TOPIC AREA: FRACKING AS A POTENTIAL RISK

Background energy source (having the infrastructure to

distribute it) have a lot to gain by
implementing independent unconventional
Hydraulic fracturing or “fracking” is a gas development. They may reduce
technique that involves pumping a water-
dependency of natural gas imports and
rich fluid into a borehole until the fluid
strengthen their economy and security.
pressure at depth causes the rock to
Others may have struggles to meet their
fracture. After the job, the pressure in the
energy demands due to growth population
well is dropped and the water containing
and rising living standards, seeing shale
released natural gas flows back to the well
gas as a strategic and practical value or
head at the surface. Its fluid contains small
have to keep up with international
amounts of chemical additives such as acid
environmental policies (ex. China and
to help initiate fractures, corrosion and
Poland). In conclusion, many countries may
scale inhibitors to protect the borehole lining
find the possibility of fracking promising,
and gelling agents to alter the fluid
however, relatively few have actually begun
viscosity.
the process of developing the industry.

Fracking as an economic resource

The increase of energy prices around the

world is concerning each and every
government on how to provide energy to
their citizens at reasonable costs. In this
global situation, fracking has been shown
as a solution to this considering it allows
getting to difficult-to-reach sources of
energy and increases domestic oil and gas
It is commonly called unconventional
production. Also, it helps decrease the need
because the gas remains trapped within the
to import oil from other countries and
source rock and has not migrated from the
increasing the national GDP.
source, while in conventional gas extraction
it is moved over long periods of time and For example, the US has empowered and
gathered in structural gaps, hence no improved their local oil and gas industry,
fracking is required to reach it. and it has driven down gas prices as well as
increased employment rates. As Daniel
In regards to the incentives countries or
Yergin established in the Subcommittee on
private companies can face when deciding
Energy and Power of the House Energy
to implement this technique, there are
and Commerce Committee: “Today, the
numerous to have in mind. Some countries
industry supports 1.7 million jobs - a
currently import but use natural gas as an
considerable accomplishment given the
relative newness of the technology. That
number could rise to 3 million by 2020. In
2012, this revolution added $62 billion to
federal and state government revenues, a
number that we project could rise to about
$113 billion by 2020.” All Americans have
experienced this benefits since within 5
years the US has saved around $13 billion
per year because of the fracking effect in
gas bills, enriching the Americans’ pockets.
As well as decreasing energy prices and
increasing oil and gas production, experts
say that fracking can be a means to a low
carbon emissions future by the use of
natural gas as a path to well developed
alternative energy sources that replace oil
Statement of the problem
and coal. However, even though fracking
has broad economic benefits, its
infrastructure has a high cost if its well The use of hydraulic fracturing earth dates
constructed and developed, taking into back to the 1940s, but only in the past few
account that if a fracking site is not duly years has "fracking" has become a topic of
maintained or established, it could have a discussion, principally because of the shale
highly negative effect on the environment gas boom in the United States and all of the
and the health of the communities nearby. controversy around it. As stated before, it
This is the major concern worldwide on has become a potential economic resource
fracking since health is a critical element in for countries which have proven to have
a country’s development and bad practices shale oil and shale gas resources.
on fracking may be hazardous for citizens. Nevertheless, as all methods of extracting
But, in order to have a successful and oil it is associated with numerous risks. In
beneficial fracking, communities must relation to black shale (shales which contain
consider the high cost of the technology more than 1% organic carbon), they usually
required and develop the studies necessary contain elevated concentrations of pyrite,
to implement it. The importance of a well uranium and other heavy metals. As
constructed and maintained infrastructure mentioned by Dave Healy in Hydraulic
relies within the studies made for Fracturing or ‘Fracking’: A Short Summary
implementation and the correct procedure of Current Knowledge and Potential
followed every time it’s being practiced, Environmental Impacts, the potential risks
both of them being key for the fracking can be summarized in:
method’s success
Earthquakes induced by slip on nearby the fluid into other open and permeable
faults: Fracking inherently involves pathways.
geomechanical risks – i.e. the injection of
large volumes of pressurised water at depth Emissions of volatile components, such as
will, by design, alter the in situ stress state CO2 or methane, into the atmosphere:
and change the propensity of existing There is an ongoing debate about the
fractures to open or faults to slip, and relative leakage rate of methane into the
possibly result in seismic activity (i.e. atmosphere from the exploitation of shale
earthquakes). gas in comparison to the emission rate from
conventional gas. This is potentially
Contamination of groundwater, and possibly important because a high leakage rate
even drinking water, with natural gas and might mean that methane released by
other chemicals: The potential risk to fracking operations into the atmosphere
groundwater comes from two sources: the from shale gas extraction could have a
injected fluid (water + chemical additives) higher net greenhouse gas footprint than,
and the released natural gas. Other risks say, coal. Fracking operators should
associated with contamination of therefore seek to minimize all emissions to
groundwater may include: overweight (or the atmosphere, and monitoring processes
‘overbalanced’) drilling mud causing need to be actively enforced.
leakage of drilling fluids from the well bore
into near surface aquifers; contamination Leakage of contaminated drilling waste fluid
from solid components in the shale entering from storage ponds: local extraction of
the flow back fluid; poor cement jobs on water from small catchments could have an
wellbore casing, especially at shallow impact on the ecology and hydrology of
depths. rivers in these areas. Finding sustainable
sources for these volumes of water is
clearly a challenge, but related
environmental impacts may also develop
from transporting water to the drilling site
from further afield: construction of new
roads to remote drilling sites and increased
heavy road traffic and pollution.
Other risks to have in mind are those
related to Workers and Public Safety, taking
into consideration that the Occupational
Health and Safety Administration (OHSA) of
Blowouts: If the fluid injected into the well
the United States has released a hazard
head does not fracture the rock volume
alert to notify employees that “respirable
around the bottom of the well as intended,
crystalline silica can lead to silicosis, a lung
then the elevated fluid pressure will drive
disease where lung tissue around trapped
silica particles reacts, causing inflammation impacts that may hold the potential crisis in
and scarring and reduced ability to take in the fracking industry, those being:
oxygen.” OHSA says studies show that
47% of air samples from well sites are 1. A debt buildup that she sees as being
greater than the calculated OHSA directly linked to the last financial crisis.
