the procedure of curriculum
development, and secondly, the classroom delivery. The curriculum
development may or may not occur at the college and is quite likely
to be a statewide responsibility. The model of curriculum
development associated with competency based training is the
Instructional Systems Model (I.S.M.). The work of Guillespie (1986)
and Blachford (1986) being most helpful for reviewing the
theoretical framework for this procedure. While for a model of the
delivery of competency -based training this paper looks at Richmond
College of TAFE, designated by DEET as the National Centre for
Competency -based Training.
I have often heard the parable used to describe competency -based
training (which I have embellished and presented below). It
describes a situation particularly well suited to the notion of
competency -based training.

Scenario
Imagine yourself as a sick patient suffering severe
pain. On attending a hospital your pain is diagnosed
as appendicitis. You are attending a public hospital
and have a choice of five doctors, all newly qualified.
You decide that you will make your choice after first
asking each of them just one question.

How did they learn about appendicitis in their

training ?

(1
Doctor A. remembers doing appendix in Physiology. The syllabus
said that the class should spend 4 hours on this topic. (Time based)
Doctor B. passed the final exam and therefore knows the theory of
appendices. (Theory only Exam.)
Doctor C. passed with a high distinction for the final exam, obtaining
a mark of 95 %. However, it just may have been on the topic of
appendicitis that this doctor lost the marks. The doctor doesn't
know because they did not receive their papers back once they had
been corrected. (Exam.)
Doctor D. passed by keeping a journal throughout the year and recalls
that appendicitis was learned through a very dynamic group
discussion in which all the class participated. (Group Processes)
Doctor E passed by demonstrating the ability to actually perform the
operation to the required standard using as specified the commonly
used implements. (Competency- based)

Which Doctor are you likely to choose?

Doctor E has performed a behaviour, to a prestated standard with

commonly used equipment. This action illustrates the three
elements of the competency -based curriculum

1. the performance, This is a specification of the behaviour

which is deemed to illustrate that competency has been achieved.
This is often stated in the form of an outcome.

2. the conditions, This is a specification of the environmental

conditions and the tools, machinery and equipment needed to
perform the behaviour.

3. the standards. This is a specification of the level of

competence and the standards that describe that level of outcome.
The latest term for standard within a curriculum document is the
"to pass" statement.

1
The following example to illustrate these elements is taken from the
sheetmetal syllabus devised at Richmond TAFE.

OXY ACETYLENE WELDING EXTERNAL (OUTSIDE) CORNER

Trainee's objective
Performance
The Trainee, without assistance should be able to :
1. Join two pieces of 1.00mm mild steel panel, by external (outside)
corner fusion welding in the (down hand) position.
Conditions
A complete oxy- acetylene welding plant must be supplied, together
with all other necessary equipment and materials. The pieces of
steel panel to be joined must be at least 50mm in width and at least
160mm in length.
To pass
i. The weld must be at least 160mm in length.
ii. The weld must be of uniform width and height.
iii. Penetration must be visible over at least 80% of the
weld length.
iv. The weld must not fracture when the joint is
opened from 90 degrees to 180 degrees.
v. All relevant safety precautions must be applied.

Curriculum Development
The procedure used for curriculum development is derived from the
Instructional Systems Model (ISM) adopted throughout TAFE in
1981 as the official procedure for the development of all vocational
training curriculum in Victoria.
The I.S.M. is a sequential progression of steps, a linear process
which when followed will build a course. When curriculum
development is viewed as a product of a given procedure or system
then the process can be referred to as a technology. Thus the terra
often cited for this approach or orientation to curriculum is
"curriculum as a technology ".
 A SYSTEMATIC CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT MODEL
IN LINEAR FORMAT

PHASE STEP DOC U I.t E *t T

Analyse Job Scalar

Diagram

Identify Training Duty/Task

Requirements List

Student Performance
ANALYSIS Prepare Performance Objective
Objectives Statements

Prepare Performance Student Periormancr

Obiettive Tests Obtective Test
Specifications

Derive Enabling
Obtectives /Tests

Lear ; Units
Develop Learning
DESIGN Units

Select Instructional
Strategies
Network Schedule
Product Learning
Resources

Induct Teachers
IMPLEMENTATION _r
Teach course and
Administer Performance
Obtective Tests

Review Coltece
Performance
EVALUATION
Review Student
Performance

VALIDATION -- Follow uo
Graduates on-the-
lob Performance
 The I.S.M. consists of five main phases;
1. Analysis
The occupation or job is analysed
and divided into an extensive list of
ANALYSE JOB skills and tasks that are performed
within that trade: a skills analysis.
.

