PIA Training Centre (PTC) Module 4 – ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS

Category – A/B1

MODULE 4: ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS

Sub Module 4.1 – SEMICONDUCTORS

Sub Module 4.2 – PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS
Sub Module 4.3 – SERVOMECHANISM

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List of Amendments

Sub-Module &
Amendment No. Issue Date: Date Inserted: Inserted By: Date Removed: Removed By:
Pages:

Issue 01, Rev-00 All 31 March 2014

Issue 01, Rev-01 All 20 Nov 2017

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Category – A/B1

MODULE 4

Sub Module 4.1

SEMICONDUCTORS

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DIODE FUNCTIONAL TESTING ------------------------------------------------------------16
Contents Diode Checking Function ------------------------------------------------------------- 16
INTRODUCTION -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3 RECTIFIER DIODES ---------------------------------------------------------------------------17
ELECTRONICS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER ----------------------------------------------------------------------17
IMPORTANCE--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3 RECTIFICATION -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------18
Rectification ------------------------------------------------------------------------------3 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER ---------------------------------------------------------------------------18
Amplification -----------------------------------------------------------------------------4 EFFECT OF CENTER TAPPED SECONDARY--------------------------------------------------------------------18
Control -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS- THYRISTORS -----------------------------------19
Oscillators ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
SEMICONDUCTORS ---------------------------------------------------------------------5 WORKING OF SCR -------------------------------------------------------------------------------20
PROPERTIES OF SEMI –CONDUCTORS ------------------------------------------------------------ 5 SCR AS A SWITCH --------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 5 ADVANTAGES OF SCR AS A SWITCH -------------------------------------------------------------22
DOPING -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE --------------------------------------------------------------------22
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR --------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
N-type Semiconductor ------------------------------------------------------------------5 MULTI SEGMENT LED ---------------------------------------------------------------------------23
P-type Semiconductor ------------------------------------------------------------------6 PHOTO CONDUCTIVE DIODES ------------------------------------------------------------24
MAJORITY AND MINORITY CARRIERS ------------------------------------------------------------ 7
What varistors do not do ------------------------------------------------------------- 26
P-N JUNCTION---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8 Hazards ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
PROPERTIES OF PN-JUNCTION -------------- ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. TRANSISTORS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------27
BIASING A PN-JUNCTION ------------------------------------------------------------------- 9 INTRODUCTION -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------27
1. Forward biasing.------------------------------ Error! Bookmark not defined. CONSTRUCTION & SYMBOLS OF BJT------------------------------------------------------------27
2. Reverse biasing. --------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 UNBIASED TRANSISTOR: ------------------------------------------------------------ 28
BIASED TRANSISTOR -------------------------------------------------------------------------29
DIODE SYMBOL ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 12 BIASING---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS ------------------------------------------------------------------ 13 OPERATING POINT: ------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
PRIMARY USAGE OF DIODES ------------------------------------------------------- 13 Transistor Circuit notations: -------------------------------------------------------- 29
Diodes In Series And Parallel-------------------------------------------------------- 13 TRANSISTOR REGIONS OF OPERATION: ------------------------------------------------29
SERIES-CONNECTED DIODES -------------------------------------------------------------------- 13 TRANSISTOR CURRENTS --------------------------------------------------------------------------30

PARALLEL CONNECTED DIODES --------------------------------------------------------- 15 TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS---------------------------------------------------------30

FOR INCREASING CURRENT CARRYING CAPABILITY --------------------------------------------- 15 THE COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION ------------------------------------------31

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INTEGRATED CIRCUITS -------------------------------------------------------------- 33 INTRODUCTION -------------------------------------------------------------------------------41
IDEALISED CHARACTERISTIC -------------------------------------------------------------42
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS: ----------- 34
 Open Loop Gain, (Avo) ----------------------------------------------------- 42
OPERATION OF LOGIC CIRCUITS --------------------------------------------------------- 35  Input impedance, (ZIN) ----------------------------------------------------- 42
INVERTER ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35  Output impedance, (ZOUT) ------------------------------------------------- 42
NAND GATE ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 36  Bandwidth, (BW) ----------------------------------------------------------- 43
AND GATE--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37  Offset Voltage, (VIO) -------------------------------------------------------- 43
NOR GATE--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
OR GATE ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 4.1 – Diodes

INTRODUCTION
Importance
In this fast developing society, electronics has come to stay as Electronics has gained much importance due to its numerous
the most important branch of engineering. Electronic devices applications in industry. The electronic devices are capable of
are being used in almost all the industries for quality control and performing (yet not limited to) the following functions:
automation and they are fast replacing the present vast army of
workers engaged in processing and assembling in the factories. Rectification
Great strides taken in the industrial applications of electronics The conversion of A.C. into D.C. is called rectification.
during the recent years have demonstrated that this versatile Electronic devices can convert A.C. power into D.C. power
tool can be of great importance in increasing production, (See Fig 4.1) with very high efficiency. This D.C. supply can
efficiency and control. be used for charging storage batteries, field supply of D.C.
generators, electroplating etc.
The rapid growth of electronic technology offers a formidable
challenge to the beginner, who may be almost paralyzed by the
mass of details. However, the mastery of fundamentals can
simplify the learning process to a great extent. The purpose of
this chapter is to present the elementary knowledge in order to
enable the readers to follow the subsequent chapters.

ELECTRONICS

The branch of engineering which deals with current conduction

through a vacuum or gas or semiconductor is known as
*electronics. Electronics essentially deals with electronic Fig 4.1.1
devices and their utilization.

An electronic device is that in which current flows through a

vacuum or gas or semiconductor. Such devices have valuable
properties which enable them to function and behave as the
friend of man today.

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Amplification Oscillators
The process of raising the strength of a weak signal is Electronic devices can convert D.C. power into A.C. power
known as amplification. Electronic devices can accomplish of any frequency and vice versa. When performing the
the job of amplification and thus act as amplifiers (See Fig conversion from D.C to A.C, they are known as oscillators.
4.2). The amplifiers are used in a wide variety of ways. For The oscillators are used in a wide variety of ways. For
example, an amplifier is used in a radio set where the weak example, electronic high frequency heating is used for
signal is amplified so that it can be heard loudly. annealing and hardening.

Similarly, amplifiers are used in public address system,

television etc.

Fig 4.1.2

Control
Electronic devices find wide applications in automatic
control. For example, speed of a motor, voltage across a
refrigerator etc. can be automatically controlled with the
help of such devices.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 4.1 – Diodes
Doping
4.1 SEMICONDUCTORS Doping is a process of adding impurities in to an intrinsic
semiconductor material for increasing the number of free
electrons or Holes in it.
Properties of Semi –Conductors
Extrinsic Semiconductor
The materials which electrical conduction properties are In order to be useful in electronic devices, and to significantly
between good conductors and insulators are called increase the conducting properties of Intrinsic semiconductor
semiconductors. Semiconductors are basically the elements materials, a small controlled amount of suitable impurity is
which have valency of 4 or they have four electrons in their added by the doping process and when a crystal has been
outermost shell. The two most frequently used semiconductor doped it is called an extrinsic semiconductor.
materials in electronics are germanium and silicon. Both the
elements have the similar crystal structure and similar Generally, for 108 atoms of semiconductor, one impurity atom is
characteristics. The importance of semiconductor materials has added.
evolved from the fact that their resistance value can greatly be
altered by the application of voltage across them. Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic
semiconductors are classified into:
In electronics only the outer most electron shell of an atom is of
interest, since it contains the loosely held "valence" electrons, (i) N-type semiconductor
which are easily dislodged to become electric current carriers.
(ii) P-type semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor in its extremely pure form is known as an
intrinsic semiconductor and it behaves more like an insulator. N-type Semiconductor
However, at room temperature, some hole-electron pairs are An n-type semiconductor material is formed when a small
created because of thermal energy. When an electric field is amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure
applied across it some very small current flows; comprising of semiconductor. The addition of pentavalent impurity provides a
both free electrons & holes, due to breaking up of some large number of free electrons in the semiconductor crystal.
covalent bonds by thermal energy due to electric field.
Typical examples of pentavalent impurities are arsenic (Atomic
No. 33), Phosphorous (Atomic No.15) and antimony (Atomic.
No. 51).