permissible exposure. With regards to the After the last financial crisis, the Federal
latter, many roads may not be designed to Reserve cut interest rates to help the
carry tractor-trailers that carry fracking economic recovery, and that enabled
equipment, considering that each of them the capital intensive fracking industry to
weighs more than 100,000 pounds. For raise “massive sums of capital.”
instance, in small towns, roads are not
2. Pension funds were no longer able to
designed to support them.
earn a desirable rate of return on fixed-
A risk disregarded by the income instruments, they turned to
International Community is the possibility of private equity firms and hedge funds
Fracking as the Next Financial Crisis. As that invested in debt, which in turn
Bethany Mclean mentions in her Saudi provided more capital to the fracking
America book: [The fracking] industry industry.
doesn’t make money. It’s on much shakier
3. The fracking industry has attracted
financial footing than most people realize.
significant interest in the public capital
Shalanda Helen Baker in a paper released
markets as a high-growth industry
by the University of San Francisco states
relative to other industries. Those
three key features in this subject: (1) private
growth expectations ignore the
actors engaged in difficult-to-regulate
possibility that the profits investors
activities, (2) involvement of public goods,
expect might not exist “in a more rational
and (3) creation of systemic risk. When
economic environment.
drawing together the financial crisis of 2008,
the BP oil spill of 2010 and fracking shows
that all three share the common features of CURRENT SITUATION
hybridity.
In the United States alone, exploration and The impact of the industry is undeniable,
production companies saw their debt go with the United States reaching its highest
from $50 billion in 2005 to $200 billion in levels of output in the last 14 years and the
2015, according to Amir Azar, fellow at expectation of growth to 44% between 2011
Columbia’s Center on Global Energy Policy. and 2040. Despite the risks mentioned,
Opinions on whether the industry will find fracking is going global. Countries including
that debt is significant in comparison to the China, the United Kingdom and South
returns, while the “bulls” point to Africa are seeing shale development as a
technological improvements, others are not way to unlock homegrown energy. The
so sure. McLean also identifies three debate around this is if worldwide reserves
can be tapped safely, and whether the European Union Technical Working Group
environmental damage from this method on the regulation of shale gas extraction,
will overcome the gains of using a fuel with its purpose being to have and
cleaner than oil or coal, but that still exchange of views and information across
remained fossil fuel. the EU.
The United States’ shale exploration and
production is fully underway, with
deregulation being set since 2005. In Asia,
Australia and Africa shale gas prospects
are being evaluated in Australia, specifically
far from population centres where impacts
are expected to be minimal; China has
shale blocks on offer from the government,
with the cost of producing conventional
A subject worth highlighting is the current natural gas is cheap there, shale gas
regulatory approach in different countries. remaining financially unattractive to
Currently, there is no evidence to suggest investors; India has several large onshore
that fracking in offshore wells is prohibited sedimentary basins; lasty, South Africa has
anywhere. With the current approach by shale gas prospects in the Karoo Desert,
continent varies from country to country. In with the government imposing moratoriums
Europe, there are potential sites for shale on fracking from time to time thanks to
gas extraction and fracking, with Poland, pressure from environmental groups.
France and Norway having the largest Fracking advances in Latin America have
accumulations; in the U.K. there were not been at a large scale but could have
periods of suspension by operators due to potential influence through the countries
small earthquakes related to it near implementing it or looking favorably upon it,
Blackpool in 2011, however, there is no those being: Argentina, Mexico, Colombia
government ban; while France decided to and Bolivia. Argentina was the first country
ban fracking in May 2011 in response to in Latin America to apply this technique, it
pressure by environmental groups; Poland taking place in Neuquén and Río Negro; in
has the largest reserves of shale gas and is Mexico, that technique is present in 7
set to embark on states, with the number of oils wells in
extensive drilling which fracking has been used increasing
and fracking from 7,879 to 32,46424; in the case of
programme, with Colombia and Bolivia, both of their ministers
no specific of hydrocarbons have highlighted the
shared benefits of the technique while looking
legislation; forward to studying its potential within their
finally, there is a borders.
Case Studies China were probably caused by nearby
fracking operations. The December 2018
magnitude 5.7 and the January 2019
United States of America:
magnitude 5.3 earthquakes in the South
At least four states of the US (Ohio, West Sichuan Basin caused extensive damage to
Virginia, Texas, Pennsylvania) that have farmhouses and other structures in the
nurtured the nation's energy boom, area, resulting in a direct economic loss of
hundreds of complaints have been made about 50 million Chinese Yuan Renminbi
about well-water contamination from oil or (roughly $US 7.5 million).
gas drilling, and pollution was confirmed in
a number of them. Wastewater disposal and fracking have
induced earthquakes in the south Sichuan
In a more specific note, Carlsbad, New [Link] December and January quakes
Mexico lies in the northwest region of the also coincided in time and space with
Permian Basin. in North America. The injection at nearby fracking well pads.
surrounding limestone caves contain the Researchers believe that more information
remnants of fossil reefs that were caused is needed about faults and their stress
sedimentation of a seabed has proved rich patterns in areas of the Sichuan basin
in oil and natural gas reserves, and is now surrounding fracking well pads, to guide
fueling a fracking bonanza that is drilling in a way that would avoid moderate
generating revenue and jobs to a seismic activity.
depressed economy of the region.
Beyond the general concerns over fracking, South Africa:
new cracks and holes have been
developing around a sinkhole in recent The South African government is looking
years, and the location of such are where a into fracking to reduce the country’s huge
now-defunct company obtained water for reliance on coal for energy. There is limited
fracking operations. research related to the public’s knowledge
and risk perceptions of fracking, and none
If the sinkhole should collapse, the toll whatsoever from South Africa.
would surely be deadly and costly, with
estimates of more than $1 billion in In Central Karoo, a district, residents lack
economic loss, and over $100 million for information about fracking and were unsure
clean-up. about the advantages and the
disadvantages of fracking or the health risks
Sichuan (China): that could potentially be caused by
Two moderate-sized earthquakes that exposure to fracking. There is little
struck the southern Sichuan Province of knowledge on geological information for the
Karoo region where fracking has been Vaca Muerta’s infrastructure is inadequate,
proposed, this means that potentially as well as transport and water supply which
dangerous faults in the region may go are becoming a liability for the government
undetected. and communities nearby that have been
protesting and showing their opposition to
the project. But now, it’s important to ask
ourselves: Is Vaca Muerta a failed fracking
project?