This list is used to determine the

appropriate training response and
requirements. Implicit to the I.S.M.
IDENTIFY TRAINING
REQUIREMENTS is the belief that the training
requirements can be converted into
performance objectives. This belief
is grounded in the behaviourist
PREPARE PERFORMANCE
school of psychology. Performance
OBJECTIVES
objectives are written. This means
behaviour or performances are
chosen which supposedly describes
the behaviour believed to exhibit
PREPARE PERFORMANCE mastery over the tasks. This phase
OBJECTIVE TESTS
is completed with tests for the
learner which will confirm in
k behaviourist terms, mastery has in
fact occurred. The learner is
DESIGN expected to perform these
predetermined behaviours.

2. Design
The objectives are sub divided into
yet smaller sub tasks. The
ANALYSIS behaviourists believe that any
complex behaviour can be broken
down into a chain or sequence of
simpler behaviours, (Gagne). These
DERIVE ENABLING sub -tasks become the basis from
OBJECTIVES/TESTS
which learning units are developed.
An integral part of self paced
training is that this learning
material, is self contained and
DEVELOP LEARNING
complete in itself. All the learning
UNITS
material, knowledge and
instructions required to complete
T the task are supposedly included
into the unit. It is these same
SELECT INSTRUCTIONAL
STRATEGIES characteristics which make these
units adaptable for delivery as
packages and as part of short
courses in the "skills supermarket ".
PRODUCE LEARNING
RESOURCES

IMPLEMENTATION

2(
Field illustrates the breaking down and defining of an
occupation into tasks and competencies diagrammatically.

THE TERMINOLOGY OF SKILL FORMATION 27

Fig. 2.2 The terms associated with jobs

job
Bank teller in a
savings bank

w
competency
area:
Deal with customer
savings accounts

competency: D'

Deal with customer

enquiries regarding
savings accounts

task*
Deposit funds into a
savings account

*Note. As explained in the text, this is also a competency.

L`L
 This same criteria can also prove very helpful in the final course
design after any Recognition of Prior learning assessments have
taken place.
3. Implementation

Teachers are viewed as the

implementors and the deliverers of
INDUCT these packages. Teachers involved
TEACHERS
in self pacing are often referred to as
facilitators. It is very interesting
that this phase of the ISM depicts
the classroom practitioners as being
TEACH COURSE AND
ADMINISTER PERFORMANCE
OBJECTIVE TESTS
inducted into their role.

Evaluation involves the review of the

4. Evaluation performance of the instructional
I IMPLEMENTATION processes, the environment, the
standards and the conditions.
T Student performances are reviewed
and judgements are made as to
REVIEW COLLEGE whether the chosen pre- described
PERFORMANCE
behaviors and training responses
(the performances), are effective and
appropriate or else in need of
redefinement.
REVIEW STUDENT .
PERFORMANCE

This final stage involves following up

exit students so as to correlate their
on-the-job performances with the
intended outcomes and
performances in the occupation for
5. Validation which the job analysis of this system
EVALUATION, was undertaken. Intended as a
feedback loop to validate the
process, and thus an integral part of
the I.S.M. process it is very rarely
FOLLOW UP followed up. While some studies do
GRADUATES ON- THE -JOG
PERFORMANCE
exist, it must be emphasised that
this phase is supposed to occur for
each and every curriculum
developed using this process.
RE VISIT
ANALYSES
The Minimum Standard
Competency -based training includes the specification of the
minimum acceptable standard of competency which every student in
the course needs to achieve. This is equivalent to 'the bottom line'.
In the earlier welding example, the "to pass" statement describes the
minimum specifications of a weld that will pass as satisfactory. The
students work is not evaluated on relative degrèes of skill above this
standard, norm referenced; instead they are simply checked on
whether they meet these minimum requirements. Logically, the
appropriate assessment can only be either pass or fail as measured
against this standard.
The teacher's role on assessing the work is reduced to one of
deciding whether the students work meets these specifications and
.