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We know that a germanium atom has four valence electrons The energy band description of n-type semi-conductor is shown
and when a pentavalent impurity like arsenic is added in the in fig 4.1.4.
crystal, its four valence electrons form covalent bonds with four
neighboring germanium atoms and the fifth valence electron of
arsenic atom finds no place in the co-valent bond and thereby it
becomes a free electron.

Fig. 4.1.4

P-type Semiconductor
FIGURE 4.1.3 When a small amount of trivalent impurity like gallium is added
to a pure germanium crystal semiconductor, then each atom of
The following points may be noted carefully: gallium fits into the germanium crystal but only three co-valent
(i) Many new free electrons called Majority Carriers are bonds can be formed and the fourth bond remains incomplete,
produced by the addition of pentavalent impurities. being short of one electron. This missing of electron or vacancy
is called hole and the material is called p-type semiconductor.
(ii) Thermal energy of room temperature still generates The addition of small amount of trivalent impurity provides a
a few hole-electron pairs. However, the number of large number (millions) of holes in the semiconductor. Typical
free electrons provided by the pentavalent impurity examples of trivalent impurities are Gallium (Atomic No. 31),
far exceeds the number of holes. It is due to this Bismuth and indium (Atomic No. 49). Such impurities which
predominance of electrons over holes due to which produce p-type semiconductor are known as acceptor impurities
holes are called Minority carriers. because the holes created can accept the electrons.

The energy band description of the p-type semiconductor in fig

4.17 shows a number of holes in the valence band and a few

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 4.1 – Diodes
thermally produced electrons in the conduction band. It is the also carries equal number of electrons and protons. In n-type
predominance of holes over free electrons due to which Holes the extra electrons are free electrons which increase the
are called Majority Carriers and the material is called p-type conductivity of the semiconductor, similar is the situation with
semiconductor (p stands for positive). regard to p-type semiconductors. It follows therefore, that n-type
as well as p-type semiconductor is electrically neutral.

Majority and Minority Carriers

At room temperature an extrinsic semiconductor has two types
of free carriers called majority & minority carriers. The majority
carriers are because of the type of impurity added whereas the
minority carriers are thermally generated electron-hole pairs
released due to breaking of covalent bonds.

In an n-type material the majority carriers are free electrons and

the minority carriers are holes as shown in Fig. 4.1.7(a).
whereas in p-type material, the holes outnumber the free
electrons as shown in Fig. 4.1.7(b) Therefore, holes are the
Fig. 4.1.5 majority carriers and free electrons are the minority carriers.

Fig. 4.1.6

Regardless of majority carriers after doping the material p or n

type remains electrically neutral since the majority carriers are
because of the type of material(impurity) used for doping, which

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 4.1 – Diodes
as the region is depleted i.e. emptied or devoid of free charge
carries. It may be noted that depletion layer is formed very
quickly and is very thin compared to the n-region and the p-
region and is nonconductive like intrinsic semiconductor
material. In effect, we have nearly an insulator separating the
conductive P and N doped regions. For clarity, the width of the
depletion layer is shown exaggerated.

Once P-N junction is formed the free positive and negative

Fig. 4.1.7 charges gathered near the junction set up an electric field
across the junction, which poses a potential barrier to the further
diffusion or movement of free majority carriers.
4.1.1 P-N JUNCTION
When a p-type semiconductor is physically joined to n-type The barrier potential Vo of a P-N junction depends upon several
semiconductor, nothing appreciable would happen, as neither of factors including the type of semiconductor material, the amount
the independent material has any net charge, both materials of doping and temperature. The typical barrier potential is
being electrically neutral. However, when a single approximately:
semiconductor crystal is manufactured with P-type material at
For silicon, V0= 0.7 V; For germanium, V0= 0.3 V at 25o Celsius
one end and N-type material at the other end, then it displays
some unique properties at the P-N junction, where the majority
carriers from both the materials recombine, termed as P-N
Junction.

PROPERTIES OF P-N JUNCTION

At the instant of P-N junction formation, the free electrons near

the junction from the N-type material begin to diffuse across the
junction by combining with holes in P-type material, resulting in
the creation of a localized layer of positive charges, similarly the
region of the P-type material near the junction takes on a net
negative charge. These thin localized layers of positive and
negative ions hinders further diffusion of free charges among
both the regions and the region is termed as Depletion Region,

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 4.1 – Diodes
1. Zero Biasing
A diode is said to be connected in a Zero bias when no external
potential energy is applied to the p-n junction. If the diodes terminal
are shorted together a few holes in the p-type material with enough
energy level to overcome the potential barrier will move across the
junction which is termed as Forward Current ‘IF’ likewise minority holes
generated in the n-type material will move across the junction in
opposite direction as Reverse Current ‘IR’ . This transfer of holes and
electrons across the p-n junction without applying any voltage is
known as Diffusion current and is because of the presence of
concentration or doping gradient across the junction. The potential
barrier then discourages further diffusion of any more majority carriers
across the junction. However, now the potential barrier is capable to
push the minority carriers to ‘Drift’ across the junction.
Ultimately an equilibrium or balance termed as Dynamic
equilibrium is established when the majority carriers cease to
diffuse further because of the buildup of the barrier potential.
The minority carriers however are constantly generated due to
Fig. 4.1.8 thermal energy so this state of equilibrium can be broken by
raising the temperature of the p-n junction, but since no circuit
BIASING A PN-JUNCTION has been connected thereby no electric current flows.
In electronics, the term bias refers to the use of d.c. voltage to 2. Forward biasing.
establish certain operating conditions for an electronic device.
When external d.c. voltage applied to the junction is in such a
In relation to a p-n junction, there are three bias conditions: direction that it cancels the potential barrier, thus permitting high
current flow, it is called forward biasing. To apply forward bias,
1. Zero biasing we connect positive terminal of the battery to p-type and
2. Forward biasing negative terminal to n-type.
3. Reverse Biasing
In n-type region, current is carried by free electrons whereas in
p-type region, it is carried by holes. However, in the external
connecting wires, the current is carried by free electrons.