Past Relevant Actions

Paris Agreement

The UNDRR’s goal of complying with the

Paris Agreement is in part due to the fact
Argentina:
that climate change is now a major
There is a growing concern on Argentina’s multiplier of disaster losses worldwide.
Vaca Muerta fracking plan since in order to There has been a doubling of extreme
develop the country’s energy markets, the weather events in the last twenty years
which have experienced some of the hottest
government has failed to guarantee the
years on record. In fact, a new report
plan’s success to the foreign investors, as
published to mark International Day for
well as providing the security needed for the Disaster Reduction, October 13, spells out
extraction in order to avoid environmental clearly that 91% of major disaster events
damage. There has been a decline on are extreme weather events and they
foreign partners incentive to invest and it account for 77% of the recorded economic
makes the project decrease its losses from climate and geophysical
development each time even more. events.6
Nowadays, more than half of the Working through the Sendai Framework
investments are from government-affiliated
entities, which is directly linked to the slow for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-
production of the plan since it has not met 2030):
its development goals yet.
When addressing potential disaster risks
On the other hand, Argentina is not meeting around the world, the UNDRR chooses to
fracking’s safety requirements either, since work through the Sendai Framework for
Disaster Risk Reduction, endorsed by the
UN General Assembly, following the 2015
Third UN World Conference on Disaster
Risk Reduction (WCDRR); being
considered the first major agreement of the
post-2015 development agenda. With
seven targets, four strategic objectives and
two enablers.

While working through three strategic

objectives which guide its work from
2016 through to 20218:

Strengthen Global Monitoring, Analysis And

Coordination Of Sendai Framework
Implementation: achieving global
coordination and accountability
mechanisms that are successfully delivered
and leveraged, on-going intergovernmental
support is provided, and risk knowledge and
data to measure progress are
systematically collected and analysed.
Seven global targets:
Support To Regional And National Sendai
Substantially reduce: 1) The loss of lives; 2) Framework Implementation: Relevant
Numbers of affected people; 3) Economic national disaster loss and appropriate
loss; 4) Damage to critical infrastructure. disaggregated risk data are generated, and
disaster risk knowledge and policy guidance
Increasing and improving: 5) National and are made available for risk-informed
local strategies with specific targets and decision-making; regional coordination and
indicators; 6) International cooperation; 7) accountability mechanisms are successfully
Access to early warning and risk delivered and leveraged.
assessment.
Catalyse Action Through Member States
And Partners: reaching coherence of
international and regional advocacy for
disaster risk reduction, sustainable
development and climate change action; Sustainable Development Goals
strong partnerships for the generation and
application of risk knowledge and evidence; In the Sustainable Development Goals
the on-going provision of intergovernmental (SDGs) in particular, disaster risk reduction
support; and active and accountable and resilience are reflected in 25 targets
contribution to disaster risk reduction from and in 10 of the 17 goals. When related to
all stakeholders, including the private the Sendai Framework (the core of the
sector, civil society and community groups, UNDRR), their desired outcomes are a
science and technology partners, product of complex and interconnected
parliamentarians and key decision- makers. social and economic processes with overlap
across the two agendas. Progress in
Two Enablers support UNDRR’s work achieving the SDG targets related to
across the three Strategic Objectives, the disaster risk reduction and in implementing
geographical regions and at all levels: the Sendai Framework, is shared through
the High-level Political Forum and Global
Enabler 1 Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction
respectively. As a reflection of this,
Effective Knowledge Management,
important synergies exist between reporting
Communication And Global Advocacy: the
on the two frameworks, specifically by SDG
UNDRR achieves major impact in
9.
knowledge generation and uptake, based
on data collection and risk analysis,
disaggregated by gender, age and
disability, and is recognised and respected
for its role as knowledge leader, broker and
convener in disaster risk reduction. In
addition, effective communication and
global advocacy campaigns ensure
stakeholder engagement and consolidate
UNDRR’s track-record of excellence across
the three Strategic Objectives.
Enabler 2
Strengthened Organizational Performance:
Appropriate, sustainable and predictable
financial resource base, and enhanced In order to keep the world’s living standards
operational performance based on at its highest while the world’s fossil fuel
appropriate gender-sensitive structure and resources are in decline with unstable
staffing. Both areas will support enhanced prices, the search for new sources of fossil
performance across the three Strategic and renewable energy has been significant
Objectives. to keep up with energy requirements.
According to the Council of Canadian As studied in 2015, there are 46 countries
Academies, It has been found that many around the world which have technically
countries have abundant resources of fossil recoverable shale oil and shale gas
fuel in the form of natural gas trapped within resources. The top 10 countries included
tight shale formations deep underground within those being China, Argentina,
and due to recent technological advances, Algeria, United States, Canada, Mexico,
these are now economically viable. States Australia, South Africa, Russia and Brazil.
and private companies have used
horizontal drilling in combination with high-
volume hydraulic fracturing (also known as Fracking and the United Nations
fracking) to extract these resources of
natural gas within shale formations. This topic has been very controversial in the
UN because of the comparison between its
Shale is the most common sedimentary economic benefits and the environmental
rock and was formed by the compaction of implications it has because of the amount of
silt and clay-sized mineral particles over water required, the air pollution it may
great periods of time. Some shales have produce because of the natural gas release
specific properties which can make them an and the earthquake risk that increases by
important and useful resource.10 Its the high pressure application on the shale
presence is dependent on the organic rock layers. Some UN commissions have
materials in it, in fine-grained shale given their considerations on shale gas and
formations where there is limited oxygen fracking. For example, The United Nations
available, the organic material is not fully Environment Programme’s (UNEP)
decomposed but it creates an organic Executive Director, Achim Steiner,
“sludge”; this creates kerogen. When expressed his concern on how using this
kerogen lies deep beneath the surface technology may stand in the way of the
where the temperature and pressure is renewable energy transition in the near
adequate a process begins which creates future and recommended governments to
oil and gas. use it as a means to conduct their countries
to low-carbon energy sources that aren’t
When the fine grain and tightness of the harmful to the environment. This issue has
shale permits for no structural gaps and evolved to a human rights situation