criterion. The term for this type of assessment is "criterion

referenced" because of the specification of learning outcomes. It is
important to note that the classroom teacher is not necessarily
involved in determining or deciding the criterion, nor is it
negotiated with the student. These decisions are made by "others ";
either experts in curriculum, or the industrial parties. The student
is expected to conform to these imposed requirements.
Each individual must learn
Participation and success in learning must be demonstrated by each
individual. Each student must demonstrate competency in all the
learning tasks.
If the same standards of learning are to be achieved by all, then
allowance needs to be for the differing rate of learning which will
occur throughout a group. To facilitate learning the resource
materials are structured and organised external to the teacher or in a
form outside the .teachers head, - hence the development of learning
packages and the corresponding suitability for the self paced mode of
delivery.
The information on each topic is presented in various media forms to
the student. Flip books, slide /tape programs, videos and computer
programs are the most common. It must be stated that while
Competency -based training doesn't have to occur in the self paced
mode the distinction is very often blurred. Indeed, this blurring is
very convenient, and the exemplary model at Richmond TAFE
chosen as the National Centre aligns the two together to the extent
that they become synonomous.
Mastery learning
As each student is required to actually demonstrate and therefore
prove competency in each task, this training is described as mastery
learning. The behaviourist assumption made here is that the
performance as chosen by the curriculum designer has proven its
appropriateness in signifying that learning has occurred.
 The Delivery of Competency -based Training at Richmond TAFE
With any innovation if it is to work it must be accepted by the
implementers. To assist with 'selling' this method of training it is
presented cloaked in the language of improvement. However, the
claims need to be 'unpacked' and examined. The practice of self
paced, competency -based training like any educational practice has
developed a justification and espoused rhetoric. A sample spiel would
go as follows :
Espoused Rhetoric
Self- paced, individualised, competency- based,
mastery learning is promoted as being student
centred : the focus is on the student's learning not
on the teachers teaching. The teacher is not the
emphasis instead the teacher is a facilitator of
learning and a resource for the students to utilise as
they deem necessary.
This model is designed to cater for individual
differences. In being competency- based, quality of
outcome is ensured because every student must
exhibit by actual performance mastery over the task.
Mastery also ensures that not only has the student
proven competency in the classroom but this
performance can be constantly duplicated. i.e. at the
workplace.
In recognising that the training process involves
stakeholders and interest parties of varying and
opposing ,perspectives. The curriculum
development is systematically derived from the
actual practice in use within the workplace. This
system or linear process is therefore scientific, value
free and politically neutral.
In the classroom, the learning material is presented
to each student in the same format and sequence
therefore ensuring equality in treatment. The
student is given objectives to attain that are easily
understood. The necessary information in the
learning programs is all presented, their is no
surprises. No questions are asked which the student
has not already been given the information to give
the answer. Standards are stated beforehand and
there is no place for teacher interpretation or
interference.