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3. Reverse biasing. VOLT-AMPERE CHARACTERISTICS OF PN-JUNCTION
DIODE
When the external d.c. voltage applied to the junction is in such
a direction that potential barrier is increased, it is called reverse
The characteristics of an electronic component are the essential
biasing. To apply reverse bias, connect negative terminal of the
features or peculiarities that distinguish it from other types of
battery to p-type and positive terminal to n-type. It is clear that
component e.g. one of the characteristics of thermistors is that
applied reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts
their resistance falls rapidly with increasing temperature,
in the same direction as the field due to potential barrier.
whereas fixed resistors have a fairly stable temperature
Therefore, the resultant field at the junction is strengthened and
characteristic.
the barrier height is increased. The increased potential barrier
prevents the flow of charge carriers across the junction. Thus, a
A characteristic curve is a very useful graph for active devices
high resistance path is established for the entire circuit and
to show how the current through the device changes as its
hence the current does not flow.
electrode voltages or other electrode currents are varied.
Thus, a P-N junction diode conducts only in one direction i.e.
during forward bias. During forward bias, the diode conducts For the characteristic curve of a semiconductor diode usually
current with increase in voltage whereas during reverse bias, voltage is taken along x-axis and current along y-axis. Fig.
the diode does not conduct with increase in voltage; breakdown 4.1.11 shows the circuit arrangement for determining the V-I
usually results in damage of diode. characteristics of a p-n junction. The characteristics can be
studied under three heads, namely; zero external voltage,
forward bias and reverse
Conclusion Bias.
From the above discussion, it follows that with reverse bias to
the junction, a high resistance path is established and hence no
current flow occurs. On the other hand, with forward bias to the
junction, a low resistance path is set up and hence current flows
in the circuit.
The current flow in a semiconductor p-n junction is composed of
two components called Drift and Diffusion. The flow of majority
or minority carriers under the influence of an external electric
field created due to applied voltage is called the drift component
whereas the flow of majority carriers due to the presence of Fig. 4.1.11
doping or concentration gradient across the junction material
requiring no supply voltage is called the Diffusion component.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 4.1 – Diodes
(i) Zero bias voltage nA(Si) or µA(Ge) comprising of the minority carriers and
When the external voltage is zero, i.e. circuit is open at thermally generated hole-electron pairs flows in the
K, the potential barrier at the junction does not permit circuit. It is worth noting that the reverse bias voltages
current flow. Therefore, the circuit current is zero as appear as forward bias to the minority carriers. The
indicated by point O in Fig. 4.1.12. term saturation comes from the fact that it reaches its
maximum level quickly and does not significantly
(ii) Forward bias. change with the increase in reverse voltage. Another
With forward bias to the pn-junction, the potential barrier component of reverse current is surface leakage current
is reduced. At some forward voltage i.e. 0.7 V for Si and which is due to the presence of dust, dirt, moisture or
0.3 V for Ge, the potential barrier is altogether vanishes corrosion present on the surface of the semiconductor
and forward current IF comprising of the majority material. Thus IR = IS + ISL.
carriers starts flowing in the circuit.

This current called Forward Current (IF) increases with

the increase in forward voltage (VF), hence a rising
curve OB is obtained with forward bias as shown in Fig.
4.1.12. It is evident from the curve that at first (region
OA), the current increases very slowly and the curve is
non-linear, as the external applied voltage is used up in
overcoming the potential barrier.

However, once the external voltage exceeds the

potential barrier voltage, the p-n junction behaves like
an ordinary conductor. Therefore, the current rises very
sharply with increase in external voltage (region AB on
the curve). The curve is almost linear.

(iii) Reverse bias. Fig. 4.1.12

With reverse bias the potential barrier at the junction is
increased and the depletion region gets wider and (iv) Reverse Breakdown Region.
ideally no current flows through the circuit. However, in If the reverse voltage (VR) is continuously increased
practical a very small reverse drift current component then the diode will go into its breakdown region in which
called reverse saturation current ‘Is’ in the order of few the reverse current rapidly increases. The max

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 PIA Training Centre (PTC) Module 4 – ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 4.1 – Diodes
allowable reverse voltage rating before the breakdown diodes the initially available carriers do not collide
occurs is termed as VRRM. with ions. It is the electric field set up by the applied
voltage that is responsible for the rupture of
The rapid increase of reverse current on breakdown is covalent bonds. The electric field causes a strong
explained by two phenomena called Avalanche and force to be exerted on the bound electrons in the
Zener breakdown. Avalanche breakdown is related to
an ordinary diode, however, Zener breakdown is
lattice so that they can be removed from their
concerned with voltage regulator diodes used in reverse bonds. These new electron hole pairs increase the
biased region which are obtained by higher doping reverse current. This process is called zener
level. breakdown

In an ordinary diode in reverse bias mode, if we DIODE SYMBOL

continuously increase the reverse voltage VR, the kinetic A p-n junction is known as a semi-conductor or *crystal diode,
energy of electrons (minority carriers) may become high which is an active device that conducts current in one direction
enough to knock out more electrons from the valence when the anode is typically positive with respect to the cathode,
band. These dislodged valence electrons will and acts like almost as an open circuit when the voltage across
themselves be further accelerated to remove more it is reversed. This characteristic of being ON and conducting or
electrons resulting in rapid increase of the reverse OFF makes it an ideal component for use in switching circuits,
current. At this stage Avalanche breakdown of the logic, rectifiers, demodulators, waveform shapers and many
junction occurs, characterized by a sudden rise of other applications. A diode is usually represented by the
reverse current and a sudden fall of the resistance of schematic symbol shown below.
barrier region resulting in burning of the diode. As long
as the power dissipation is not exceeded the reverse
current does not damage the diode.

The reverse voltage at which breakdown occurs is

controlled by the doping level, for higher doping level
relatively a thin depletion region is created thereby
Fig 4.1.13
small reverse voltages as low as 6V results in the
breakdown for some voltage regulator diodes.
The arrow in the symbol indicates the direction of easier
conventional current flow. A diode has two terminals an anode
In zener breakdown, special diodes with higher
doping concentrations are used, unlike ordinary
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 PIA Training Centre (PTC) Module 4 – ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 4.1 – Diodes
and a cathode. For understanding biasing of a semiconductor
diode we can say that: PRIMARY USAGE OF DIODES

(i) If arrowhead of diode symbol is positive w.r.t. bar of Rectifier diodes are typically used for power supply
the symbol, the diode is forward biased. applications. Within the power supply, you will see diodes as
elements that convert AC power to DC power;
(ii) If the arrowhead of diode symbol is negative w.r.t.
bar, the diode is reverse biased. Switching diodes have lower power ratings than rectifier
diodes, but can function better in high frequency application and
Diode Equivalent Circuits
in clipping and clamping operations that deal with short-duration
Following table depicts the modeling of Rectifier Diodes for pulse waveforms.
ease of understanding.
Diodes In Series And Parallel
Series-Connected Diodes
For increasing reverse blocking voltage capabilities of a
circuit the diodes are connected in series.

In high-voltage applications one commercially available diode is

unable to meet the required voltage ratings of a circuit.
Connecting diodes in series increases the reverse blocking
capabilities of the diodes. Each diode must carry the same
leakage current, and have the same blocking voltage. However,
in reality even two diodes of the same part number will not have
the same characteristics due to tolerances in the production
process. This is shown for two diodes of the same part number
connected in series in Figure 4.1.15, along with their V-I
characteristics. This gives rise to problems when diodes are
connected in series, since the blocking voltages will differ
slightly.
FIG. 4.1.14.

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 PIA Training Centre (PTC) Module 4 – ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 4.1 – Diodes
From the graphs it can be seen that in the forward-biased For same BV the IS differs.
condition, both diodes conduct the same amount of current and
the forward voltage drop for each diode would be almost equal.
In the reversed-biased condition, however, where each diode
has to carry the same leakage current, the blocking voltage
would differ significantly as shown in figure 4.1.15-b.

For same IS the BV differs

Figure 4.1.16: Series-Connected Diodes with Steady-State

The relationship between the resistors for equal voltage sharing

is developed below
Figure 4.1.15: Two Series Connected Diodes in Reverse Bias
In this arrangement, the total leakage current must be shared by
a diode and a resistor. Hence
This problem is solved by forcing equal voltage sharing by
connecting a resistor across each diode as shown in figure IS = IS1 + IR1 = IS2 + IR2 ------------------- (1)
4.1.16. The values of R1 & R2 are selected in accordance with Where IS1=IS + ISL is the reverse leakage or saturation current of
the reverse breakdown voltages so that it maintains constant D1 and IR1 is the current flow through R1.
and same potential drop across both the diodes. Due to the
equal voltage sharing the leakage current of each diode would If reverse resistance of D1 decreases then IA flows through D1
be different as shown in figure 2-b. & R2 and similarly when reverse resistance of D2 decreases

then IB flows throughD2 & R1.