disallows oil or natural gas to migrate, it considering the declaration of UN
becomes trapped where it was created in Committee on Economic, Social and
tiny pores within the rock. These formations Cultural Rights of cases such as the Vaca
are in most cases thick, regionally extended Muerta shale formation in Argentina, where
and at depths varying from 600-4000m they recommended that in order to protect
below surface, making it necessary to use people’s rights, the government had to
fracking and these depths in the process of make scientific research and studies on the
acquiring these resources. implementation, they shall have the right
materials and infrastructure, make prior
consultation to the communities and then exist, regulations and implications and
warn from the effects, and protect the capital required for the infrastructure’s
environment from the consequences. The development and maintenance, as well as
committee highlighted how fracking was a the research and prior consent of
threat to human rights and if it was being communities nearby. It clear how the UN
developed, it had to be carefully. has mixed statements on the subject, but is
fracking really a threat or is it truly a means
Last year, the UN Conference on Trade and to a green future?
Development (UNCTAD) shared a more
positive opinion on fracking seeing it as a Other past initiatives and actions by the
very useful bridge towards an UNDRR when thinking about possible
environmentally-friendly future. solutions to the topic are the following:
Nevertheless, others say fracking can be
even more harmful than the conventional oil 2018 Technical Forum: an opportunity to
and gas extraction and exploitation. The review the significant progress made so far
UN’s general position on fracking supports in the monitoring and reporting of the
itself on the Paris Agreement and the implementation of the Sendai Framework,
commitment countries made on applying and also on the coherence of actions with
ambitious measures to reduce global the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
warming significantly. The UN Conference Development as well as the Paris
on Trade and Development specified in Agreement.
their report how seismicity risks and water
Sendai Framework Monitor: collects
contamination produced by fracking are
comprehensive data on disaster losses
very low and how shale gas can
through an online tool that will capture data
significantly reduce CO2 emissions by
on achieving the targets of the Sendai
replacing coal-fired power plants with
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
natural gas extracted from fracking.
(DRR).48
Annual Report: overviews results achieved
The report highlights towards the reduction of disaster risk and
how water losses, including under the UNISDR
contamination isn’t Strategic Framework 2016-2021 and the
the problem, but UNISDR Work Programme 2016-2019 and
water use since tons its Results Frameworks.
of water are used for
Global Assessment Report: The Global
fracking and it could
Assessment Report on Disaster Risk
be negative for the
Reduction (GAR) is the United Nation’s
environment in a
biennial global review and analysis of the
short-term future. Countries must evaluate
natural hazards that are affecting humanity.
the diverse geological formations that may
The GAR monitors risk patterns and trends
and progress in disaster risk reduction while Role Model Cities: “Role Model Cities” are
providing strategic policy guidance to cities, municipalities or local governments
countries and the international community. that are participating in the Campaign and
have demonstrated good practices and
innovation in DRR and resilience.
International Day for Disaster Reduction
started in 1989 with the approval by the
United Nations General Assembly. The UN
General Assembly sees the IDDR as a way
to promote a global culture of disaster
reduction, including disaster prevention,
mitigation and preparedness. It encourages
every citizen and government to take part in
building more disaster resilient communities
and nations. Originally celebrated on the
second Wednesday of October, the UN
General Assembly decided to designate
Prevention Web: provides a common October 13 as the date to celebrate the
platform for institutions to connect, IDDR.
exchange experiences and share
information about DRR. Readers can UN Sasakawa Award: The United Nations
submit content to PreventionWeb, as well Sasakawa Award for Disaster Reduction is
as syndicate PreventionWeb content to awarded to an individual or institutions that
their own websites. The website is updated have taken active efforts in reducing
daily and contains DRR news, events, disaster risk in their communities and
online discussions, contact directories, advocates for disaster risk reduction.
policy documents, reference documents, Together with the World Health
training and academic programmes, jobs, Organization Sasakawa Health Prize and
terminology, and country information, as the UN Environment Programme Sasakawa
well as audio and video content. Environment Prize, the United Nations
Sasakawa Award for Disaster Reduction is
Making Cities Resilient: addresses issues of one of three prestigious prizes established
local governance and urban risk while in 1986 by founding Chairman of the
drawing upon previous UNISDR Campaigns Nippon Foundation, Mr. Ryoichi Sasakawa.
on safer schools and hospitals, as well as
on the sustainable urbanizations principles
developed in the UN-Habitat World Urban Relevant Partnerships
Campaign 2009-2013.
When discussing partnerships which can be
of assistance to the UNDRR in addressing
the risks brought by fracking, there are ⎼ United Nations Conference on Trade
those which have been their traditional and Development
allies in any subject they tackle, those
being: ⎼ Climate Action Network