25
The Learning Programs for the Self -Paced Mode of Delivery
The curriculum development process has analysed the occupation as
a collection of tasks or competencies. The total number of tasks,
including the prerequisite or enabling tasks, number nearly 300 for
the sheetmetal trade course; and closer to 400 for the motor
mechanics course. Each one is written as a performance objective
and has its own training response. This training response or
requirement takes the form of a learning or instructional program.
These in turn, can be either in written form as a flipbook, a video,
slides and a tape, or a computer program. In effect then, each of the
tasks, duties and competencies which constitutes the technical
definition of the occupation generates an instructional program.
This system of training requires an additional strata of support
personnel. This division of labour includes such specialisations as
educational technologists, film and text editors and instructional
designers.
The instructional program can be designed by either consultating
with educational technologists or more often by a subject specific
teacher, possessing varying degrees of expertise in the areas of their
subject, in education, and as program writers. The instructional
programs become "how to" guides for the students to complete that
topic. While all trade teachers have industry experience, the
industrial techniques and practices differ across plants. The
implications of this is that the teacher who works on the
instructional program makes decisions on techniques and sequence
of operations which effect the quality and finish of any article or
process. The particular experience of that teacher then dictates in
many ways the method in which that topic will be taught statewide.
It is widely recognised that students learn differently to one another.
One American researcher, David Andrews (1988), has identified 94
different learning styles, and it is with this diversity in mind that this
system of training advocates the presentation of learning materials to
students in various forms of media. In practice, however this does
not occur, since the time required to duplicate the learning program
is consumed in putting together the initial program for a topic not as
yet covered.
Assessment in the course is criterion referenced against the
pre- stated standards. In the sheetmetal course many of the skills are
integrated within particular items for manufacture. In which case
the curriculum document specifies in performance terms, that each
student must manufacture the specific article. The curriculum
literally specifies a product as the outcome. Further, the standards
are denoted as the dimensions as predescribed within given
tolerances. The teacher assesses whether learning has occurred by
measuring the finished article with a ruler.
While completed tasks or topics are entered into a computer by the
student for monitoring and recording. (computer managed)
Computers
It is interesting to briefly examine the use of computers in this
training, used not only in the presentation of learning material but
also as a system of recording and administering student progress.
The software for the administration is appropriately named
"Manager ". One recording function displays an arrangement of the
nearly 300 topics in the Sheetmetal trade course onto the screen.
Each topic is represented on the screen by a symbol which is one of
three colors, green denotes finished topics, yellow shows the topic
presently being worked on and red signifies topics yet to be
completed. When the student begins a new topic they go to the
computer, input this information using a function key, change the
symbol to yellow and on successful completion they again go and
change it, this time to green. In this way the computer file for that
student can record the student's progress. Teacher's maintain a
duplicate back -up system in case of possible student misuse.
In the same manner that time and motion studies are imposed into
Taylorised workplaces, so also each of the course topics is assigned
an estimated average time allowance. At anytime the student can
obtain an instant report on their own progress or yet another
function is to represent this graphically. The student can see how
they are progressing individually or by comparison to all the other
members of their class group.
In the example opposite this student has attended 93 days on the
course (out of 120),has completed topics that is estimated to be
equivalent to 77.88 days of work and so is -15.12 days in arrears. In
walking around the classroom and casually talking to students it is
immediately apparent how important these rates and read out are to
them, each student can tell you their particular rate, whether they
are in front or behind, how they compare to others in the group and
even if the computer is up to date with the attendances that are
inputted by the teachers. Some students are weighed down heavily
by this information which is ironical in a system which is espoused as
student centred and self paced. Identical copies of the student's
assessment report are forwarded from the college to the student's
employer, the student, the State Training Board and the original is
retained on file at the college. These all assess and evaluate the
student's progress in these Taylorist terms : topics completed per
unit of time as predetermined by a curriculum person.
On one video produced by NSW TAFE as part of their package to
explain self paced training called "Training Restructured ", (1990),
the Associate Director at Richmond is shown explaining how, "the
monkey is taken from the teachers back and put where it belongs
the responsibility of the student ". He cites the lack of grafitti as an
indicator that students are motivated and busy learning. My
experience instead however leads me to an alternative interpretation
that these students are feeling very stressed and disturbed by their
intensified work loads and piece rates approaches to training.

277
 Sheetmetal Department
Group:1 60 80 100 12C
20 40
Date:04-09-90 0

MOM ROBERT
enummar DANIEL
MISIMMEEMMS IAN
immommis DARRE
DAVID »»»
Ma PHILIP
VINNMMO ANDREW
Days on Course
= Progress « Expected Progress »» days ahead

Group Course Start Date

First Name Last Name
Number
14 I B I 28/02/88
11880448 GARY Issommes i

fi

5.0 9.011 Progress; -15

36 18 931 Tot Abs j
Att +l
39 fi
t( L ffffff

; 1 II I

Days on Course
I

Topic 1
60 80 100 120
o 20 40
Descript 1
1

i
I

i e44
aeepaa44 1

4444
1ee44?eew I
1

0040
« Expected Progress »» days ahead
Credit
44010000 Days Credited: 77.88 Progress: -15.12
Days on course: 93
AIMINEMOOMMill.