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But we need to get, equal inductances or by connecting current sharing resistors,
the latter option may not be practical due to power losses
VD1 = VD2 ------------------------------------ (2) incurred by the resistive components. Selecting diodes with
equal forward voltage drops would minimize the unequal
We know that if VD1 = VD2 then I1 = I2 and no current flows sharing of current.
through the shorting path.
For steady state current sharing, the circuit of figure 4.1.17a,
By this design VD1 & VD2 remains same by providing reverse with series resistors is used. The values of R1 & R2 are
current alternate paths, thereby reverse block voltage of the selected according to the difference in characteristics of the two
circuit does not decreases as it was in the case of figure 4.1.14, diodes in respect of their reverse breakdown voltages and the
however the leakage current value for each diode is changed. resistances are selected in manner to make their reverse
Now we know that, breakdown voltages equal so that both the diodes share equal
amount of reverse current. If somehow current in any branch
IR1 = and IR2 = increases than a specific value, the drop across branch
Resistance also increases causing an increase of the branch
Hence using equation (1) under conditions of equal voltage temperature. As diode is of negative temperature coefficient
thereby cumulative increase of current takes place until the
sharing yields
diode is burnt, therefore only steady state stability is possible.
IS1 + = IS2 + --------------------- (3) Dynamic current sharing is achieved with the use of coupled
inductors as indicated by figure 4.1.17b.
Hence the relationship between the two resistors for equal
If the current I1through diode D1 rises, then the voltage across
Voltage sharing is given by equation (3) inductor VL1 (Recall VL = L di/dt) increases, causing a voltage of
opposite polarity to be induced across inductor L2. This causes
a low impedance path for current flow through diode D2, hence
PARALLEL CONNECTED DIODES
more current is shifted through this diode.
For increasing current carrying capability
In high power applications, diodes are connected in parallel to
increase the current carrying capability in order to meet circuit
requirements. In parallel operation of diodes, current sharing
depends on the magnitude of their forward voltage drops.
Uniform current sharing can be achieved either by the use of

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(3) A curve tracer.

Diode Checking Function

A digital display meter with a diode checking capability appears
in Fig. 4.1.18. Note the small diode symbol as the bottom option
of the rotating dial. When set in this position and hooked up as
shown in Fig. 4.1.19a, the diode should be in the “on” state and
the display will provide an indication of the forward-bias voltage
such as 0.67 V(for Si). The meter has an internal constant
current source (about 2 mA) that will define the voltage level. An
OL indication with the hookup of Fig. 4.1.19a reveals an open
(defective) diode. If the leads are reversed, an OL indication
should result due to the expected open-circuit equivalence for
Figure 4.1.17 the diode. In general, therefore, an OL indication in both
directions is an indication of an open or defective diode.
The dynamic current sharing circuit has an advantage over
steady state current sharing circuit in the sense that due to
some fault if current I1 increases than unlike steady state, this
induces an emf in L2 in a direction as to decrease Z2 thereby
causing I2 to increase, as a result the load on D1 decreases and
the circuit continues to work without the burning of D1; which
otherwise if not fitted with L1 & L2 in the circuit would have
burnt with regenerative increase of current in D1 coz of increase
in temperature

DIODE FUNCTIONAL TESTING

The condition of a semiconductor diode can be determined
quickly using

(1) A digital display meter (DDM) with a diode checking function,

(2) The ohmmeter section of a multimeter, or

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Fig 4.1.19

RECTIFIER DIODES
Fig. 4.1.18 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

Figure 4.1.20a shows a circuit known as a half wave rectifier.

On the positive half cycle of secondary voltage, the diode is
forward-biased for all instantaneous voltages greater than the
offset voltage (approximately 0.7 V for silicon diodes and 0.3 V
for germanium diodes). This produces approximately a half sine
wave of voltage across the load resistor. To simplify our
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discussions, we will use the ideal-diode approximation because Rectification
the peak source voltage is usually much larger than the offset
The important thing to notice about the half-wave rectifier is this:
voltage of the diode. With this in mind, the peak of rectified
It has converted the ac input voltage to a pulsating dc voltage.
voltage is equal to the peak secondary voltage, as shown in Fig.
In other words, the load voltage is always positive or zero,
4.1.20b. On the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse-biased.
depending on which half cycle it's in. Stated another way, the
load current is always in the same direction. This conversion
from ac to dc is known as rectification.

Full Wave Rectifier

Figure 4.1.21(a) shows a full wave rectifier. During the positive
half cycle of secondary voltage, the upper diode is forward-
biased and the lower diode is reverse-biased; therefore, the
current is through the upper diode, the load resistor, and the
upper half winding fig. (c). During the negative half cycle, current
is through the lower diode, the load resistor, and the lower half
winding fig. (d). Notice that the load voltage has the same
polarity in fig.(c) and (d) because the current through the load
resistor is in the same direction no matter which diode is
conducting. This is why the load voltage is the full-wave rectified
signal shown in Fig. (b).

Effect of Center Tapped Secondary

Fig 4.1.20: (a)Half wave rectifier (b) Rectified output A full-wave rectifier is like two back-to-back half-wave rectifiers
with one rectifier handling the first half cycle and the other
Ignoring leakage current (the same as reverse current), the load handling the alternate half cycle. Because of the center-tapped
current drops to zero; this is why the load voltage drops to zero secondary winding, each diode circuit receives only half the
between 180° and 360°. secondary voltage. Assuming ideal diodes, this means the peak
rectified output voltage is
Numerically for a half wave rectifier
Vout(peak) = 0.5 V2(Peak)
Iav = 0.318 Im
VRL = 0.5 V2M

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The current through each diode is half the dc load current. SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS- THYRISTORS

IL = I1 + I2 Introduction
ES= E1 + E2 for center tap E1 = E2 thereby The silicon controlled rectifier (abbreviated as SCR) is a three-
ES = 2 E 1 terminal semiconductor switching device which can be used as
However, for positive half cycle the D1 conducts & D2 is open, a controlled switch to perform various functions such as
the potential Drop across D2 is such that polarity of pd across rectification, inversion and regulation of power flow. The SCR
RL and E2 adds up across D2. Thus by KVL has assumed paramount importance in electronics because it
E1 + E2 – PIV = 0 can be produced in versions to handle currents up to several
PIV = 2 E1 = ES i.e twice the E1 or E2 value. thousand amperes and voltages up to more than 1 kV.
The SCR is available in the market under different names such
as Thyristor, Thyrode transistor. It is a unidirectional power
switch and is being extensively used in switching d.c. and a.c.,
rectifying a.c. to give controlled d.c. output, converting d.c. into
a.c. etc. the various characteristics of silicon-controlled rectifiers
and their increasing applications in power electronics are
discussed below.
A silicon controlled rectifier is a semiconductor device that acts
as a true electronic switch. It can change alternating current into
direct current and at the same time can control the amount of
power fed to the load. Thus, SCR combines the features of a
rectifier and a transistor.

