Group Velocity & Phase Velocity

February 25, 2013

1 Review on solving wave equation

We can obtain phase velocity from solving the wave equation.

Then, to obtain the wave equation, we need to consider the Maxwell’s Equation

For simplicity, consider the phasor Maxwell’s Equations in sourceless region (J = ρ = 0)



 ∇ × E = −jωµH

 ∇ × H = jωϵE

 ∇·E =0


∇·H =0
To obtain the equations that only have one variable, consider the vector identity

∇ × ∇ × F = ∇ (∇ · F ) − ∇2 F
Apply it into the first 2 equations, and plug in the 3rd, 4th equations
{
−∇2 E = −jωµjωϵE
−∇2 H = −jωµjωϵH
We obtain the wave equations
{
(∇2 + ω 2 µϵ) E = 0
(∇2 + ω 2 µϵ) H = 0
These wave equations are indeed vector eqautions, there are totally 6 scalar eqautions
 ( 2 )  ( 2 )

 ∂  ∂

 + ω µϵ Ex = 0 
2


2
+ ω µϵ Hx = 0

 ∂x 2 
 ∂x2
 ( ∂2 )  ( ∂2 )
+ ω 2 µϵ Ey = 0 2
+ ω µϵ Hy = 0

 ( ∂x2
2
) 
 ( ∂x2
2
)

 


 ∂  ∂
 2
+ ω 2 µϵ Ez = 0   2
+ ω µϵ Hz = 0
∂x ∂x2
These eqaution looks like the 2nd order ODE
Thus consider the forward wave only, the solution of them are in the following form (assume propagate
in z direction)
√
E = E0 e−jkz k = ω µϵ

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 Change back to time domain
√
E(z, t) = E0 cos (ωt − kz) = E0 cos (ωt − ω µϵz)
The angle insider the cos term in a certain phase is

ωt − kz = const.

ωt const.
⇒ z= −
k k
Thus, the phase velocity
dz ω
vp = =
dt k
√
Plug in k = ω µϵ
1
vp = √
µϵ

2 The equality of phase velocity and energy velocity

Consider a cylinder (length l , cross-area A) along the direction of energy flow
Assume energy distribution is uniform
Let average energy density be w
Let average energy flow density be s

Then total energy inside the cylinder is w × volume = wAl

Total energy flowing across corss-section area A per unit time is sA

By conservation of energy, energy inside the cylinder = energy flow into it

l
wAl = sAt ⇒ sA = wA
t
l
The term is thus the energy velocity v
t
s
sA = wAv ⇒v=
w
Then express all those energy density interms of E-field
E2
Since S = E × H , Savg = s = 0
η
And consider the B-field energy is same as the E-field energy, thus w = wB + wE = 2we = ϵE02
Then

s E02/η 1
v= = 2
=
w ϵE0 ηϵ
√
µ
Plug in η =
ϵ
1
v = √ = vp
µϵ

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3 Group Velocity

When there is only ONE wave, there is one velocity, the phase velocity
When there is TWO wave, the situation is different

Consider 2 plane wave with slightly different frequencies

{
E1 = E0 cos (ω1 t − k1 z)
E2 = E0 cos (ω2 t − k2 z)
√
Remark. Because ω1 ̸= ω2 , and by k = ω µϵ , thus although the 2 wave is in same media (µ1 = µ2 ,
ϵ1 = ϵ2 ) , but their wave vector k is not equal.

The total field is thus

( )
ET = E1 + E2 = E0 cos (ω1 t − k1 z) + E0 cos (ω2 t − k2 z) = E0 cos (ω1 t − k1 z) + cos (ω2 t − k2 z)
( ) ( )
ω1 + ω2 k1 + k2 ω1 − ω2 k1 − k2
ET = 2E0 cos t− z cos t− z
2 2 2 2
For ω1 ≈ ω2 , k1 ≈ k2
ω1 + ω2
Let ω1 = ωc + ∆ω , ω2 = ωc − ∆ω where ωc =
2
k1 + k2
And k1 = kc + ∆k , k2 = kc − ∆k where kc =
2
( c stand for “central” )
Then

ET = 2E0 cos (ωc t − kc z) cos (∆ωt − ∆kz)

Because ∆ω , ∆k is very small, so the changes in ∆ωt − ∆kz
i.e. cos (∆ωt − ∆kz) is a slowly varing term.
In contrast, cos (ωc t − kc z) is a rapid varing term

The term cos (ωc t − kc z) corresponding to phase velocity

And the term cos (∆ωt − ∆kz) co corresponding to the group velocity (the velocity of the group of
the wave, or the speed of the movement of the envelope)

∆ωt − ∆kz = const

Re-arrange
∆ω const
z= t−
∆k ∆k
Thus the group velocity vg
dz ∆ω dω
vg = = =
dt ∆k dk

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4 Group Velocity & Phase Velocity
dω ω
vg = vp =
dk k
In non − dispersive medium , µϵ is not function of frequency
√
Thus by k = ω µϵ
dω dω 1 ω ω 1
vg = = √ =√ vp = = √ =√
dk dω µϵ µϵ k ω µϵ µϵ
That is , in non-dispersive medium, group velocity = phase velocity
In dispersive medium, either µ or ϵ or both are function of frequency
Then
dω ω
vg = ̸= vp =
dk k
ω
As vp = , thus ω = kvp
k

 dvp

 > vp if >0

 dk
dω d (kvp ) dvp dvp
vg = = = vp + = vp if =0
dk dk dk  dk

 dvp
 < vp if <0
dk
Graphically

For non-dispersive medium, the shape of the wave is all the same.
Thus the speed of the motion of a point on the wave = the speed of motion of the envelope is the
same.

For dis-persive medium, the shape of the wave keeps changing.

Thus the speed of the motion of a point on the wave ̸=the speed of motion of the envelope
Usually the speed of motion of envelope is slower than that of the point

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 The Explanation

Recall that, when there is ONE wave only, then there is only one speed.

When there more than one wave, there can be more than one speed

The reason is that for dispersive medium , the ϵ or µ is a function of ω , thus causing waves
with different frequencies having different speed.

This is because the EM wave is a mixture of different wave components, different compo-
nent (with different frequencies) move with different speed, thus the shape of the mixture
of all the component (the envelope) keeps chaning. And the resultant waveform (the
envelope) of all the component thus “move/propagate” with different speed.

If the EM wave has only ONE component (only one frequency), but not a mixture of
different components , then even ϵ is a function of ω, since there is only one kind of
frequency, thus

• All wave component move with same speed

• Thus the shape of the resultant waveform is not changed

• Thus the group velocity (which is the speed of the envelope) is same as the phase
velocity

−EN D−