F6= Report,_F9= Reset, F10 =Exit

F1= Start, F2= Finish, F3= Details, F5= Progress,

The courses are prone to expansion rather than reduction and

therefore lead to intensified work loads. When new topics are added
to the course it is more likely that this will be on top of the rest of
the topics not replacing or superseding any. Instead obscure
rationalisations are given for obselete content. (an all too common
example being, the practice of hand skills and dexterity).
The stress experienced by students leads to instances of cheating.
This is usually done in a number of ways. The most frequent being
the handing in of another student's completed model or article, one
that has already been checked and passed as satisfactory. Exercises
such as small welding coupons are particularly popular in the
sheetmetal workshop. It is my opinion that while all the teachers
have an awareness of the possibility many have no idea the extent of
this type of abuse.

2$
 Part 4. A Summarised Critique and Conclusion
1. Behaviorism the foundation to competency -based training
The preparation of training requirements and the determination of
suitable performances, assumes that a behaviouristic approach to
learning is the most appropriate for all learners. Behaviourism is
seen as an approach to learning which allows even the battlers to
succeed. This could not be further from the truth, however, since it
is in fact a model of manipulation and control based on a lost sense of
paternalism, in which learners are isolated and alienated from their
own learning process.
Behaviourism is a school of psychology which is in turn derived from
the philosophical school of logical positivism. This doctrine
developed as a reaction to the spiritualist influences of the church
over science. However, in modern times it is severely limiting to
base knowledge assumptions upon the observable facts of the natural
sciences and expect to be provided with a guide to understanding
the world.
The behaviourist definition of learning encapsulates the assumption
that in order to establish that learning has taken place, the new
learning must lead to an observable, (outwardly visible),
consequential change in behavior. However, as Marsick (1987), &
Watkins (1990) point out, the values and goals which are the
foundation which underpins the behaviour is not observable.
Students just need to know what behaviour the teacher wants so that
they can conform, and progress onwards. It is important to realise
that in this case, the intentions and agency associated with the
learning belong to the person deciding what constitutes the
appropriate behaviour, e.g. the curriculum developer, and not the
student. The criticism which follows then is that this method is very
mechanical, more suitably aligned to military training where control
and not the development of agency is the desired intention. The
learner is treated as a robot.
2. The Curriculum development procedure as a technology
The curriculum for trade apprenticeship courses has, from 1981
been developed using the I.S.M. This method of curriculum
development has many weaknesses. Curriculum as a technology
relies on a belief in technological determinism for its legitimation
and the I.S.M. is claimed to be a scientific system that possesses its
own internal logic. Yet it is this very strict structure of logic that
provides its largest flaw, since the diversity of learning styles
demands equally diverse approaches to pedagogy.