 Why not germanium controlled rectifier? The device is

made of silicon because leakage current in silicon is
very small as compared to germanium. Since the device
is used as a switch, it will carry leakage current in the off
condition which should be as small as possible.
Fig 4.1.21: (a) Full wave rectifier (b) Rectified output (c) Positive
half cycle (d) Negative half cycle (e) Peak Inverse voltage  It got this name because it is a silicon device and is used
as a rectifier and that rectification can be controlled.
For pure sinusoidal waveform

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the load RL and the SCR is cut off.
However, if the applied voltage is gradually increased, a
stage is reached when *reverse biased junction J2
breaks down. The SCR now conducts heavily and is
said to be in the ON state. The applied voltage at which
SCR conducts heavily without gate voltage is called
Break Over Voltage.
(i) When gate is positive w.r.t. cathode. The SCR can be
made to conduct heavily at smaller applied voltage by
applying a small positive potential to the gate as shown
in Fig.4.1.24. Now junction J3 is forward biased and
junction J2 is reverse biased. The electrons from n-type
material start moving across junction J3 towards left
whereas holes from p-type towards the right.
Consequently, the electrons from junction J3 are
attracted across junction J2 and gate current starts
flowing. As soon as the gate current flows, anode
Fig 4.1.22 (c)
current increases. The increased anode current in turn
makes more electrons available at junction J2. This
process continues and in an extremely small time,
Working of SCR junction J2 breaks down and the SCR starts conducting
heavily. Once SCR starts conducting, the gate (the
In a silicon controlled rectifier, load is connected in series with reason for this name is obvious) loses its control. Even if
anode. The anode is always kept at positive potential w.r.t gate voltage is removed, the anode current does not
cathode. The working of SCR can be studied under the decrease at all. The only way to stop conduction (i.e.
following two heads: bring SCR in off condition) is to reduce the applied
(i) When gate is open. Fig. 4.1.23 shows the SCR circuit voltage to zero.
with gate open i.e. no voltage applied to the gate. Under
this condition, junction J2 is reverse biased while
junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased. Hence, the
situation in the junctions J1 and J3 is like NPN transistor
with base open. Consequently, no current flows through
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equal to the break over voltage. The second method is
to operate SCR with supply voltage less than break over
voltage and then turn it on by means of a small voltage
(typically 1.5 V, 30 mA) applied to the gate.
(iii) Applying small positive voltage to the gate is the normal
way to close an SCR because the break over voltage is
usually much greater than supply voltage.
(iv) To open the SCR (i.e. to make it non-conducting),
reduce the supply voltage to zero.

Fig 4.1.23
Equivalent Circuit of SCR
The SCR can be visualized as separated into two transistors as
shown in Fig.4.1.25. It is clear that collector of each transistor is
coupled to the base of the other, thereby making a positive
feedback loop. In the circuit shown assume the supply voltage
V is less than the break over voltage as is usually the case.
With switch S open, there is no base current in transistor T2.
Therefore, no current flows in the collector of T2 and hence that
of T1. Under such conditions, the SCR is open.

Fig 4.1.24 With switch S closed, a small gate current will flow through the
base of T2 which means its collector current will increase.
Conclusion
The collector current of T2 is the base current of T1. Therefore,
The following conclusions are drawn from the working of SCR: collector current of T1 increases. But collector current of T1 is
(i) An SCR has two states i.e. either it does not conduct or also the base current of T2. This action is cumulative since an
it conducts heavily. There is no state in between. increase of current in one transistor causes an increase of
Therefore, SCR behaves like a switch. current in the other transistor. As a result of this action, both the
transistors are driven to saturation, and heavy current flows
(ii) There are two ways to turn on the SCR. The first method through the load RL. Under such condition, the SCR closes.
is to keep the gate open and make the supply voltage

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(iii) It permits control over large current (30–100 A) in the
load by means of a small gate current (a few mA).
(iv) It has small size and gives trouble free service.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

Fig 4.1.25
SCR as a Switch
The SCR has only two states, namely; ON state and OFF state
and no transient state in between. When appropriate gate
current is passed, the SCR starts conducting heavily and
remains in this position indefinitely even if gate voltage is
removed. This corresponds to the ON condition. However, when
the anode current is reduced to the holding current, the SCR is
turned OFF
Fig 4.1.26: Operation and Construction of LED
It is clear that behavior of SCR is similar to a mechanical switch.
As SCR is an electronic device, therefore, it is more appropriate LED is a p-n junction diode made up of semiconductor materials like
to call it an electronic switch. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Arsenide phosphide (GaAsP),
Gallium Phosphide(GaP) etc., which emit lighter and very less heat
Advantages of SCR as a switch when forward biased. When a suitable voltage 1.63 to 4V is applied
An SCR has the following advantages over a mechanical or to the leads, conduction band electrons are able to recombine with
electromechanical switch (relay): valence band holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of
photons. This effect is called electroluminescence i.e. emission of
(i) It has no moving parts. Consequently, it gives light from a semiconductor under the influence of an electric field,
noiseless operation at high efficiency.
and the color of light corresponding to the energy of the photons is
(ii) The switching speed is very high up to 109
determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor material.
operations per second.

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LEDs are typically less than 1mm2 size and integrated optical
components may be used to shape the radiation pattern.
The earlier LEDs emitted low intensity infra red light and were
frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control
circuits, however modern LEDs are available across the visible,
ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths with very high brightness.

Fig 4.1.27 Symbol

Fig 4.1.28: Multi Segment Layout
Multi Segment LED
Because these displays are composed of linear segments (that
A further development of the standard LED package is the is, there are no curls or twists which can be produced), some
seven-segment numerical indicator and the sixteen segment anomalies could exist between similarly formed letters or
alpha-numeric indicator. In these devices, the PN junctions are numbers. Any combination which may introduce a
elongated into a rectangular format and the light is emitted in a misinterpretation is usually not specified in the equipment
bar shape. The letter or number which a multi-segment display manual which covers the interpretation of the display. As an
is required to produce is formed from a combination of example, the number 1 and the letter I could easily be read one
illuminated segments. Fig 4.1.28a shows the layout of the for the other, and the distinction will be shown in the display
constituent light emitting diodes which are used in seven dictionary.
segment displays and Fig 4.1.28b shows the layout for sixteen
segment indicators. A sample of the letters or figures which The diode junctions which form the segments of the display
may also be produced by some of the possible combinations of require both an anode and a cathode connection. For a sixteen
illuminated diodes is also illustrated. segment display this would result in thirty two connectors.

Fortunately, most situations allow for a common connection to

all the cathodes (or, alternatively, all the anodes). The displays
are then referred to as common anode connected or common

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cathode connected and the number of leads reduces to eight or As the light intensity increase, more photons produce more
seventeen for the two types of display. electron-hole pairs which further increase the conductivity of the
photodiode resulting in a proportionally higher current. The
PHOTO CONDUCTIVE DIODES photo current is nearly independent of reverse bias voltage, it
Introduction becomes negligibly small for zero luminance or when the
photodiode is in complete darkness.
A photodiode is a p-n junction semiconductor device that
converts incident light into an electric current or voltage based The dark current is too small to be plotted, since it is in the
on its mode of operation. It comprises of optical filters, built-in nano-ampere range for most photodiodes. Dark current
lenses and also surface areas. These diodes have a slow increases only slightly with an increase in reverse voltage.
response time when the surface area of the photodiode
increases. Photodiodes have an important advantage over the
photoconductive devices described earlier. A photodiode can
The photodiodes are also called as photo-detector, light respond much faster to changes in light intensity. In fact, the
detector and photo sensor. The solar cell is also branded as photodiode operates faster than any other type of
large area photodiode because it converts solar energy into photosensitive device. It is therefore useful in those
electric energy however solar cell work only in bright light. applications where light fluctuates or changes intensity at a
rapid rate. The major disadvantage with the photodiode is that
When used as a photovoltaic cell, the device is said to be its output photocurrent is relatively low when compared to other
operating in the photovoltaic mode or zero bias mode, and it will photoconductive devices.
generate an output voltage (across its electrodes) that varies
with the intensity of the light striking its P-type layer. In other Photodiodes and PIN photodiodes are both commonly
words it is used essentially as a light-variable resistor. represented by the same schematic symbol and several
symbols have been used to represent these devices. A
When used as photoconductive or in photocurrent mode, the commonly used symbol is shown in Fig 4.1.28A. Notice that a
device is reverse biased, so as to form a wider depletion region conventional diode symbol is used with two arrows. The arrows
wherein photons enter to create electron-hole pairs which point toward the diode to show that it responds to light. Fig
constitute the Photocurrent, however the discrete electrons and 4.1.28B shows a properly biased photodiode. A load resistor
holes are pulled in opposite directions because of the influence simply represents any resistive load which might be controlled
of the charges that exist on each side of the junction due to by the photodiodes as it varies its conductivity in accordance
reverse bias. The separated electrons and holes support a with input light intensity. The changes in the diode’s conduction
small current flow in the reverse direction called Dark current, will cause the photocurrent () in the circuit to vary.
which increases with an increase in reverse voltage.