⎼ United Nations Development ⎼ Brookings Institution

Programme
⎼ RAND Corporation
⎼ EM-DAT: CRED’s Emergency Events
⎼ Columbia Centre on Global Energy
Database (EM-DAT) contains the
Policy
world’s most comprehensive data on
the occurrence and effects of more
than 23,000 technological and natural
disasters from 1900 to the present day.
⎼ CRED: The Centre for Research on
the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED)
is the world’s foremost agency for the
study of public health during mass
emergencies, including the
epidemiology of diseases, plus the
structural and socio-economic impacts
of natural and technological disasters
and human conflicts.
⎼ SDGs Monitoring Unit of the UN
Statistical Division
⎼ Inter-Agency and Expert Group on
SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs)
⎼ UN Sustainable Development Group
⎼ UN Senior Leadership Group on DRR
⎼ While there are those related
specifically to fracking, which can be:
QUESTIONS A RESOLUTION MUST ANSWER
(QARMAS)

Throughout the conference, we look forward to getting to know your proposals not only in your
Working Papers and Draft Resolutions, but in debate and considering the following questions:
How can the UNDRR apply the Sendai Framework when addressing fracking as a potential
risk disaster? Can the global targets be further achieved by deterring risk in countries
implementing this technique?
Do the economic benefits of fracking outweigh the risks incurred when applying this technique?
If they do, how can the UNDRR make fracking be accepted in countries against it?
Is the implementation of fracking a potential cause of economic growth in developing
countries? If so, should the UNDRR assist them in doing so?
How can the UNDRR assist countries implementing fracking in risk-management? Which
partnerships are to take into consideration?
What is the role of countries which have no possibilities of carrying out this technique, but can
be affected through other aspects (economic bubble, earthquakes, rise or fall in oil prices,
etc.)?
Should there be an international regulation on hydraulic fracturing? Is a ban on fracking a
plausibility in this current situation?
In case of any of the risks mentioned in the study guide becoming a reality, specifically those
that can affect the international community as a whole (the financial crisis, for example), which
should be the response of the UNDRR and the United Nations System?