2?
The starting point for this curriculum procedure is an analysis of
what exists on-the-job. As this is the actual practice in the
workplace it is intended to be beyond reproach. However this
reproductive dynamic assumes that what is occurring as common
practice is in itself the desired end, thus ignoring the manner in
which it embodies an array of exploitation, inequities and unfair
power relationships. It seems inappropriate to be reproducing the
present arrangement of work when the whole intention is to change
and reform. A more suitable model might be based on negotiation
and action research although, this would mean releasing the
mechanisms of control and trusting professionals to do their job.
The design phase of the I.S.M. further sub divides the learning tasks
down into their simpler chain of tasks. It is this fragmentation or
what curriculum theorists like Lundgren (1983) call
"decontextualisation" that destroys the contextual nature of the skills
: in this case, the occupation.
The implementation phase consists of the induction of the teacher to
the learning system. The teacher is only now introduced into the
technology of the course development. One claim of this orientation
to learning and pedagogy is that it is teacher proof, meaning that it is
self contained and independent of the teacher. Instead, the teacher
is portrayed as a facilitator of the classroom materials, with the
added claim that as teacher time is not taken up by presentations to
the class, the teacher is free to attend to those students
experiencing difficulties.
The evaluation reviews the performances of both the college and the
student against the intended outcomes of the course. This is
partially done at Richmond by exit students answering a question
bank on the classroom computer. It is indicative that these students
have no opportunity to generate their own, thoughts and record their
own responses. The staff of each department assist in non formal
evaluation through the traditional reflective in- service activity held
annually.
The validation phase intended to be the follow up of graduates on the
job to check their ability and skills against those planned and
intended at the beginning of the process. To my knowledge as a
classroom teacher in sheetmetal, this phase has never been carried
out or documented at Richmond TAFE.
3. The Instructional programs
Their advocates claim that these programs are individualised, so
catering to the spectrum of individual differences of the students.
This is not correct, while they do cater to students working at
different rates of progress, time is just one variable in the learning
process.
Similarly the claim that media is individualised to suit the variation
amongst students is misleading and incorrect. It is true that the
learning media throughout the course may vary, but for each topic
the learning program is presented to each student in the same
format. e. g. The program for topic 63 is a flip book and the program
for topic 64 is a video. Against this a system truly determined by the
differences amongst learners would mean that topic 63 would be
available in both a flipbook and on video, leaving it up to the student
to decide which media to use.
The learning programs described above could more correctly be
described as standardised. This is reminiscent of the famous quote
attributed to Henry Ford in describing the finishes available on the
assembly line built T -model Ford :
the customer can have any color they like providing
its black.
There is some duplication of early programs on both audio tape and
printed text for people with reading difficulties, however these tapes
consist only of someone reading the written text of the flip book. No
doubt duplication of the learning media will begin when learning
programs are finally completed for every topic.
For the Teachers
Learning resource materials (self paced programs) are prepared by
educational technologists, by teachers, or by a collaboration between
the two. The teacher in the classroom however, is rarely a party to
its design or the preparation; instead, the learning programs or
packages are intended for delivery, preferably without the teacher's
"interference ".

Z(
Michael Apple and Kenneth Teitelbaum wrote an article in the
Journal of Curriculum Studies (Vol.18, no.2, 1986) titled,
"Are teachers losing control of their skills and curriculum ?"
These writers discuss Taylorism and decide that two particular
aspects need to be considered by teachers in the labour process of
teaching.
the first is what we shall call the separation of
conception from execution. When complicated jobs
are broken down into atomistic elements, the person
doing the job loses sight of the whole process and
loses control over her or his own labour since
someone outside the immediate situation now has
greater control over both the planning and what is
actually to go on. The second consequence is related,
but adds a further debilitating characteristic. This is
known as deskilling. As employees lose control over
their own labour, the skills that they develop over the
years atrophy. They are slowly lost, thereby making it
even easier for management to control even more of
one's job because the skills of planning and
controlling it yourself are no longer available.
(page 179)
The classroom practice.
The actual classroom practice does not proceed with the same
degree of precision as the rhetoric would espouse. Teacher and
student resistances appear in many covert and often innocent
practices. For example students often collaborate with staff on
livework or jobs negotiated by or with the student to produce an
article or product of use : these are often called 'foreigners', and /or
sometimes termed 'homers' in literature about the workplace. These
jobs are agreed to by the teacher and student together, thereby
substituting for the skill or performance predescribed as the course
content.
These jobs are often more satisfying and motivating to the student
than the course exercises. On their completion, many are credited
towards the students accomplishments by the teacher signing off
course work that is deemed to be equivalent. These projects often
involve many auxiliary and challenging skills of design and problem
solving that the student would not normally be required to confront
and overcome. Here in other words, the 'one best method'
prescibed in the performance of the curriculum, or 'the one best'
method on how to do a task as described in the learning program, is .

by- passed so that real learning can occur.

Some examples of such projects include trailers, tool boxes, repairs
even, in one case, a stainless steel wheel chair. (The later example
I documented as a case study and analysed the processes of learning
and teaching which occurred in the light of Blachford's application of
Kolb's work to his four orientations of TAFE curriculum). see Brown
(1988).