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VARISTORS

A varistor is an electronic component with an electrical

resistance that varies with the applied voltage. A varistor is also
known as voltage-dependent resistor (VDR), it has nonlinear,
non-ohmic current-voltage characteristics similar to a diode. In
contrast to a diode however, it has the same characteristic for
both directions of traversing current. At low voltage it has a high
electrical resistance which decreases as the voltage is raised.

Fig 4.1.28: A Photodiode Symbol (A) and a Properly Biased Varistors provide reliable and economical protection against
Photodiode (B) excessive transient voltages and surges which may be
produced, for example, by lightning, switching or electrical noise
on AC or DC power lines. They have the advantage over
transient suppressor diodes in as much as they can absorb
much higher transient energies and can suppress positive and
negative transients. When used as protection devices, they
shunt the current created by the excessive voltage away from
sensitive components when triggered.

Varistors are manufactured from a non-homogeneous material,

giving a rectifying action at the contact points of two particles.
Many series and parallel connections determine the voltage
rating and the current capability of the varistor.

 Under normal operating conditions, the overvoltage

device appears as a high impedance device

 Under overvoltage operating conditions, the overvoltage

device appears as a low impedance device because of
breakdown of its junction due to combination of
thermionic emission and electron tunneling

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What varistors do not do

A varistor inside a device does not provide equipment with
complete power protection. In particular, this device provides no
protection for the connected equipment from sustained over-
voltages that may result in damage to that equipment as well as
to the protector device. Other sustained and harmful over
voltages may be lower and therefore ignored by a varistor
device.

A varistor provides no equipment protection from inrush current

surges (during equipment startup), from over current (created
by a short circuit), or from voltage sags (also known as a
brownout); it neither senses nor affects such events.
Susceptibility of electronic equipment to these
other power disturbances is defined by other aspects of the
system design, either inside the equipment itself or externally by
means such as a UPS, a voltage regulator or a surge
protector with built-in overvoltage protection (which typically
consists of a voltage-sensing circuit and a relay for
disconnecting the AC input when the voltage reaches a danger
threshold).

Hazards
While an varistor is designed to conduct significant power for
very short durations (about 8 to 20 microseconds), such as
Fig 4.1.29 Symbols & Varistor circuits caused by lightning strikes, it typically does not have the
capacity to conduct sustained energy. Under normal utility
voltage conditions, this is not a problem. However, certain types

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4.1.2 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS
Introduction
In 1951 William Shockley invented the first Bipolar Junction
of faults on the utility power grid can result in sustained over- Transistor. The term is a derivative of Transfer & Resistance,
voltage conditions. Examples include a loss of a neutral implying that it transfers resistance from output to input.
conductor or shorted lines on the high voltage system.
Application of sustained over-voltage to a varistor can cause A transistor is a solid state device formed by doping three
high dissipation, potentially resulting in the varistor device regions on a pure semiconductor lattice. It is classified into two
catching fire. categories namely Bi-Polar Junction Transistor & Unipolar -
Junction Transistors.
The main parameter affecting varistor life expectancy is its
energy (joule) rating. The semiconductor material usually used in transistor
construction is either Silicon or Germanium. Transistors can
NOTES: perform most of the functions carried out by vacuum tubes. It is
advantageous to use transistors due to their lightweight and
small size. Also, it does not require heater power, as is a
vacuum tube. Therefore, in most applications transistors can
replace vacuum tubes. Nevertheless, there are instances where
vacuum tubes have to be used and that is in high power
applications. This is because tubes are capable of handling
more power and have higher voltage ratings than transistors.

Construction & Symbols

A Bipolar Junction transistor is a current controlled device
consisting of three semiconductor layers with either a P layer
between two N layers or an N layer between two P layers. The
former is referred to as a NPN transistor and the latter is a PNP
transistor. In both cases, the middle lightly doped layer is called
the base and is extremely thin, when compared to the two outer
layers. The two layers on either side are called the highly doped
emitter and the intermediately doped largest size collector. So,
you can see that there will be three terminals for

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Similarly, the depletion Region formation at the Collector-Base
junction will be of comparatively larger in width, as now the
the transistor. The circuit representation of the PNP and NPN small number of majority charge carriers from the Base region
transistors are shown in the figure. would have to comparatively travel more into the intermediately
doped Collector region for recombination until the formation of
the similar barrier potential but this barrier potential requires
much more potential difference >> 0.7 V to apply for allowing
the current to flow through it due to less doping. Numerically
VcB is greater than even VcE i.e. more pd is required to
overcome it.

During the diffusion process, the depletion region penetrates

more deeply into the lightly doped side in order to include an
equal number of impurity atoms in each side of the junction.
Thus, the Emitter-Base depletion region would be shorter in
width into the Emitter region in comparison to the Base-region
and similarly for Collector- Base Junction the Depletion region
would be shorter in width inside the collector region.

Fig 4.1.30

UNBIASED TRANSISTOR:
The highest level of doping of the Emitter region causes a
smaller in width Depletion region formation at the Emitter-Base
region; coz of the short travel of Base region low concentration
majority carriers for recombining with the abundantly available
majority carriers of the emitter region. Thus, a barrier potential
of 0.7V for Silicon & 0.3V for Germanium is formed and then Fig 4.1.31
further recombination or diffusion ceases. Thus, for overcoming
the barrier a pd of just greater than 0.7V is required.

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BIASED TRANSISTOR As in Common Emitter Configuration VE is grounded
thereby:
BIASING
Biasing is the application of DC emf voltages applied to a VCE = VC
transistor in order to achieve a fixed level of Currents & Voltages.
VBE = VB.
OPERATING POINT:
The Operating point is an optional working point having certain
values of I, V & R for a circuit for desired operation

Establishing of a fixed transistor I & V by biasing, defines a

region in which transistor will operate and the point in the
operating region at which an input signal would be applied for
amplification is termed as the Operating or Quiescent or Q
point. Quiescent means fix, still and in active.

Transistor Circuit notations:

Fig 4.1.32
A Double Subscript notation is used to identify Potential Drops
TRANSISTOR REGIONS OF OPERATION:
and EMF sources with the transistor circuits. The details are as
under: A transistor can be operated in any of the following regions
depending upon the supply of voltage to its two junctions.
1- When the subscripts are same the Voltage represents a
Source like VCC, VBB and VEE. When both the junctions are Forward or Reverse biased a
2- When the subscripts are different the Voltages represent transistor could only be operated in the Saturation or Cut off
the voltage between two points like VCE or VBE. region and such operation is called Switching Mode.
3- Single subscripts are used for Node Voltages like VB is
the voltage between the base and ground. In this mode no gain or amplification of the signal is sought.
4- We can conclude a double subscript voltage of different
subscripts by subtracting its single subscript voltage. J1 ( VEB) J2 ( VCB ) Operating Features
E.g. VCE = VC - VE Region
And vcb = vc - vb Forward Bias Forward Bias Saturation VCE = 0V
Reverse Bias Reverse Bias Cutoff VCE = VCC
Forward Bias Reverse Bias Active Amplification

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TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS
Three Basic type of configurations in which a transistor can be
operated in Active mode in a circuit are CE, CB and CC. The
term COMMON is derived from the fact that one side/lead/
terminal of a transistor is connected to both input and output of
the circuit and it is always grounded.

The basic rule behind every transistor circuit configuration is

Fig 4.1.33 that the junction J1 (Emitter Base Junction) is kept always
Transistor Currents Forward Biased & the Junction J2 (Collector Base Junction) is
always reverse biased.
The arrow on the emitter specifies the conventional direction of
current when the emitter base junction is forward biased. There are three common rules about connecting a correct
power supply polarity in all the said configurations.
In the active mode of operation of the transistor, the emitter
base junction is forward biased and the collector base junction i- The VCC is always connected in opposite to the type
is reverse biased. Thereby the majority carriers in J1 for PNP of Collector material of transistor in all configurations.
will be holes and for NPN are electrons. The base layer being ii- The VEE or VBB terminals are connected in
extremely thin & lightly doped allows diffusion of the most of the accordance with the common terminal material of the
carriers in to the collector-base junction J2, without much transistors in both CE and CB configurations.
recombining with the majority carriers of the base. iii- The VBB terminal is connected in opposite to the
common terminal material of a transistor connected
Therefore, for all practical purposes we can write, as shown in in the CC configuration.
the figure 4.1.33

IE = IB + IC……………………… (1) It is important to note that in the CC configuration VCC and VBB
are connected in series buckling thereby their voltages oppose
Since, IB<< IE thereby for practical reasons IE ≈ IC. each other and since VCC >> VBB thereby the dominant VCC
As an idea, if 100 charge carriers compose emitter current then makes the Current I flow in the direction such that it is forward
98 charge carriers will flow as Collector Current and only 02 biasing the junction J1.
charge carriers as the Base current.

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THE COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION

Fig 4.1.34

Fig 1 shows a NPN transistor in the common emitter

configuration (CE). As you can see in this case the input is the
base (VBE & IB) and output is the collector (VCE & IC).

Fig 4.1.33 Altogether we have four variables. Out of these we take the
input current IB and output voltage VCE to be the two
independent variables. Then we can write the other two
dependent variables (i.e. the output current IC and input voltage
VBE) as functions of IB and VCE.

Thus,

IC = f(IB , VCE) ------------------- (2)

VBE = f (IB, VCE) ------------------(3)

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The graphs of VBE against IB for constant values of VCE are The equation IE = IC + IB remains valid and similiarly the
called the INPUT CHARACTERISTICS, or the STATIC BASE relationship of IB<< IE.
CHARACTERISTICS of the transistor and the graphs of IC
∆
against VCE for constant values of IB are called the OUTPUT The input impedance Zi = ∆
│ is medium like 600 to
CHARACTERISTICS or the static collector characteristics of 4K
the transistor. The family of characteristic curves is further ∆
divided into three main regions called the cut off, active and The output impedance Zo = ∆
│ is medium like 10k
saturation. to 50k .
The base current IB starts conducting only when VBE = V, where,
Vr is called the cut in voltage. This is the voltage at which the
base starts conduction.

(A) Input Characteristics (B) Output Characteristics

Fig 4.1.36
Fig 4.1.35
The voltage gain Av = is also moderate
By applying KVL to the input loop
∝
The current gain Ai = = =∝ is also moderate.
VBB = IB RB + VBE thereby IB =

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4.1.3 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
NOTES INTRODUCTION
The circuits discussed so far in the text consisted of separately
manufactured or discrete components (e.g. resistors,
capacitors, diodes, transistors etc.) joined by wires or plated
conductors on printed boards. Such discrete circuits have two
main disadvantages. Firstly, in a large circuit (e.g. TV circuit,
computer circuit) there may be hundreds of components and
consequently discrete assembly would occupy a large space.
Secondly, there will be hundreds of soldered points posing a
considerable problem of reliability. To meet these problems of
space conservation and reliability, engineers started a drive for
miniaturized circuits. This led to the development of
microelectronics in the late 1950s.Microelectronics is the branch
of electronics engineering which deals with micro-circuits.

An integrated circuit consists of a number of circuit components

(e.g. transistors, diodes, resistors etc.) and their inter
connections in a single small package to perform a complete
electronic function. These components are formed and
connected within a small chip of semiconductor material. The
following points are worth noting about integrated circuits:

(i) In an IC, the various components are automatically part

of a small semi-conductor chip and the individual
components cannot be removed or replaced. This is in
contrast to discrete assembly in which individual
components can be removed or replaced if necessary.

(ii) The size of an IC is extremely small. In fact, ICs are so

small that you normally need a microscope to see the
connections between the components. Fig. 23.1 shows

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a typical semi-conductor chip having dimensions 0.2 mm (ii) Extremely small size due to the fabrication of various
×0.2 mm ×0.001 mm. It is possible to produce circuits circuit elements in a single chip of semi-conductor
containing many transistors, diodes, resistors etc. on the material.
surface of this small chip.
(iii) Lesser weight and space requirement due to
(ii) No components of an IC are seen to project above the miniaturized circuit.
surface of the chip. This is because all the components
are formed within the chip.
(iv) Low power requirements. Greater ability to operate
at extreme values of temperature.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INTEGRATED (v) Low cost because of simultaneous production of
CIRCUITS: hundreds of alike circuits on a small semiconductor
wafer.
Integrated circuits free the equipment designer from the need to (VI) The circuit lay out is greatly simplified because
construct circuits with individual discrete components such as integrated circuits are constrained to use minimum
transistors, diodes and resistors. With the exception of a few number of external connections.
very simple circuits, the availability of a large number of low cost
integrated circuits have largely rendered discrete circuitry
obsolete. It is, therefore, desirable to mention the significant DISADVANTAGES:
advantages of integrated circuits over discrete circuits. The disadvantages of integrated circuits are:
However, integrated circuits have some disadvantages and (i) If any component in an IC goes out of order, the
continuous efforts are on to overcome them. whole IC has to be replaced by the new one.
(ii) In an IC, it is neither convenient nor economical to
ADVANTAGES: fabricate capacitances exceeding 30 pF. Therefore,
Integrated circuits possess the following advantages over for high values of capacitance, discrete components
discrete circuits: exterior to IC chip are connected.
(i) Increased reliability due to lesser number of (iii) It is not possible to fabricate inductors and
connections. transformers on the surface of semi-conductor chip.
Therefore, these components are connected exterior
to the semi-conductor chip.

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Inverter
(iv) It is not possible to produce high power ICs (greater
than 10 W). Inverters provide the complement function by utilizing the
switching characteristics of a transistor. Referring to figure 1, a
(v) There is a lack of flexibility in an IC i.e., it is generally high (1) on input A biases the transistor into conduction,
not possible to modify the parameters within which reflecting a low (0) onto output Z. A low (0) at A cuts off the
an integrated circuit will operate. transistor and Vcc is the potential at Z.

OPERATION OF LOGIC CIRCUITS

Logic gates or gates are fundamental functions performed by
computers and related equipment. A single integrated circuit
(IC) within a computer contains several gate circuits. Each gate
may have several inputs and must have only one output. There
are six commonly used logic gates: the AND, the OR, the
INVERT, the NOR, and the NAND. The name of each gate
represents the function it performs.
Figure 4.1.37
Truth tables illustrate the relationship between logic gate’s
inputs and output. This type of data display can be used to Complete the truth table for the inverters shown in figure 2.
describe the operation of a gate or an IC. For trouble shooting
purposes, the truth table data for a specific IC is often reviewed
in order to determine the correct output signal for a given set of
inputs.

Since logic gates operate using digital data, all input and output
signals will be composed of 1s or 0s. Typically, the symbol 1
represents “ON” or voltage positive. The symbol0 represents
“OFF” or voltage negative. Voltage negative is often referred to
as zero voltage or the circuit’s ground.

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Figure 4.1.38

NAND Gate Figure 4.1.39

The output of a NAND gate is low only when all inputs are high. Complete the truth table for the NAND gate illustrated in figure
Referring to figure 3, all transistors will be conducting when 4.
inputs A. B. and C are high switching Z to ground. Should any
one or all inputs go low, the path for the ground return is broken
and Z will go to Vcc potential.