32-
5. Training is determined in a politically neutral manner.
One of the appeals of this set of training techniques lies in the
screen that it can erect as a politically neutral system. This allows
the State Training System to claim that it is not favouring any of the
industrial parties who participate in training as stakeholders. The
Training systems position for accountability is seen as one of
neutrality. In my view, however, the STB and the industrial parties
are adopting a view of working people that disadvantages them both
directly and indirectly.
However, in the same way as writers like David Noble, Mike Cooley,
Cynthia Cockburn, Peter Watkins & Elaine Bernard, to name but a
few, have argued that the design and application of technology
involves the making of political decisions, so too does this
curriculum development procedure and also this classroom
organisation.
Conclusion
This paper introduces seven points for describing Taylorism,
according to Taylor and Braverman. Firstly, this gives the reader a
recapitulation of some influential principles which underpin the
traditional industrial paradigm. Secondly, after the description of
competency -based training is presented it is possible and an aim of
this paper to have the reader reflect upon scientific management in
order to make comparisons and decide whether this model of
training is an enactment of Taylorism in the TAFE classroom or
whether it is in fact more in line with the concept of skill formation
for the co- operative workplace.
This is followed by a description of skill formation and Field's
metaphor of the iceberg, presented as a means for illustrating how
the notion of skill is being broadened and redefined in order to
accommodate the skill formation requirements for the changing
workplace; a restructured site based on teamwork, group endeavour,
flexibility and a wider application of worker's abilities and initiative.
The model of Carnoy & Levin is used to show a correlation between
workplace and educational reforms. An indirect implication of their
model is that the education, the curriculum and pedagogy, must be
aligned. Further, it seems logical and appropriate that the learning
models the intentions of the reform.

3S
 It is therefore, ironic that in this context competency -based training
with.its emphasis on control and individualism be agreed to and
advocated by the industrial parties. Yet it is also significant that this
agreement excludes those that are actually involved in and doing the
training, the teachers and the students. Instead, they are supposed
to follow the set pathways, so while the curriculum development
procedure is considered, 'curriculum as technology'; likewise,
through the use of packaged instruction, the teaching (the
pedagogy), and even the role of the student, in learning is also
shaped as a 'technology'.
The philosophical base of logical positivism, the psychological
foundation in the behaviourism of Skinner; the technological systems
approach to curriculum development, to pedagogy and learning, are
too restrictive to grasp the world of possibilities. It is too absolute in
its logic, and is too pervasive in excluding all other styles of learning
and pedagogy. I am not arguing that it does not obtain results., rather
that it is undemocratic and takes a deterministic view of people
which is morally unacceptable and inappropriate for the fostering of
active citizenship and human agency.
I would argue that it could even be seen as an act of professionalism
and self worth to resist and liberate this curriculum. It is my
contention that this model constitutes an example of Classroom
Taylorism and educational engineering.
In light of these arguments, the reason for the advocacy and
suppoprt of this method of training by trade union officials seems on
the surface puzzling. Especially as this model of instruction which by
ignoring the human agency of the learner is therefore directing
development contrary to the educational interests of the learner.
However, this model sits neatly with the industrial agenda as set by
the Structural Efficiency Principle (SEP) in the National Wage Cases
'of August 1988 &1989. The SEP attached the notion of skill-
acquisition to wage increases. see Brown (19,91) Competency -based
training is a model which it is claimed can demonstrate, in
behaviourist terms, observable proof of skill acquisition.
Subsequently, both employers and unions end up supporting a model
of training based on control, sacrificing the empowerment of the
learner in order to accommodate continued industrial agreement;
such is the present industrial context of the workplace.
The decision making involved in the course development such as
what is to be learnt, how and why are never part of the students
experience instead the separation between manual and cognitive
skills is mirrored by the development of the courses being
completed by either one or more curriculum experts removed from
the classroom interaction. Likewise, the course development
occurring under award restructuring is also being dictated by others.
In this case it is the industrial parties : the employer representatives
. and the trade union officials not those involved in the learning
interaction, students and teachers.

344
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3-1