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Vcc is now applied at output Z. If anyone, or all inputs, goes
low, Q1 conducts reflecting a low to the output.
A B C Z

0 0 0

0 0 1

0 1 0

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 0 1

1 1 0

1 1 1

Figure 4.1.40
Figure 4.1.41
AND Gate

Complete the truth table for the AND gate shown in figure 6.
An AND gate utilizes the same circuitry as a NAND gate with an
additional stage for inversion. As illustrated in figure 5, the
output of an AND gate is high only when all inputs are high.
With inputs A and B high, transistors Ql and Q2 conduct,
biasing Q3 at cut-off.

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A B C Z

0 0 0

0 0 1

0 1 0

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 0 1

1 1 0
Figure 4.1.43
1 1 1

Figure 4.1.42 Complete the truth table for the NOR gate shown in figure 8.
NOR Gate
The output of a NOR gate is high only when all inputs all low. As
illustrated in figure 7, if any input A, B, or C is high, the
corresponding transistor is biased into conduction, reflecting a
low at Z. Only when all inputs are low will all transistors be cut
off, applying Vcc to Z.

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A B C Z

0 0 0

0 0 1

0 1 0

0 1 1

1 0 0
Figure 4.1.45
1 0 1

1 1 0
Complete the truth table for the OR gate in figure below.
1 1 1

Figure 4.1.44

OR Gate
The OR gate circuitry is similar to the NOR gate with the
addition of an inverter stage. Referring to figure 9, Z is high
when any input is high. If one or more of the inputs are high, Q4
is cut off and Vcc is the potential of Z. Applying a low to all
inputs biases Q4 into conduction, reflecting a low to Z.

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A B C Z
NOTES:
0 0 0

0 0 1

0 1 0

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 0 1

1 1 0

1 1 1

Figure 4.1.46

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THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER A basic op amp consists of two high impedance inputs, one
called the Inverting Input, marked with a negative or “minus”
INTRODUCTION sign, ( – ) and the other one called the Non-inverting Input,
marked with a positive or “plus” sign ( + ). The third terminal
The integrated circuit operational amplifier is one of the most represents the operational amplifiers output port which can both
useful and versatile electronic devices available today. sink and source either a voltage or a current. In a linear
operational amplifier, the output signal is the amplification
An Operational Amplifier is basically a very high gain Three- factor, known as the amplifiers gain ( A ) multiplied by the value
terminal differential voltage amplifying device capable to of the input signal and depending on the nature of these input
perform various mathematical operations with the help of and output signals, there can be four different classifications of
external feedback networks to control its response and operational amplifier gain.
characteristics. We can connect external resistors or capacitors
to the op-amp in a number of different ways to form basic  Voltage – Voltage “in” and Voltage “out”
“building Block” circuits such as, Inverting, Non-Inverting,  Current – Current “in” and Current “out”
Voltage Follower, Summing, Differential, Integrator and
 Trans-conductance – Voltage “in” and Current “out”
Differentiator type amplifiers.
 Trans-resistance – Current “in” and Voltage “out”
The output voltage signal from an Operational Amplifier is the
difference between the signals being applied to its two individual
inputs.
The modern integrated circuit device which is a dual in line 8 pin
IC, can be adapted (by feedback) to perform most general
purpose amplifier duties, as well as its use in mathematical
operations.
IDEAL OP AMP
An “ideal” or perfect operational amplifier is a device with certain
special characteristics such as infinite open-loop gain Ao,
infinite input resistance Rin, zero output resistance Rout, infinite
bandwidth 0 to ∞ and zero offset (the output is exactly zero
Fig 4.1.47 when the input is zero).

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There are a very large number of operational amplifier IC’s
available to suit every possible application from standard o Infinite – The main function of an operational
bipolar, precision, high-speed, low-noise, high-voltage, etc, in amplifier is to amplify the input signal and the more
either standard configuration or with internal Junction FET open loop gain the better. Open-loop gain is the
transistors. gain of the op-amp without positive or negative
feedback and for such an amplifier the gain will be
Operational amplifiers are available in IC packages of either infinite but typical real values range from about
single, dual or quad op-amps within one single device. The 20,000 to 200,000.
most commonly available and used of all operational amplifiers
in basic electronic kits and projects is the industry standard μA-
741.
 Input impedance, (ZIN)

Infinite – Input impedance is the ratio of input

voltage to input current and is assumed to be
infinite to prevent their loading effect on the signal
source. Some FET types of integrated operational
amplifier have input impedance as high as 100 G
(1011) amplifier. Infinite ZIN means zero input
Current i.e. no leakage or Bias current, it does not
become load for a source. Real op-amps have
input leakage currents from a few pico-amps to a
fig 4.1.48 few milli-amps.

IDEALISED CHARACTERISTIC  Output impedance, (ZOUT)

o Zero – The output impedance of the ideal

 Open Loop Gain, (Avo) operational amplifier is assumed to be zero acting
as a perfect internal voltage source with no internal
resistance so that it can supply as much current as

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necessary to the load. This internal resistance is From these “idealized” characteristics above, we can see that
effectively in series with the load thereby reducing the input resistance is infinite, so no current flows into either
the output voltage available to the load. Real op- input terminal (the “current rule”) and that the differential input
amps have output impedances in the 100-20kΩ offset voltage is zero (the “voltage rule”). It is important to
range. remember these two properties as they will help us understand
the workings of the Operational Amplifier with regards to the
analysis and design of op-amp circuits
 Bandwidth, (BW) The ideals described above can be summarized by the two
"golden rules":
o Infinite – An ideal operational amplifier has an
infinite frequency response and can amplify any I. In a closed loop the output attempts to do whatever is
frequency signal from DC to the highest AC necessary to make the voltage difference between the
frequencies so it is therefore assumed to have an inputs zero.
infinite bandwidth. With real op-amps, the II. The inputs draw no current.
bandwidth is limited by the Gain-Bandwidth product The first rule only applies in the usual case where the op-amp is
(GB), which is equal to the frequency where the used in a closed-loop design specifically negative feedback,
amplifiers gain becomes unity. where there is a signal path of some sort feeding back from the
output to the inverting input. These rules are commonly used as
a good first approximation for analyzing or designing op-amp
 Offset Voltage, (VIO) circuits.
Although the characteristics of an ideal operational amplifier are
o Zero – The amplifiers output will be zero unattainable, modern integrated circuit types can provide an
when the voltage difference between the extremely close approximation. These amplifiers are invariably
inverting and the non-inverting inputs is zero, used with a feedback network, the characteristics of which
the same or when both inputs are grounded. determine the circuit function and the amplifier closed loop gain
Real op-amps have some amount of output (1/).
offset voltage, which can be cancelled out by
supplying a small ‘offset’ voltage to zero the output -
often by a simple potentiometer adjustment external
to the integrated circuit.

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OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF AN OP AMP The Two Basic Operational Amplifier
The output of an opamp is differential and its gain is denoted by
‘Ad’. Circuits
Vo (V1-V2)
Vo = Ad (V1 – V2 ) = Ad Vd

Ad =

Fig 4.1.50

 Inverting amplifier produces an output signal which is

180o “out-of-phase” with the input.
 For negative feedback, the fed-back voltage is in “anti-
phase” to the input, the overall gain of the amplifier is
reduced.
 For positive feedback, the fed-back voltage is in
“Phase” with the input, the overall gain of the amplifier is
increased.
Fig 4.1.49  By connecting the output directly back to the negative
input terminal, 100% feedback is achieved resulting in

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a Voltage Follower (buffer) circuit with a constant gain
of 1 (Unity).
 Changing the fixed feedback resistor ( Rƒ ) for a
Potentiometer, the circuit will have Adjustable Gain.

NOTES

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